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Drug-Related Drug-Related CrimeCrime Trevor BennettTrevor Bennett
University of GlamorganUniversity of Glamorgan
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DefinitionDefinition
The term was first introduced in a The term was first introduced in a government policy document in 1994 government policy document in 1994 and was defined as...and was defined as...
“… “…not onlynot only the offence of supply and possession the offence of supply and possession of illegal drugs of illegal drugs but alsobut also other criminal activity other criminal activity directly or indirectly associated with drug directly or indirectly associated with drug misuse”misuse”
Home Office (1994) Home Office (1994) Tackling Drugs Together: A Tackling Drugs Together: A Consultation Document on a Strategy for England Consultation Document on a Strategy for England 1995-981995-98. London: HMSO. London: HMSO
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DefinitionDefinition The definition was elaborated in a follow-up The definition was elaborated in a follow-up
document published in 1995document published in 1995 Home Office (1995) Home Office (1995) Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for
England 1995-1998England 1995-1998. London: HMSO.. London: HMSO.
In this it was stated that drug-related crime In this it was stated that drug-related crime included all offences committed under the included all offences committed under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 andand offences offences committed by persons acting as a consequence committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse. of drug misuse.
These included crimes These included crimes directlydirectly connected to connected to drug use such as burglary and theft drug use such as burglary and theft andand crimes crimes indirectlyindirectly connected such as laundering of connected such as laundering of profits of drug sales and systemic crimes profits of drug sales and systemic crimes associated with drug trafficking.associated with drug trafficking.
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DefinitionDefinition These definitions identify 3 types of drug These definitions identify 3 types of drug
crime. crime.
‘‘Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered by drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and by drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and possession)possession)
‘‘Offences committed by persons acting as a Offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary and theft)and theft)
‘‘Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money laundering and drug trafficking) laundering and drug trafficking)
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DefinitionDefinition These 3 types can also be found in the These 3 types can also be found in the
definition proposed by the European definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003
‘Drug-related crime can be considered to include criminal offences in breach of drug legislation, crimes committed under the influence of illicit drugs, crimes committed by users to support their drug habit (mainly acquisitive crime and drug dealing) and systemic crimes committed as part of the functioning of illicit markets (fight for territories, bribing of officials, etc.).’ (EMCDDA, 2003: 33)
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DefinitionDefinition The official definitions are fairly clearThe official definitions are fairly clear But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is
sometimes used in different wayssometimes used in different ways
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DefinitionDefinition The Home Office 2007 consultation paper
reported that drug-related crime was decreasing and used as evidence the number of acquisitive crimes
Home Office (2007) Home Office (2007) Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Consultation PaperConsultation Paper. London: Home Office.. London: Home Office.
“Drug-related crime is falling – recorded acquisitive crime has fallen by 20 per cent since the introduction of the Drug Interventions Programme”
This equates ‘drug-related crime’ with the second category of offences committed as a consequence of drug use
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DefinitionDefinition It might help if some agreed terms were
developed that covered the three types of offences individually and as a group
Drug crimeor
Drug-related crime
Drug offences(e.g. supply)
Drug-related crime(e.g. theft to pay for drugs)
orCrimes committed as a consequence
of drug use
Systemic crime(e.g. money laundering)
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DefinitionDefinition
A second problem is whether the second type of ‘drug-related crime’ refers to a causal connection
The early The early Tackling Drug MisuseTackling Drug Misuse documents suggested a causal documents suggested a causal connection in the phrases...connection in the phrases... ““offences committed by persons acting offences committed by persons acting as a as a
consequenceconsequence of drug misuse” of drug misuse” ““These included crimes These included crimes directlydirectly connected connected
to drug use such as burglary and theftto drug use such as burglary and theft
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DefinitionDefinition This was also suggested in the 2003 This was also suggested in the 2003
definition proposed by the European definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)Addiction (EMCDDA)
‘Drug-related crime can be considered to include criminal offences in breach of drug legislation, crimes committed under the influence of illicit drugs, crimes committed by users to support their drug habit (mainly acquisitive crime and drug dealing) and systemic crimes committed as part of the functioning of illicit markets (fight for territories, bribing of officials, etc.).’ (EMCDDA, 2003: 33)
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DefinitionDefinition It seems clear from these definitions that the It seems clear from these definitions that the
second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a causal connection between drug use and crimecausal connection between drug use and crime
This would prove quite challenging when it This would prove quite challenging when it comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’
Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to drug usedrug use
Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be connected to their drug useconnected to their drug use
In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it would be necessary to know the motivation for would be necessary to know the motivation for itit
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
It might be useful to consider the It might be useful to consider the research implications connected to research implications connected to this discussionthis discussion
One implication is that more needs One implication is that more needs to be known about the causal to be known about the causal connection between drug use and connection between drug use and crimecrime
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
This is the conclusion that has been reached This is the conclusion that has been reached among policy makers in the United Statesamong policy makers in the United States
In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice established a forum for researchers to propose established a forum for researchers to propose a drugs and crime research agenda for the a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st century21st century
BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), Toward a Toward a Drugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st CenturyDrugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st Century. . National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC.Washington, DC.
