PROJECT REPORT ON CONSTRUCTION OF 13th

STOREY RESIDENTIALTOWER

ATROYAL RESIDENCY

PAKHOWAL ROAD, LUDHIANA

SUBMITTED TO-

GURU NANAK DEV ENGINEERING COLLEGE LUDHIANA (JULY 2011 – DEC 2011)

SUBMITTED BY NITISH MALHOTRA 80101105060(80114)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It give me great pleasure to have an opportunity to acknowledge and to express my deep

gratitude to all those who are associated with my six month industrial training project for the

construction of multi-storey residential flats Royal Residency Project at Ludhiana. Although it

is not possible to thank all those individually yet I name few ones who have helped me a lot in

my work.

First of all I express my profound gratitude towards my training & placement in charge Dr.

Jagbir singh for providing me an opportunity to undergo six month practical training for the

construction of multi-storey residential flats.

I am also thankful and express my gratitude to Dr. J N Jha for his cooperation and for

allowing me to undergo training at this project. And for their adherence and guidance which

helped me in acclimatizing to the practical exposure of the construction work

It’s my privilege to acknowledge my profound gratitude towards my project guide Er. Varun

sharma, for giving me valuable suggestions, encouragement and timely guidance with which I

am able to complete my training. At the same time I would like to thank entire staff at the site

for their help.

Nitish malhotra

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CONTENTS COMPANY PROFILE

ABSTRACT/ STNOPSIS

PROJECT INFORMATION

MATERIAL USED

FIELD TEST

STORAGE OF MATERIAL

CONSTRUCTION TOOLS

CONCRETE AND QUALITY

LAYOUT

EXCAVATION

LEVELLING

PCC & LAYOUT OF FOUNDATION

FORM-WORK

SCAFFOLDING

REINFORCEMEN T

ELECTRIC CONDUIT

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DEHUTTERING

FOUNDATION

COLUMNS

BEAMS AND SLAB

BRICKWORK

STAIRCASE

MY DUTIES ON SITE

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

COMPANY PROFILE

Incorporated as Omaxe Builders Private Limited in 1989, to undertake construction &

contracting business, the company changed its

constitution to a limited company known as

Omaxe Construction Ltd., in 1999. The name of the company has now changed to Omaxe Ltd

in 2006.

Omaxe was founded by Shri. Rohtas Goel, a first generation entrepreneur, a civil engineer by

qualification and a visionary. With over two decades of experience in construction and real

estate development, Rohtas Goel, as Chairman & Managing Director of Omaxe Ltd., has been

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at the forefront of the real estate industry, following its motto “Turning Dreams into Realty”

through building world class residential and commercial projects.

As a civil construction and contracting company, Omaxe successfully executed more than one

hundred and twenty industrial, institutional, commercial and residential projects for a number

of prestigious Indian private, public sector and Multinational's clients such as Amity

University, LG, Pepsi, Samsung, Wave Cinemas, National Brain Research Centre, P.G.I.

M.E.R, Apollo Hospitals and Delhi High Court.

To capture the opportunities offered by the growing real estate market in India, Omaxe entered

the real estate development business in 2001.

ABSTRACT/SYNOPSIS

Project : Construction of residential flats at

Pakhowal road - Ludhiana

Type of structure : 13 storey framed structure

Total cost of project : Rs.976 crore (approx.)

Company under which Trainee : M/s omaxe limited

Stipulate time of the Work : Four year for structure only

Stipulate date of Starts : March, 2008

Stipulate date of completion : March, 2012

Status of work : R.C.C, Brickwork, Roadwork

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Site incharge : Mr. Tarun dubey

Site Engineer : Mr. Varun Sharma

INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT(ROYAL RESIDENCY LUDHIANA)

SITE DETAILS:

The site is situated on pakhowal road Ludhiana opposite to sidharath resorts and 6

kms from park plaza situated on ferozepur road.. The location of the site on a

National Highway is leading with respect to appreciation of land value .The cost of

the project is estimated to be around Rs 976 crores. The project was started in 2008

& is likely to be completed by 2012. The site covers the area of about 36 acres.

The site consists of a 10 towers each 13 storey, row houses and road.

KINGSTON TOWER

QUEENSTON TOWER

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PRINCETON TOWER

ROYAL SHERWOOD

ROYAL RETREAT 1

ROYAL RETREAT 2

ROYAL RETREAT 4

ROYAL RETREAT 5

PANACHE TOWER

GRAND DUKE 1520sq.ft

ROW HOUSES

CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD.

