1 SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS. 2 Use your mouse to move around the software. You can either...

1

SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODSSOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS

2

Use your mouse to move around the software. You can either click anywhere on the screen to get the next animation or click on a button if you see one on the screen.

Always move the mouse before you click it.


3


POSITIVISM AND INTERPRETIVISM

TOPIC CHOICE AND CONDUCT OF RESEARCH

EXIT

> Positivism

> Interpretivism

> Research method

> Research topic

> Research conduct

4


Epistemology is the study of knowledge. The theory of knowledge questions what knowledge is valid.

As sociologists, we too need to consider the validity of the knowledge that we gain. The way in which we gain the information is key to this discussion.


Empiricists believe that the true knowledge can only be gained through experience. This is much in contrast to the ancients who conducted most of their work through thought and contemplation.

5


The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry and Physics) are firmly based in the realms of empiricists principles.

Theory and research are intertwined in either the deductive or inductive approach:


Inductive approach:

•Theory is deduced from observations and findings

6


The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry and Physics) are firmly based in the realms of empiricists principles.

Theory and research are intertwined in either the deductive or inductive approach:


Deductive approach to research:

•Theory leads to observations and findings

7


Social scientists have embraced the methodology of natural scientists with the doctrine of POSITIVISM.


Essentially, positivism advocates that social study should be carried out using the methodology of the natural sciences.

However, as with most things, a precise definition is elusive and many authors differ in their exact interpretation of positivism.

8


In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:


9




The principle states that the whole purpose of a theory is to generate a testable hypothesis.

Without a testable hypothesis, laws cannot be confirmed.

10




Theory

Research

Theory generates research.

11




Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of facts.

Laws are deduced after observation.

12




Observations

Theory

Observations feed theory

13



The progress of knowledge through the centuries has gradually moved from a consideration that knowledge came from within, to one that comes from deduction, having looked at the reality of the laws around us.

This sounds like we have moved towards the inductive doctrine. However, the natural and social sciences use both doctrines in parallel.

In 1997, Charmaz reported about the experiences of chronic illness, her findings deduced from semi-structured questioning. Observations led to a theory – intuitivism. This could be paralleled with the discovery of the structure of DNA. The analysis of many x-ray patterns allowed a theory of the structure to be developed.

14



Around about the same time, Keeley and De Graff reported on research that had been prompted by a theory that the country of a person’s birth imparts an influence on their religious beliefs. They set out to test this hypothesis and found the results indicated that their theory was valid.

This could be paralleled in the natural sciences with Gell-Mann’s work postulating the internal structure of protons. Subsequent research by others did indeed indicate that protons exhibited the internal structure that Gell-Mann had hypothesised.

These are examples of the deductive.

15




Science and social science must be objective. That is to say that no value must be placed on taking one particular solution rather than another.The validity of the knowledge is the overriding principle concern of the researcher.

16




Only phenomena can be warranted as knowledge.

As a result, only knowledge that has been confirmed by the senses can be regarded as true knowledge.

The hypothesis is just an hypothesis until is has been confirmed to be knowledge by experience.

17


Positivism is not synonymous with science. Philosophers of science differ in their interpretations of scientific practices from those of social sciences, particularly since the 1960’s.

Kuhn has hypothesised that scientific change occurs in paradigm changes. New theories occur as new data is found that fundamentally shifts the direction of scientific knowledge, forcing scientists to rethink their previously accepted norms.


18


Treating society from the doctrine of positivism should obtain results which are:

•Unbiased by the observer

•Able to prove conclusively or disprove an hypothesis

•Unbiased by participants


The process of dealing with numerical data in particular, reduces the possibility of deductions being influenced by extraneous factors or from within the experiment itself.

19


A criticism of the positivists’ approach is that the scientific approach of the natural scientists is not appropriate to the study of social behaviour.

The natural scientist is involved in trying to explain what is happening but the role of the social scientist can be seen as trying to understand social behaviour in the context of those that are a part of it (Schutz 1962).

Clearly, an atom or molecule does not put meaning on its behaviour and so the social scientist is trying to achieve a different objective to the natural scientist.


