Psychology 11 INTRODUCTION to General Psychology What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes What you can see What you cant see Psychology 12 For example: Observable behavior: Such as speech and physical movement Mental processes: Such as remembering and thinking, which cannot be directly observed Psychology 13 Describe, predict, explain behavior and mental processes using the scientific method By using the Scientific Method in studying Psychology Psychology is a Science Psychology 14 Where are the Psychologist? About 300,000 psychologists in the U.S. 50% men, 50% women, but number of women is growing 6% from racial minority groups Most have doctoral degrees (Ph.D. or Psy.D.), while some have Masters degrees Psychologists are different from psychiatrists Psychology 15 Roots of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt began the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology Gestalt psychology emphasizes how perception is organized. It focuses on the whole as opposed to the sum of its parts. Psychology 16 Why are the Goals of Psychology? describe human behavior and mental processes. predict human behavior and mental processes. explain human behavior and mental processes. improve human behavior and mental processes. Psychology 17 The field of psychology is a broad field of study that encompasses many different subfields. Lets focus on the research and general perspectives Psychology 18 9 Todays Perspective General Neuroscience Psychodynamic Behavioral Cognitive Humanistic Psychology 110 Psychology 111 Views physiological hardware (especially the brain and nervous system) as the major determinants of behavior and mental processing Neuroscience perspective Psychology 112 A perspective that argues behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control. Psychodynamic perspective Psychology 113 Emphasizes how mental processes, such as perception, memory, and problem solving, work and impact behavior Addresses how memory retrieval is facilitated Cognitive perspective Psychology 114 Posits that behavior is a result of past history of conditioning within the environment Involves two major types of conditioning, classical and operant Behavioral perspective Psychology 115 A perspective suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behaviors. Humanistic perspective Psychology 116 No perspective is better than the others; all perspectives are complementary Psychologists use all five perspectives to get a more complete explanation of behavior and mental processing Controversies in Psychology: Nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment) Conscious vs. unconscious causes of behavior Observable behavior vs. internal mental processes Free will (choices) vs. determinism (behavior is produced by factors beyond ones control) Individual differences vs. universal principles Psychology 117 However Psychology is a unified science because psychologists of all perspectives agree that the issues must be addressed if the field is going to advance. Consider opposing viewpoints on each issue as the opposing ends of a continuum, with the positions of individual psychologists typically falling somewhere between them. Psychology 118 Subfields of Psychology: Clinical Psychology is a subfield in psychology that deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling Psychology is a subfield in psychology that focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems. Psychology 119 Cross-Cultural Psychology is a subfield in psychology that investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. Developmental Psychology is a subfield in psychology that focuses on how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death. Psychology 120 Evolutionary Psychology is a subfield in psychology that considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Experimental Psychology is a subfield in psychology that focuses on the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world. Psychology 121 Forensic Psychology is a subfield in psychology that applies psychology to the criminal justice system and legal issues. Personality Psychology is a subfield in psychology that focuses on the consistency in people's behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another. Psychology 122 Social Psychology is a subfield in psychology that studies how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others. Psychology 123 Studying Psychology Systematically acquiring knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena Step 1: Identifying questions of interest Step 2: Formulating an explanation (theory hypothesis) Step 3: Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation Step 4: Communicating the findings Psychology 124 Psychology 125 Descriptive methods Observational techniques Case studies Survey researchArchival research Psychology 126 Observational techniques Behavior of interest is directly observed Naturalistic observation Behavior being observed occurs in its natural setting, without researcher intervention Participant observation Observer becomes part of the group being observed Psychology 127 Case studies Individual is studied in depth over extended period of time Results of case studies cannot be generalized Causeeffect statements based on the findings of a case study cannot be made Psychology 128 Survey research Uses questionnaires and interviews to collect information about the behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of particular groups of people Wording, order, and structure of survey questions may lead the participants to biased answers Psychology 129 Archival research Utilize printed past work to investigate any trends over a period of time. Psychology 130 Types: Positive Correlation Positive correlation Indicates a direct relationship between two variables Low scores on one variable tend to be paired with low scores on the other variable High scores on one variable tend to be paired with high scores on the other variable Psychology 131 Types: Negative Correlation Negative correlation Shows an inverse relationship between two variables Low scores on