NON TOWER AREA is also there which is between the above mentioned towers.

Grand duke tower, panache tower, non tower area, row houses and road are

under construction, all others were completed.

GRAND DUKE 1520SQ. FT. TOWER DETAILS:

It consists of a 13 storey structure having a RCC columns, beams and slab. The

partition walls are of brickwork. Height of the tower is 39m.

Total height of tower : 39000 mm

Floor to floor height : 3000 mm

Height of columns : 2550 mm

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Thickness of beams : 450 mm

Thickness of slab : 150 mm

Concrete used : M 25 in beam and slab &

M40 in column

Steel used : Fe 415

Minimum cover to steel reinforcement : Columns = 40 mm

Beam

(side and bottom) = 25 mm.

NON TOWER AREA DETAILS

Height of retaining wall : 3800 mm

Thickness of retaining wall : 300 mm bottom

230 mm top

Size of footing: F1 :3000*3000 mm

F2 :3200*3200 mm

Depth of footings : 500 mm

Size of columns in the footings : 350*350 mm

Height of columns : 3200 mm

Thickness of beam : 600 mm

Thickness of slab : 150 mm

Concrete used : M25 in beam and slab

M30 in column

Steel used : Fe415

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Cover to reinforcement : 40 mm (column)

25 mm (beam)

15mm (slab)

63 Components of design mix concreteM 25 M 40

  Cement 340 kg 450 kg

  Sand 765 kg 670 kg

  Aggregate 1190 kg 1115 kg

  Water 143kg 151 kg

  Plasticizer 3.4 kg 4.95 kg

MATERIAL USED ON SITE

CEMENT:

Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminates and aluminoferrite. It is

obtained by blending predetermined proportions limestone clay and other minerals in small

quantities which is pulverized and heated at high temperature – around 1500 deg centigrade to

produce ‘clinker’. The clinker is then ground with small quantities of gypsum to produce a fine

powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When mixed with water, sand and stone, it

combines slowly with the water to form a hard mass called concrete. Cement is a hygroscopic

material meaning that it absorbs moisture in presence of moisture it undergoes chemical

reaction termed as hydration. Therefore cement remains in good condition as long as it does not

come in contact with moisture. If cement is more than three months old then it should be tested

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for its strength before being taken into use.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three different grades The

classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of cement-sand mortar cubes of face

area 50 cm² composed of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by weight with a water-

cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are

(i) 33 grade

(ii) 43 grade

(iii) 53 grade

The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand mortar in

N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above mentioned procedure.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is obtained by either intergrinding a pozzolanic material

with clinker and gypsum, or by blending ground pozzolana with Portland cement. Nowadays

good quality fly ash is available from Thermal Power Plants, which are processed and used in

manufacturing of PPC.

SAND:

Source – The sand is brought from river.

Colour – Colour is almost white.

Transportation source- Truck, Trolley

Volume – 250 cu.ft.

AGGREGATES:

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Aggregates are of two types.

Fine aggregate

Coarse aggregate

FINE AGGRIGATE:

1. The fine aggregate shell be hard, strong, dense, durable,& clean with un coated grains.

The maximum size of the particles shall be 4.5mm (3/16 inch) and shall grade down.

The sand not contains any harmful material such as Iron, Pyrites, Coal, Mica, Silt alkali

etc.

2. Grading: The natural sand used for work shall have a grading confirming to one of the

three grading zones of II, III, & I. And fineness modulus of sand used shall be between

2.6 to 3.4.

COARSE AGGREGATE:

1. Coarse aggregate shall consist of hard, dense, durable, uncoated, crushed aggregate only

2. The aggregate shall be free from soft, friable, thin or long laminated pieces. The

aggregate shall be screened and washed. The maximum percentage of deleterious

material shall not exceed those specified in relevant IS specification.

SIZE OF AGGREGATE:

1. Nominal maximum size of aggregate in beam and column shall be restricted to 5mm

less than minimum clear distance between the main bars or 5mm less than maximum.

2. In no case the maximum size of aggregate be greater than one quarter of the maximum

thickness of the member so as to facilitate concrete to be placed without difficulty.

3. Generally for concrete work nominal maximum size of 20mm is considered suitable.

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WATER:

Water used for both for mixing and curing shall be portable and free from injurious amount of

deleterious material.

