1 General Psychology

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PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

Definitions:Definitions:Taken from the classical Greek words:

psyche = soul or mind

logos = study of(Hernandez, et. Al.,2004).

The science of behavior and mental processes.

As a science, it is a focus of research through

which investigators collect, quantify, analyze,

and interpret data describing animal and

human behavior, thus shedding light on the

causes and dynamics of behavior patterns.


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PsychologyPsychology

is an academic and applied field involvingthe study of behavior and its relationship

to the mind and brain.

Psychology also refers to the applicationof such knowledge to various spheres of

human activity, including problems of

individuals' daily lives and the treatment ofmental illness.


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Psychology,Psychology,

is largely concerned with humans,although the behavior and mental

processes of animals is also be part of

psychological research, either as asubject in its own right (e.g. animal

cognition and ethnology), or as a

way of gaining an insight into humanpsychologyby means of comparison

(including comparative psychology).


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THEHISTORICAL BACKGROUNDTHEHISTORICAL BACKGROUND

OFPSYCHOLOGYOF

PSYCHOLOGY

A. Traditionally, psychology is said tohave began with mans earliestspeculations regarding humannature.

B. The Greek Influence

Democritus (c. 460-370 BC)

believed that the human mind iscomposed of atoms which couldcirculate freely and which enabledit to penetrate the whole body.


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According to Plato (c427-347BC) the mind orsoul is distinct in its own right and is God-given. It enters the body with its reflected

perfection of God and rules the body whichit inhabits as knower, thinker anddeterminer of action.

Aristotle (c 384-322 BC), a student of Plato,

distinguished three functions of the soul-thevegetative,concerned with basicmaintenance of life; theappetitive,concerned with motives anddesires; and the rational, the governingfunction located in the heart. The brainmerely performs minor mechanicalprocesses as a gland.


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Galen (AD c 130-200) contributed histheory of the dependence of humantemperament on physiologicalfactors. Differences in behavior isattributable to the humors or vitaljuices of the body: blood, phlegm,

black bile and yellow bile. Hence, hecorrespondingly namedtemperaments sanguine (cheerful),phlegmatic (sluggish), melancholic

(sad) and choleric (irascible).For about fifteen centuries the

philosophy and science of the Greeksheld sway and dominated

psychological thinking.


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C.The Medieval PeriodC.The Medieval Period

St. Agustine (354-430) He introducedand used the method of introspection

(the description of ones own

conscious processes) and manifestedhis interest in distinguishing several

faculties of the soul as will,

memory,imagination and others,producing the first definite

development of what later was called

faculty psychology.


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About nine centuries later, St. Thomas

Aquinas (1226-1274) combined

aristotelian notions (mind is the form

of living matter) to the theologically

imperative idea of immortality.


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D. PreD. Pre-- Modern PeriodModern Period

Rene Decartes (1596-1650) formulated atheory of mind-body interaction: JohnLocke (1632-1704) in his An EssayConcerning Human Understandingintroduced the ideas (which in theirown sum constitute mind) become theonly reality. David Hume (1711-1776)like Berkeley, wrestled with theproblem between impression andideas, between images and directsensations.


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PsychologyPsychologydiffers from sociology, anthropology,

economics, andpolitical science, inpart, because it involves studying thebehavior of individuals (alone or ingroups) rather than the behavior of the

groups or aggregates themselves.

Psychology differs frombiology andneuroscience in that it is primarily

concerned with the overall behavior ofa system, and not simply the pattern ofneural responses produced by thesystem.


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Although psychological questions

were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle'sDe Memoria et Reminiscentia or"OnMemory and Recollection"),psychology emerged as a separate

discipline only recently. The firstperson to call himself a"psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, aGerman opened the first psychological

laboratory in 1879 at Leipzig,Germany, which earned for Wundt thetitle ofFather ofScientificPsychology.


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F. Psychology in AmericaF. Psychology in America

William James, an American philosopher whoplayed an active part in bringing the newexperimental psychology to the U.S.

Granville Stanley Hall with James and in 1881,

established the first psychological researchlaboratory at Johns Hopskins University, aleading center of psychological research. Hepioneered in child study and wrote on child,adolescent and senescent psychology. Hefounded the first psychological journal TheAmerican Journal of Psychology in 1887. He wasthe first president of the American PsychologicalAssociation in 1892.