20


This alternativealternative approach to positivism is called INTERPRETIVISM.


Like positivism, there is no clear cut definition but the general principles follow from the discussions on the previous slide that the approach of the natural sciences is not appropriate for social scientists due to the nature of what they are studying and their aims in terms of levels of understanding.

21


To summarise the key issues of interpretivism:


•It is an alternative to positivism

•It recognises the differences between the subject of natural scientists’ investigations and those of social scientists

•It moves towards providing a subjective understanding of the participants’ social action

•It aims to theorise a meaning for social action

22



For example:

Using participant observation and semi-structured interviewing, Foster investigated a housing estate in south London which had a very high crime rate.

Her investigations revealed that the participants (those who lived there), did not perceive this to be the case and mostly felt no more under threat than those in other communities.

Foster had investigated how the participants viewed their own situation and related their feelings to factors which the participants themselves had mentioned.

23



It is common for researchers to use both positivism and interpretivism in the same piece of research.

The use of a combination of different methods in a single piece of research is called triangulation.

24



The choice of research method will depend upon the topic and conduct of the research to some extent but let us consider the choice in more detail: Practical

influences

Theoretical assumptions

The topic

Ethical considerations

Chance and inspiration

25



The choice of research method

Practical Practical influencesinfluences


The topic



Practical influences are imposed by the limitations of the research methods and the circumstances in which they are used e.g.•Participant observation – this will require access to groups of subjects•Sample surveys, if large, will be expensive and if too small will not be representative

26




Practical influences

Theoretical Theoretical assumptionsassumptions

The topic



Theoretical assumptions will depend upon the doctrine that the sociologist follows:

Interpretivism favours qualitative methods. These will provide insight into the meanings of social behaviour. Participant observation is common.

27





Theoretical Theoretical assumptionsassumptions

The topic



Theoretical assumptions will depend upon the doctrine that the sociologist follows:

Interactionists’ methods are frequently used by those studying groups perceived to be oppressed in order to allow them to express themselves freely.

28






The topicThe topic



The topic being studied will certainly influence the research method used:

Historical Studies

There will be fewer people (if any) to interview so frequently researchers rely upon secondary datasecondary data. Examples include data from the national census.

29






The topicThe topic




Large scale studies

There will be many people to interview so frequently researchers can rely upon primary primary datadata.

30






The topicThe topic




Non literate societies

Participant observation is frequently used so as not to introduce any bias into the experiment.

31






The topicThe topic




Deviants

Participant observation is frequently used which is often followed up by interviewing.

32






The topic

Ethical Ethical considerationsconsiderations


It would be valuable to carry out research with participants that were unaware of the observer.However, this would be considered unethical.

Covert research should not involve either deception or invasion of privacy.

33






The topic



The study of deviants could involve the experimenter with either having a knowledge of or becoming involved in crime which is ethically unacceptable.

34






The topic



Just as in the natural sciences, any observation means interacting with the participant.If the participant becomes involved with the process, his or her perspective might change.However, it is also possible that the research will benefit the participant.

35






The topic


Chance and Chance and inspirationinspiration

Many problems have been solved by a chance remark or chance circumstances.

36






The topic



Additionally, there are the motivations of the sociologists themselves.

Bell & Newby thought that the principal driving forces for sociologists were both money and organisation.

37




A serious consideration of the possible research methods warrants in-depth evaluation.

Theoretical, practical and ethical issues should be addressed.

Minimising personal involvement makes it less likely that the experimenter will influence the results of the investigation.However,it could also limit the extent of the understanding of the results.

38




A serious consideration of the possible research methods warrants in- depth evaluation.

Theoretical, practical and ethical issues should be addressed.

Essentially, a balanced view has to be taken. Sociologists will employ high levels of control to make the research more reliable.The downside to this is that research will then be less natural.

39



The choice of topic

The first step in any research is to formulate the research question which will be based upon the topic that has been chosen for research.

The topic will clearly depend upon the researcher’s natural interests, coupled with the doctrine that the sociologist is most likely to follow.Clearly the sociologist is a target for his or her own research!