BRICKS:

Size of brick used at site is 19*9*9cm and compressive strength of the brick is between 80

kg/cm to 110 kg/cm2. Colour of bricks is copper colooured.

Average weight of the brick 3.3 kg.

CEMENT CONCRETE:

Cement concrete is mixture of cement, coarse aggregate. (Pebbles), fine aggregate (Sand) and

water and its compressive strength is

After no. of days average strength of cube

7 days 13 N/mm2

28 days 20 N/mm2

Size of cube is 15cm*15cm*15cm

STEEL:

Steel used is Fe - 415 . Tensile strength of steel is 415 N/mm2 which is also its compressive

strength. As concrete is weak in tension so steel is reinforced with steel where tensile stresses

are induced in the member.

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FIELD TESTS

Field test on concrete:

SLUMP TEST:

It is used for measuring the workability of fresh concrete and to check the uniformity of

concrete from batch to batch. In this test concrete is drawn in the slump cone in 3 layers and

each layer is tamped for 25 times. Then the slump cone is removed and the height of concrete is

measured in mm. Slump height comes out different as the w/c ratio varies in the concrete. Thus

the slump test is a measure consistency of wetness of the concrete mix. Thus procedure is taken

for 3 times simultaneously.

CUBE TEST:

This test is done to determine the compressive strength of a given sample of concrete for 7 days

and 28 days.

Moulds made up of steel plates of size 15x15x15cm cube having nuts and bolts arrangements,

600 mm long rod of dia.16mm trowel, iron pan are required.

The mould is neatly oiled from inside. Required quantity of concrete is taken out of mixture in

the iron pan. The mould is filled in 3 layers with concrete, and each layer is tamped 25 times by

600 mm long rod of diameter 16mm. top surface is finished with the help of a trowel. Up to

10cum, six cubes are cast at a time. For every 10cum further six cubes are cast. After 24 hours

the concrete cubes are taken out from the mould and kept in water tank for 7 days and 28 days

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for curing. Out of six, three cubes are tested after 7 days, rest 3 are tested after 28 days. After 7

days, compressive strength should be 50% of total strength.

STORAGE OF MATERIALS

Storage of material is very important and requires the skills. Due to proper storage of material

we can keep material clean and maintaining there strength and durability. It also helps to reduce

the wastage of material and thus money is saved. On our site, different materials were stored in

following manners:-

CEMENT:

Cement godown is made up of brick masonry having A.C. sheets roof and water proof flooring.

It is having two doors; one for stacking the cement bags out for consumption. For preventing

dampness, heater is provided in godown.

In godwon, wooden planks are kept to avoid direct floor touch hence the floor dampness.

Cement bags are stored over it in piles, each pile having 10 bags in it. It is arranged in header

and stretcher fashion, i.e. alternatively lengthwise and crosswise. After stacking the bags, it is

covered by trampoline sheets. The bags are according to dates and it was consumed in first in

first out bases.

SAND AND AGGREGATE

The function of cement water paste in concrete is to bind the aggregate together in solid mass.

This is done by coating itself round grails of sand and aggregate. If sand and aggregate is

coated with dirt, there will not be proper bonding. So, to develop the full strength of concrete,

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the aggregate should be clean properly. This can be done by proper storage of sand and

aggregate.

To store the same, different sizes of compartment by mean of compartment walls are

constructed on water tight platform of bricks near to mixer. Different materials are stored in

different compartments.

REINFORCEMENT:

Like all the material, it is also placed on a water tight platform and wooden planks spread over

it. It is placed according to the diameter. All bars of same diameter are placed at one place near

to bar cutting machine and other at different. All bars of same diameter are stacked together.

All bars are covered by mean of trampolines sheet to prevent it from corrosion.

My site storekeepers Mr.N.Parsad give this all information of storing of material.

CONSTRUCTION TOOLS

AUTO-LEVEL

It is used for the leveling purpose at site. Leveling is the branch of surveying the object of

which is

1. To find the elevations of give points with respect to given or assumed datum

2. To establish points at a given elevation with respect to given or assumed datum

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Auto-level serves both purposes by providing horizontal line of sight.

It consists of telescope, level tube, leveling head, tripod.

THEODOLITE

Theodolite is the most precise instrument for the measurement of horizontal and

vertical angles. Prolonging survey lines, determining difference in elevation. Transit

type theodolite is used at site in which line of sight can be reversed by revolving the

telescope through 180 degree in vertical plane. The essential parts of theodolite are-

Telescope, vertical circle, index frame, standards, leveling head, lower

plate, upper plate, tripod, plumb bob.