one variable tend to be paired with high scores on the other variable Psychology 132 Experimental Research Researcher control Is key aspect of experimental research Allows the researcher to make cause-and-effect statements about the experimental results Psychology 133 Psychology 134 Double-blind procedure may be used Control measure in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants are in the experimental and control groups Measure controls for experimenter expectations Psychology 135 Indicate the probability that results of a study are due to random variation (chance) Inferential statistical analyses Significant finding is one that has a probability less than 0.05 (1/20) that it is due to chance Significant finding does not insure that the result has practical significance or value in our everyday world Statistical significance Psychology 136 Significant finding that has a probability less than 0.05 (1/20) that it is due to chance Significant finding does not insure that the result has practical significance or value in our everyday world Statistical significance Psychology 137 Central tendency Designed to summarize a set of data with a single score Three measures of central tendency Mean: Numerical average for a distribution of score Median: Score that is positioned in the middle of the distribution of scores when scores are listed from lowest to highest Mode: Most frequently-occurring score in a distribution of scores Psychology 138 Psychology 139 Neuroscience Psychology 140 Psychology 141 Neuroscience Scientific study of the brain and nervous system Connectome Totality of connections between neurons in the nervous system Neurons: nerve cells; the basic elements of the nervous system Are responsible for information transmission throughout the nervous system Psychology 142 Dendrites Include fibers that project out of the cell body, receiving information from other neurons Cell body Contains the nucleus of the cell and other biological machinery to keep the cell alive Axon Transmits messages through the neuron Axon terminals Are at the end of the axon and send messages to a different neuron Psychology 143 Psychology 144 Psychology 145 Communication within neuron is electrical Communication between neurons is chemical Psychology 146 Excitatory (telling neuron to generate an electrical impulse) Inhibitory (telling neuron not to generate an electrical impulse) Myelin sheath -Insulating layer of fatty white substance that encases the axon -Allows electrical message to be transmitted faster within the neuron -Is responsible for distinction between brain white and gray matter -Slows electrical impulses when damaged Psychology 147 Psychology 148 All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a trigger, changing the neurons charge from negative to positive. All-or-none law The rule that neurons are either on or off. Action potential An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a trigger, changing the neurons charge from negative to positive. Synapse: the gap between two neurons where the axon of the sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of the receiving neuron with chemical messages Psychology 149 Neurotransmitters: the chemical messengers received at dendrites or cell body of receiving neuron: lack of this can produce severe behavior disorders Deliver excitatory (make it more likely receiving neuron will fire) or inhibitory (make it less likely they will fire) messages Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are either deactivated by enzymes or reabsorbed by the terminal button. This is an example of chemical recycling Psychology 150 Major neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (ACh): messages related to muscle movement, memory, & cognitive functions; may be related to Alzheimers Dopamine (DA): messages related to movement, attention, & learning; related to Parkinsons & possibly schizophrenia Psychology 151 Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord Reflex: automatic response to a stimulus; controlled by the spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: all parts of the nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Psychology 152 Somatic division: voluntary movements & communication with sense organs Autonomic division: involuntary functions of the body that keep you alive Sympathetic Parasympathetic Psychology 153 Psychology 154 Endocrine system: chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body through hormones in the bloodstream Hormones chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. It also influencesand is influenced bythe functioning of the nervous system Pituitary gland The major component of the endocrine system, or master gland, which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system. Psychology 155 Studying the Brain Electroencephalogram (EEG) Positron emission tomography (PET) scan Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Psychology 156 Biofeedback: A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles. Psychology 157 Emotion involves Complex psychological state Physiological arousal which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement Outward behavioral expression of the emotion Cognitive appraisal of the situation to determine the specific emotion and its intensity Psychology 158 Psychology 159 Psychology 160 Frontal lobe Area in the front of each hemisphere and in front of central fissure and above lateral fissure Parietal lobe Area located behind central fissure and above lateral fissure Temporal lobe Located beneath the lateral fissure Occipital lobe Located in the lower back of each hemisphere Psychology 161 Psychology 162 Psychology 163 Psychology 164 Hemispheres: left and right halves of the brain; each controls motion and sensation in the opposite side of the body (right brain and left brain) Lateralization: dominance of one hemisphere in specific functions Psychology 165 Left hemisphere -Language -Math and logic skills -More analytical, analyzing wholes into pieces Right hemisphere -Spatial perception -Solving spatial problems -Drawing -Face recognition Psychology 166