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G.Psychology in FranceG.Psychology in France

Phillippe Pinel and others began as early inthe nineteenth century the enlightenedpsychological interpretation of insanity.

Anton Mesmer in 1779 developed hypnosis

or animal magnetism. Seguin (1848) made use of testing in the

teaching of mentally-retarded children.

Alfred Binet (1875-1911), the Father ofIntelligence Tests, started the firstintelligence tests.


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H. Psychology in EnglandH. Psychology in England

Charles Darwin published Origin ofthe Species in 1859.

Sir Francis Galton studied individualdifferences and evolved hisingenious technique of measurement.Other leaders include Karl Pearson(1857-1936) and Spearman (1863-1945), giving England a leadershipin the development ofStatisticalmethods.


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Other important early contributorsOther important early contributors

to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (apioneer in studies on memory), the RussianIvan Pavlov (who discovered the learningprocess ofclassical conditioning), and the

AustrianS

igmund Freud. Freud's influencehas been enormous, though more as culturalicon than a force in (scientific) psychology.Freud's basic theories postulated the

existence in humans of various unconsciousand instinctive "drives", and that the "self"existed as a perpetual battle between thedesires and demands of the internal id, ego,

and superego


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The mid-20th century saw a rejection

of Freud's theories among manypsychologists as being too unscientific,

as well as a reaction against Edward

Titchener's abstract approach to themind. This led to the formulation of

behaviorismby John B. Watson, which

was popularized by B.F.S

kinner.


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BehaviorismproposedBehaviorismproposed

epistemologically limiting psychologicalstudy to overt behavior, since that could be

quantified and easily measured. Scientific

knowledge of the "mind" was considered

too metaphysical, hence impossible to

achieve. The final decades of the 20th

century have seen the rise of a new

interdisciplinary approach to studyinghuman psychology, known collectively as

cognitive science.


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Cognitive scienceCognitive science

again considers the "mind" as a subject for

investigation, using the tools ofevolutionary

psychology, linguistics, computer science,philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of

investigation has proposed that a wide

understanding of the human mind is possible, and

that such an understanding may be applied to

other research domains, such as artificial

intelligence.


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GOALSOF PSYCHOLOGYGOALSOF PSYCHOLOGY

1. To describe behavior2. To identify the factors that help predict

behavior

3. To understand or explain behavior byidentifying causes that bring about certain

effects

4. To control or change behavior


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THE BEGINNINGOFSCIENTIFICTHE BEGINNINGOFSCIENTIFIC

PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY Various schools of thought have argued for a

particular model to be used as a guiding theory by

which all, or the majority, of human behavior can

be explained. The popularity of these has waxed

and waned over time. Some psychologists maythink of themselves as adherents to a particular

school of thought and reject the others, although

most consider each as an approach to

understanding the mind, and not necessarily asmutually exclusive theories.


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Schools and Movements inSchools and Movements in

PsychologyPsychology

1. STRUCTURALISM/Structural School ofPsychology - the leader of this group was Edward

Bradford Titchener (1867-1927).

-Psychology was the study of conscious experience which

he broke down into its three basic elements:a.)physical

sensations, affections or feelings and images.

-The role of psychology was to reduce conscious processes

to their simplest and most basic components anddetermine how they are combined & their laws of

combination.

-used introspection as their method of investigation.


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2. FUNCTIONALISM led by William

James.

- concerned with the utility of how consciousprocesses function in the adjustment of man to

his environment.

- It relied on experimentation for its method of

investigation.

- James believed psychology should focus on

true to life everyday experience.

..


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3. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

-Founded by Max Werheimer in1912,together with his associates: WolfgangKohler and Kurt Koffka.

- They maintained that an understanding

of behavior depended on the perceptionof the configuration (gestalt),organization, or pattern of experience.They believed that the whole is greater

than the sum of its parts.- In understanding behavior we need to

look at the totality of the organizedexperience.


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4. BEHAVIORISM (John B. Watson)

- He stressed the empirical approach, theuse of objective facts gathered through

actual observation of what an organism

does, not what he thinks.