Centering, Levelling, Focussing are the 3 temporary adjustments which

are made at each set up of instrument before taking observations.

EARTH EXCAVATOR (JCB)

It is mainly used for the excavation purpose at the sight. It helps in transporting the excavated

earth from one place to another. It is very convenient and time saving to work with earth

excavator as basements are to be also constructed at site.

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CONCRETE MIXER

When it is desired to mix the ingredients of concrete in a machine, then concrete mixer is

used. The mixer used on the site is of tilting type. Concrete mixer is provided with power

operated loading hoppers. The concrete mixer consists of drum in which materials get mixed by

series of blades inside it. The desired proportion of material is tied in to the hopper in dry

condition and they are then placed in the revolving drum of mixture. In revolving state the

components get mixed while water is mixed with the help of crane. Tilting the drum in opposite

direction discharges the concrete mix.

CONCRETE VIBRATORS:

Needle type vibrators are suitable for proper compaction of reinforced concrete in footing,

columns, beams, slabs, etc. it consists of a power unit along with a flexible tubes at a end of

which a vibrating head is attached. Power is provided by electrical motor, petrol engine. The

long tube has a flexible shaft, which rotates an eccentric weight inside the vibrating head. The

frequency of vibrator is about 7000 r.p.m. & length of the needle is approx. 600mm.

AIM OF VIBRATOR:

1. Vibrator is used for compaction.

2. For improving the quality of concrete by filling the voids.

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STEEL BAR CUTTING MACHINE:

The steel bar cutter is made of high steel knife seat, connecting shaft, high speed international

standard motor and firm reinforcing covering. It can be used to cut round steel bars, deformed

steel bars, and relevant construction project, it is also applicable to cut flat steel, square steel,

and angle steel ,is a mandatory machine in the processing of steels in the construction industry.

CONCRETE AND QUALITY CONTROL

Concrete is an artificial material, which is most widely used construction material. The

concrete has its own property like high compressive strength, the versatility and moulds, ability

of this material be pre stressing technique which helps to make up for its low tensile strength

have contributed largely to its wide spread use. We can say that we are in age of concrete.

There are glaring differences in construction of building built 50 years ago and those built

recently. The buildings built before 50 years are rumbling down since the concrete mix is

having the old proportions of cement aggregates. The builders use those old proportions

without adhering to the specifications given for that, thus concrete fails for several reasons.

Concrete disintegrates because of rusting of bars. As rusted bars expand in three times its

original steel volume and the concrete cracks since it’s weak in tension and cannot withstand

tensile stresses. As the sand used now a day is dredged from salty creaks in coastal areas, it

contains high amount of salt, which harms concrete by reacting with steel and corroding it.

There is a lot of honeycombing found in concrete due to inadequate compaction in concrete. It

is proved that 5% of void in concrete gives 30% less in compressive strength of concrete.

it is possible to get desired strength of concrete by using high grade cement and optimum w/c

ratio, for good workability, but none pays heed to the durability criteria.

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POPERTIES OF CONCRETE:

STRENGTH: Concrete’s strength is mostly its compressive strength and it is always designed

for that only. The strength of concrete depends not upon the water cement ratio. The strength of

concrete in tension is 0.7√Fck

DURABILITY: Durability of concrete is also dependent on the water cement ratio,

compaction, curing, cover to reinforcement, shape and size of member.

WORKABILITY: Concrete is said to be workable if it can easily mixed, handled, transported,

placed in position and compacted at the time of achieving workability the durability criteria

should be kept in mind. Workability depend upon water content, water cement ratio and

aggregate cement ratio. Workability increased by using round aggregate instead of crushed

aggregate.

FINE AGGREGATE:

Fine aggregate or sand helps in the adjustment of strength of concrete by variation of

proportion with cement. The sand dredged from old river beds is considered the best sand. The

sea sand contains salt which react with steel and so it should be used after thorough washing.

White river sand is considered to be the best for construction work.

Bulking of sand:

The dry or fully saturated sand has its actual volume but when sand gets a little saturated, a film

of water is formed around each sand grain which results in bulking of sand. When Sand has 5%

moisture content it has maximum volume. Bulking is more with the fine sand and less with

coarse sand.

Salt: It react with steel and corrode it which results in splitting of concrete since the coefficient

of expansion and contraction of concrete and steel are different.