One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided explanations of the connection into three explanations of the connection into three groups...groups... ‘‘Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a
means of generating money to support drug use. means of generating money to support drug use. ‘‘Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the
use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in cognitive functioning. cognitive functioning.
‘‘Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that occurred as part of the system of drug distribution occurred as part of the system of drug distribution and use. and use.
Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework’, Conceptual Framework’, Journal of Drug Issues, Journal of Drug Issues, 15: 493-506.15: 493-506.
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
There have been some criticisms of this There have been some criticisms of this frameworkframework One is that the tripartite categories are not One is that the tripartite categories are not
mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes might also be economically motivated)might also be economically motivated)
Another is that the systemic model is not Another is that the systemic model is not applicable to the majority of young drug applicable to the majority of young drug users who are not involved in the high-level users who are not involved in the high-level drug distribution system (i.e. systemic drug distribution system (i.e. systemic crimes).crimes).
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
One of the conclusions of the NIJ One of the conclusions of the NIJ forum was that Goldstein’s forum was that Goldstein’s framework needed to be updated.framework needed to be updated. In particular more needed to be known In particular more needed to be known
about...about... the causal connection between drug use the causal connection between drug use
and crimeand crime how it varied across drug types and offence how it varied across drug types and offence
typestypes how it varied across demographic factorshow it varied across demographic factors
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I began some began some unfundedunfunded interview-based interview-based research on the causal connection between drug research on the causal connection between drug use and crime.use and crime.
The aim of the research was to describe and The aim of the research was to describe and explain the various mechanisms that linked drug explain the various mechanisms that linked drug use and crime.use and crime.
This results of this have just been published.This results of this have just been published.
Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection between drug use and crime’. between drug use and crime’. British Journal of CriminologyBritish Journal of Criminology. . doi: 10.1093/bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009). doi: 10.1093/bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009).
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in
Wales and 1 in England) Wales and 1 in England) In two prisons, respondents were selected from In two prisons, respondents were selected from
within the CARAT scheme.within the CARAT scheme. In the third prison, respondents were selected from a In the third prison, respondents were selected from a
particular wing.particular wing. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. The respondents were all males with an age range of The respondents were all males with an age range of
22 to 56. 22 to 56. Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and
robberyrobbery The main method of data collection was a semi-The main method of data collection was a semi-
structured interview.structured interview. Offenders were asked to describe some of their Offenders were asked to describe some of their
connections in detail. connections in detail. In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-
crime connections were identified and analysed.crime connections were identified and analysed.
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
The first thing we did was to ask offenders The first thing we did was to ask offenders whether any of ten drug types and ten crime types whether any of ten drug types and ten crime types have ever been connected.have ever been connected.