- According to Watson, psychology should

study observable and measurable

behavior, not consciousness.

- Behaviorism stressed the

- importance of learning and the

environment.


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5. PSYCHOANALYTIC

SCHOOL OF

PSYCHOLOGY

- Founded by Sigmund Freud,

based on the theory of

unconscious motivation andits effects on human behavior.

- According to Freuds theory,

much of our behavior isgoverned by hidden motives

and unconscious desires.


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The FIVE mentioned schools ofpsychology were most influential in

shaping the course of contemporary

psychology which is eclectic in itsapproach.


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NEWSCHOOLSOF PSYCHOLOGYNEWSCHOOLSOF PSYCHOLOGY

1. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGYisa combination ofS-Rand Gestalt

approaches. It is a study of how

perception. Jean Piaget was one of

the leading cognitive psychologists.

The study of how we process, store,

retrieve, and use information and

how cognitive processes influence

what we attend to, perceive, learn,

remember, believe feel and do.


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2. EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGYis

concerned with the individuals discoveryof self-identity so that he can commit

himself, and care and love. It emphasizes

that existence takes precedence over

essence, that freedom of choice isparamount over determination.


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3. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGYis a

protest movement against thebehavioristic emphasis on the study of

only overt behavior.

-They would like psychology to studyman as a distinct human being,

unique individual case instead of the

average performance of groups. It

should focus on mans subjectiveinternal experiences, not on overt

behavior.


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THENATUREOF MODERNTHENATUREOF MODERN


1. Objectivity freedom from bias and

prejudice. The investigator does not allowhis/her wishes or desires to influence hisfindings or his/her interpretation of hisfindings.

2. Explicit procedures - An investigatordescribes in details, the procedure hefollowed in his investigation so that other

investigator who wish to verify his findingswill find it easy to duplicate his study ormake a similar one.


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3. Report contains a description of the methods

used by the investigator, the results of the

investigation, the interpretation of the results,and the conclusions.

4. Experimental method- this is the most

scientific of all. It employs the comparison oftwo groups of subjects. To rule out the

influence of variables that might significantly

influence the outcome of the experiment, he

equates these two groups

in these factors.


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- The variable whose outcome the

experimenter is interested in investigating is

called the independent variable, while its

outcome is called the dependent variable, so

called because it depends on the

independent variable. To isolate the effectsof the factor under investigation it is applied

on one of the group (the experimental

group) but not on the other (control group)


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Experimental psychology Controlled

experiments. The majority ofpsychological research is conducted in

the laboratory under controlled

conditions. This method of research relies

completely on the scientific method todetermine the basis of behavor.

Where an area of interest is considered toneed specific training and specialist

knowledge (especially in applied areas),

psychological associations will typically set

up a governing body to manage training

requirements.


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5. Naturalistic Observation Observes behavior

in its natural setting, attempt to avoidinfluencing or controlling it

Advantage: Good way to collect normative

data.Disadvantage: Must wait for the behavior to

occur naturally


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6. Case histories are scientifically written

biographies done sometimes for the purpose of

(a) testing some theories, or (b)getting thebackground of an individual as a basis for making

recommendations about him.

7. Survey This method is used when the

investigator wants to investigate a larger groupwithin a shorter time through the use of

questionnaire or interview, or both.

8. Clinical method studies human behavior by

reconstructing the life history of the individual on

the basis of all the information gathered.


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FIELDSOFCONTEMPORARYFIELDSOFCONTEMPORARY


1. Experimental psychology-borders on pure

research. It refers to the scientific methodology

by which behavioral processes are studied.

2. Comparative psychology investigates the

behavioral differences among different

organisms and species to discover similarities

and differences between animals and humans torelate animal behavior with human behavior.


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3. Physiological psychology studies human

being from a neurobiological viewpoint.

4. Social psychology is concerned with social

influences on the behavior of the individual.

5. Developmental psychology focuses on the

various stages of development from theprenatal period to old age.

6. Educational psychology deals with

psychological problems in the field ofeducation.


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7. Psychology of personality

investigates the processes by

which a person becomes uniqueindividual.

8. Psychometrics is highly

specialized field of psychology. Itis concerned with the procedures

for measuring and evaluating the

many psychological variables

which underlie and affect

behavior.