40



The choice of topic


The sociologist’s view of the importance of a topic will be an important factor in the choice of research topic.. A keen interest in the importance of urban renewal will tend to bias a researcher in this direction.

It is unlikely that he or she will devote time and effort to something that they think is trivial!

41



The choice of topic


Funding is also a crucial factor.Funds are available from many sources including government, industry and privately financed institutions.

Since these bodies are providing the funding, they will only be willing to pay for certain areas of research which lie within their interests.

42



The choice of topic


The practicality of certain areas of research is crucial too.Company directors have hardly been the subject of researchers’ endeavours at all.

This is primarily because as a group of people, they are unwilling to divulge information about themselves.

43



The choice of topic


A similar argument applies to various research which would require secondary data that is not available.This could be because the data has never been collected, has not been collected into a useable format, or has a restricted access.

44



The choice of topic


The research must fall within the ethical guidelines that are laid out by the various institutions to which sociologists belong.

45



The conduct of research

The way in which research is carried out is mainly an ethical problem.‘Official’ guidance on ethical principles comes from the following four institutions:

BSA – British Sociological Association – in their ‘Statement of Ethical Practice’

SRA – Social Research Association – in their ‘Ethical Guidelines’

BPS – British Psychological Society – in their ‘Ethical Principles and Guidelines’

ASA – American Sociological Society – in their ‘Code of Ethics’

46




The way in which research is carried out is mainly an ethical problem.There are four underlying principles which underpin these various guidelines:

1.Is there harm to participants?

2.Is there a lack of informed consent of the participants?

3.Is there an invasion of the participants’ privacy?

4.Is deception involved?

47





Physical harm is something that can be fairly easily predicted but there are other forms of harm to consider too.

Harm to participants’ development, stress, loss of self esteem, inducing participants to take part in degrading or reprehensible or even illegal acts.

There are cases where there has been the potential to harm participants – consider the possible identification of pupils into narrow achievement bands for research – this could have a detrimental effect long-term.

48




Researchers may well make discoveries about participants that the participants do not wish to become public knowledge.

In some areas of research, even the participants’ partners might not be aware of the participants’ attributes.


The confidentiality of researchers’ records is covered under the concept of harm.

49


TOPIC CHIOCE AND CONDUCT OF RESEARCH


2. Is there a lack of informed consent?

This is easier said than done.

It is quite possible that the researchers themselves are not aware of the full implications of the research.

Additionally, consenting researchers are unlikely to act as naturally as might be hoped.

Informed consent is not just consent!Informed means that the participants should be made aware of the full implications of the research.

50




2. Is there a lack of informed consent?

Needless to say, although considered unethical, covert observation does still happen.

The BSA statement itself says that such research should only be used where no other method is possible and then goes on to expand on the necessary anonymity of the participants when reporting results.

Informed consent is not just consent!Informed means that the participants should be made aware of the full implications of the research.

51




4. Is there deception?

Participants were recruited in the role of teachers who punished their students by administering electric shocks (the pupils were actors and there were no real shocks). Milgram cajoled participants into giving greater shocks in the interests of the research.He was actually concerned with the way people had behaved in Nazi concentration camps!

Deception occurs when the researchers do not present their experiment for what it really is.Milgram in 1966 is a classic example of deception.

52




4. Is there deception?

The very nature of much sociological research requires some form of deception. Observers will try to mingle such that their true identity as researchers does not effect the behaviour of the participants. So why do we concern ourselves with the concept of deception? – after all, it is common place in many social interactions.

Can we be free of deception?

53




Ethical Committees

The guidelines will be based on the guidelines of the various professional bodies and research projects should be passed by the ethical committee for their approval.

Universities have their own ethical committees which will issue guidelines on ethical practice.

54


Are you sure that you wish to exit?

Date post:	11-Jan-2016
Category:	Documents
Upload:	abraham-bailey
View:	223 times
Download:	0 times

1 SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS. 2 Use your mouse to move around the software. You can either...

Documents