The most common connections reported were The most common connections reported were heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and handlinghandling
n=545
drug-crime connection n
heroin and drug dealing 16heroin and burglary non-dwelling 15heroin and handling 15tranquillisers and assault 14amphetamines and drug dealing 13ecstasy and drug dealing 13heroin and assault 12heroin and shoplifting 12tranquillisers and burglary non-dwelling 12tranquillisers and vehicle crime 12
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
We then asked them to describe (up to We then asked them to describe (up to three) specific occasions when their three) specific occasions when their drug use and crime were connecteddrug use and crime were connected
In total we transcribed 133 narratives In total we transcribed 133 narratives of specific drug-crime connectionsof specific drug-crime connections
These were grouped initially into These were grouped initially into Goldstein’s three categoriesGoldstein’s three categories
These were then adjusted or expanded These were then adjusted or expanded until all narratives would be until all narratives would be categorised categorised
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
The main change to Goldstein’s The main change to Goldstein’s framework was to replace the framework was to replace the ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘lifestyles’ category‘lifestyles’ category
This was because it was not only This was because it was not only drug lifestyle factors that influenced drug lifestyle factors that influenced the connectionthe connection It was also influenced by crime lifestyle It was also influenced by crime lifestyle
factors as well as cultural factorsfactors as well as cultural factors
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Casual direction
Explanation Elaboration
D C Economic Obtain money for drugs Theft of cash or goods for drugs Obtain drugs directly Dealt in drugs to provide a source
of drugs Save legal money for
drugs Stealing subsistence items to keep legal income for drug
Pharmacological Aggression Drugs generated anger which led
to crime Courage Drugs provided the courage to
offend Judgement impairment Drug use led to a decision to
offend Lifestyle Criminal contacts Drug use involved making
criminal contacts Offended to get treatment Chaotic drug lifestyle made access
to traditional treatment difficult Retaliation Drug-related disputes led to crime C D Economic Obtain drugs directly Crimes against drug dealers
resulted in theft of drugs Surplus proceeds of crime
spent on drugs ‘Chemical recreation’ following a successful crime
Pharmacological Courage Drugs consumed to facilitate the
commission of the offence Lifestyle Dealing provides surplus
drugs Dealing drugs led occasionally to consumption of drugs
ResulResultsts
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Economic mechanismsEconomic mechanisms
‘‘Obtaining drugs directly’Obtaining drugs directly’
“…“…I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided to start dealing it.” (085)to start dealing it.” (085)
‘‘Saving legal money for drugs’Saving legal money for drugs’
““Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might spend two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred spend two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred pound. ... the money I save not buying, that goes back into pound. ... the money I save not buying, that goes back into my drugs.” (018)my drugs.” (018)
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
EconomicEconomic mechanisms mechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned
Drug dealing (85%)Drug dealing (85%) Shoplifting (74%)Shoplifting (74%) Robbery (71%)Robbery (71%)
Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned Handling (33%)Handling (33%) Assault (0%)Assault (0%)
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Pharmacological mechanismsPharmacological mechanisms
‘‘Aggression’Aggression’
““...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. ...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. It’s a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a It’s a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a bad choice for violence.” (026)bad choice for violence.” (026)
‘‘Courage to offend’Courage to offend’
““Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used to make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts to make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get away with it ... I thought I was invisible and no one would away with it ... I thought I was invisible and no one would see me.” (004)see me.” (004)
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Pharmacological Pharmacological mechanismsmechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned
Assault (91%)Assault (91%) Burglary dwelling (46%)Burglary dwelling (46%)
Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned Drug dealing (12%)Drug dealing (12%) Handling (0%)Handling (0%)
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Lifestyle mechanismsLifestyle mechanisms
‘‘Criminal contacts’Criminal contacts’
“…“…you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around that sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime that sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime and all that…” (035)and all that…” (035)
‘‘Offended for treatment’Offended for treatment’
““[I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, [I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, I had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out. ... I I had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out. ... I had heard through you know other people, that if you go had heard through you know other people, that if you go through prison they have to give you a place when you get through prison they have to give you a place when you get out. So, I done it on purpose really.” (028)out. So, I done it on purpose really.” (028)
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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime
Lifestyle Lifestyle mechanismsmechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned
Handling (67%)Handling (67%)
Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned Burglary (0%)Burglary (0%) Robbery (0%)Robbery (0%) Shoplifting (0%)Shoplifting (0%)
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ConclusionConclusion
Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly well across a range of offence and drug well across a range of offence and drug typestypes
But...But... The systemic category was too narrowThe systemic category was too narrow The lack of causal direction was limitingThe lack of causal direction was limiting The absence of more detailed category The absence of more detailed category
breakdownsbreakdowns The absence of crime breakdownsThe absence of crime breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns
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ConclusionConclusion
In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’ In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’ there is a need for more research on...there is a need for more research on... the nature of the causal relationshipthe nature of the causal relationship the mechanisms linking drug use and crimethe mechanisms linking drug use and crime
It is likely that ...It is likely that ... there are many more causal mechanisms linking there are many more causal mechanisms linking
drug use and crimedrug use and crime there is variation in the mechanisms across there is variation in the mechanisms across
location and timelocation and time there is variation by drug and crime typesthere is variation by drug and crime types there is variation by demographic factors.there is variation by demographic factors.