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NEW AREASOFPSYCHOLOGYNEW AREASOFPSYCHOLOGY

1. Clinical psychology involves the

application of clinical methods

(diagnosis and treatment) to

persons with emotional or mentalproblems.

2. Counseling psychology concerned

with normal problems ofeveryday living and helps

individuals in their normal

development.


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3. School psychology deals with similar probles

in school situation. It is concerned with

enhancing effectiveness of educationalinstitutions.

4. Industrial psychology applies the methods

and findings of psychology in the solution ofproblems related to the selecting and training

personnel.


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5. Neuropsychology is the branch of

psychology that aims to understand

how the structure and function of the

brain relate to specific psychological

processes.

6. Engineering psychology is highlyspecialized area which is concerned

with the development of man-machine

systems, that is, fitting man andmachine together such that both can

function most efficiently.


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7. Consumer psychology is interested in

the study of psychological factors that

determine an individuals behavior as a

consumer.

8. Legal psychology involves the detection

of guilt, the determination of thereliability of testimony in the court

room.

9. Parapsychology investigates allpsychological phenomenon that

apparently cannot be explained in terms

of natural scientific laws or principles.


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7.Forensic psychology refers to any

application of psychological principles,methods or understanding to legal

questions or issues. In addition to the

applied practices, it also includesacademic or empirical research on

topics involving law and human

behavior.


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History & RootsHistory & Roots

Edward Titchener:

Chief proponent of structuralism. Used introspection to

tap human consciousness. Had troubles with

verification of data and replicability.

William James:

Founder ofAmerican Functionalism. Viewed behavior

in terms of its adaptive value for the organism. Focusedon the flow of consciousness rather than its structure.


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John Watson - Founder ofBehaviorism. Confined psychology to

the study of observable stimuli &behavior.

B. F. Skinner -Extended behaviorism,

examined the effects of reinforcementon behavior.

Sigmund Freud -Founded

psychoanalysis, focused onunconscious thoughts in determiningbehavior.


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Humanistic perspective

Emphasizes an individuals phenomenal worldand inherent capacity for making rational

choices and developing to maximum potential


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Research methodsResearch methods

Naturalistic Observation

Laboratory Observation

Case Studies

Surveys

Experiment

Experiments of Nature


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Laboratory ObservationLaboratory Observation

Observe behavior in a laboratory whereextraneous variables can be controlled and

specialized equipment can be used

Advantage: Better control of outsidefactors. More precise equipment

can be used

Disadvantage: Surroundings may affect results


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Case StudiesCase Studies

Observe one or a very few subjects in greatdepth, usually over a long period of

time

Advantage: The only method appropriate

for very unusual cases

Disadvantage: Problems with generalizing

the results


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SurveysSurveys

Collect data from groups of people usingquestionnaires or interviews. Data

is useless unless sample is

representative.

Advantage: Can collect information such as

attitudes and beliefs

Disadvantage: Subjects may lie or mislead


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ExperimentsExperiments

Involve random assignment and controlled

manipulation

Causal claims possible Independent variables manipulated by E

Dependent variables supposedly affected by

independent variables

Experimental groups get the different values of the

independent variables. Control groups do not.


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Experiments ofNatureExperiments ofNature

Collect data on the presence ofY insituations where X may be going to happen.

Wait forX to happen, and see ifY isaffected.

Advantages: Not artificial. Allows generalcause-effect judgments

Disadvantage: Specific causes can't bedetermined


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Developmental MethodsDevelopmental Methods

Longitudinal Studies:

Follow the same group across time to

determine age-related changes in thought

and behavior

Cross-sectional Studies:

Assess groups of differing ages, usually at

the same time


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Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Informed Consent:

Human subjects must be told of all.

foreseeable risks.Animals can't give informed consent, and must beprotected from unnecessary suffering

Deception:

Some psychologists oppose all deception.Others tolerate deception as long as it poses noforeseeable risks and debriefing occurs.


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Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Risk:

In psychology, the standards for acceptable risk

must be very stringent, because potential benefitsfor the participating subject are very low

Children:

Young children may have difficulty giving

informed consent, due to a desire to obey andplease adults, plus a lack of understanding ofpossible risks

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1 General Psychology

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