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Week 5 Lecture 3Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer location

• application: supporting network applications– FTP, SMTP, STTP

• transport: host-host data transfer– TCP, UDP

• network: routing of datagrams from source to destination– IP, routing protocols

• link: data transfer between neighboring network elements– PPP, Ethernet

• physical: bits “on the wire”

application

transport

network

Data link

physical

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Link Layer: where?

Some terminology:• communication channels that

connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links– wired links

– wireless links

• 2-PDU is a frame, encapsulates datagram

“link”

data-link layer has responsibility of transferring frames from one node to adjacent node over a link

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Link layer: Analogy

• Datagram transferred by different link protocols over different links:– e.g., Ethernet on first link,

frame relay on intermediate links, 802.11 on last link

• Each link protocol provides different services– e.g., may or may not

provide RDT over link

transportation analogy• trip from Princeton to Lausanne

– limo: Princeton to JFK– plane: JFK to Geneva– train: Geneva to Lausanne

• tourist = datagram• transport segment =

communication link• Concrete transportation mode

= link layer protocol• travel agent = routing

algorithm

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Think: why put the following functions in Data Link Layer?

• (most important) channel access: channel access if shared medium

• Framing, – encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer– ‘physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify source, dest

• different from IP address!

• (may not exist) Reliable delivery between adjacent nodes-- seldom used on low bit-error-rate link (fiber, some

twisted pair)– wireless links: high error rates

• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability (TCP)?

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Link Layer Services (more)• Flow Control:

– pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes

• Error Detection: – errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.

– receiver detects presence of errors:

• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame

• Error Correction: – receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without

resorting to retransmission

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Data link layer: where?

• link layer implemented in “adaptor” (aka NIC)– Ethernet card, PCMCI card,

802.11 card

• sending side:– encapsulates datagram in a

frame– adds error checking bits, rdt,

flow control, etc.

• receiving side– looks for errors, rdt, flow

control, etc– extracts datagram, passes to

rcving node

• adapter is semi-autonomous• link & physical layers in one

board !

sendingnode

frame

rcvingnode

datagram

frame

adapter adapter

link layer protocol

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Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

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1. Parity Checking

Single Bit Parity:Detect single bit errors

Two Dimensional Bit Parity:Detect and correct single bit errors

0 0

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2. Internet checksum

Sender:• treat segment contents as

sequence of 16-bit integers• checksum: addition (1’s

complement sum) of segment contents

• sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field

Receiver:• compute checksum of received

segment

• check if computed checksum equals checksum field value:

– NO - error detected

– YES - no error detected. But maybe errors nonetheless? More later ….

Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note: used at transport layer only)

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3. Cyclic Redundancy Check

• view data bits, D, as a binary number

• choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G

• goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that– <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) – receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:

error detected!– can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits

• widely used in practice (ATM, HDCL)

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CRC ExampleWant:

D.2r XOR R = nGequivalently:

D.2r = nG XOR R equivalently: if we divide D.2r by

G, want remainder R

R = remainder[ ]D.2r

G

Note: Not subtraction! Use XOR!

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outline

• 1 Introduction and services

• 2 Error detection and correction

• 3 Multiple access protocols

• 4 LAN addresses and ARP

• 5 Ethernet

• 6 Hubs, bridges, and switches

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Why Multiple Access protocols?• single shared broadcast channel • two or more simultaneous transmissions by

nodes: interference – only one node can send successfully at a time

multiple access protocol• distributed algorithm that determines how

nodes share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit

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MAC Protocols: a taxonomy

Three broad classes:• Channel Partitioning

– divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code)

– allocate piece to node for exclusive use

• Random Access– channel not divided, allow collisions

– “recover” from collisions

• “Taking turns”– tightly coordinate shared access to avoid collisions

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1. Channel Partitioning MAC: TDMA

TDMA: time division multiple access • access to channel in "rounds" • each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time)

in each round • unused slots go idle • example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle • TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): channel divided into

N time slots, one per user; inefficient with low duty cycle users and at light load.

• FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): frequency subdivided.

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1. Channel Partitioning MAC : FDMA

FDMA: frequency division multiple access • example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency

bands 2,5,6 idle fr

equ

ency

bands time

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1. Channel Partitioning (CDMA)CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) • unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set partitioning• used mostly in wireless broadcast channels (cellular, satellite,

etc)• all users share same frequency, but each user has own

“chipping” sequence (i.e., code) to encode data• encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)• decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping

sequence• allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously

with minimal interference (if codes are “orthogonal”)

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2. Random Access Protocols -- Ethernet • When node has packet to send

– transmit at full channel data rate R.

– no a priori coordination among nodes

• two or more transmitting nodes -> “collision”,• random access MAC protocol specifies:

– how to detect collisions

– how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)

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CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA: listen before transmit:• If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame• If channel sensed busy, defer transmission

• Human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

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CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA

– collisions detected within short time– colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel

wastage

• collision detection: – easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,

compare transmitted, received signals– difficult in wireless LANs: receiver shut off while

transmitting

• human analogy: the polite conversationalist

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3. “Taking Turns” MAC protocols

Polling: • master node

“invites” slave nodes to transmit in turn

• concerns:– polling overhead

– latency

– single point of failure (master)

Token passing:control token passed from one node to next sequentially.token messageconcerns:

token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)

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Summary of MAC protocols

• What do you do with a shared media?– Channel Partitioning, by time, frequency or code

• Time Division,Code Division, Frequency Division

– Random partitioning (dynamic), • ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD

• carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in others (wireless)

• CSMA/CD used in Ethernet

– Taking Turns• polling from a central site, token passing

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Next week – Exam # 1 & Bluetooth