COARSE AGGREGATE:

Coarse aggregate may be 19

Rounded gravel aggregate

Angular gravel aggregate

The normally used are crushed rock aggregate. Aggregate from igneous rock are best for

concrete because they are hard, tough and dense. Aggregate from sedimentary rocks are also

not bad, but those form metamorphic rocks are never to be used because they have foliated

structures. Rounded aggregates are good for building work as it occupies the minimum surface

area and voids are less. Angular aggregate are best for roadwork due to the good interlocking.

No flaky particles are used.

WATER:

Water is an ingredient of concrete. It reacts with cement with to form a binding paste

which penetrates into innumerable minute, surface irregularities of sand and aggregates,

bringing them in close adhesion. Concrete containing water enough for hydration would be

very dry and exceedingly difficult to place. Additional water must therefore be added to mix to

make it workable enough to be easily placed inside the forms and worked around the

reinforcement. This additional water must however be kept to the very minimum as the use of

too much water weakens the strength of paste.

Disadvantages of using extra water in mixing:

Water occupies space in concrete and as it evaporates, it leaves voids. The more the

uncombined water the more voids will be there. There will be more voids in set concrete and

less it will be density, strength and durability.

MIXING OF CONCRETE:

The ingredients of concrete are required to be mixed properly to get dense, strong and durable

concrete. There are two methods of mixing.

1 Machine mixing

2 Hand mixing

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1) Machine mixing: The machine used for mixing all ingredients of concrete is known as

concrete mixture. They are of two types:

a) Non-tilting type, in which concrete cannot be discharge by tilting the

drum.

b) Tilting type, in which mixture revolves in inclined axis, loading is

done by hopper & concrete can be discharge by tilting the drum.

At our site mixture is tilting type. The capacity of mixture is 10 cu.ft. For proper mixing of

materials, mixture should be revolves up to 2 minutes after all materials are put in drum.

2) Hand mixing: This type of mixing is done when casting of small work such as lintel, starter

etc. is to be done and the mixture is not available. Hand mixing is done on clean, water tight

platform which is made up of wood; it can also be done on concrete floor. The concrete

ingredients are spread on concrete floor & mixture is mixed at least three times by shoveling &

mixed till gets uniform colour. The concrete should be used in half an hour of mixing lest it

should reach its initial setting time.

TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE

The concrete should e transported and placed as early as possible when it comes out of the

mixture or it is batched in concrete mix plant. Mostly ready mix concrete is used now a days at

site.

Precautions while transportation of concrete:-

1) Concrete should be transported in such a way that there is no segregation of aggregates.

2) Water should not be added to the concrete under any circumstances.

Precautions during placing of concrete:-

1) The formwork or the surface of the building unit to be concreted should be properly

cleaned, prepared & well water before the concrete. The formwork can also be given a

thin coat of crude oil in order to prevent the adhesion of concrete.

2) It is desirable to deposit concrete as near as possible.

3) The concrete should always be deposited in even thin layer of film of layer and each

layer should be compacted by mechanical vibrator.

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4) During placing of concrete care must be taken that the steel reinforcement should not be

disturbed from its position, which is placed as per R.C.C. design and voids should be

left there

5) Large quantity of concrete should not be deposited at a time otherwise concrete will

start to flow along formwork and resulting concrete will not have uniform composition.

6) As far as possible, concrete should be placed in single layer. In case of deep section,

concrete should be placed in successive horizontal layers and in proper successive layer.

The concrete should be placed in position as soon as possible as within 30 minutes.

CONSOLIDATION :

Consolidation of concrete is to be done immediately after placing it in position. The main aim

of consolidation of concrete is to eliminate the air bubbles from concrete mass to achieve

maximum density. Consolidation is found necessary as 5% voids reduces 30% strength of

concrete. It is done by two ways

Hand consolidation.

It includes ramming, tamping, spading with suitable tool.

Mechanical consolidation.

It include mechanical device as vibrator for consolidation of concrete.

Consolidation at our site is done by use of mechanical device i.e immersion or internal vibrator.

It is done to compact the concrete in formwork. It is possible by mean of vibrator to make hard

and still concrete mix, with slump at about 40mm or less. With the help of vibrator it is possible

to deposit concrete in small opening where it is not possible to deposit concrete by hand

method. The type of vibrator used for consolidation on the site is needle vibrator. Its power is

operated by petrol. During consolidation the needle of the vibrator should be kept straight and

angle not exceeding 10 degree to the vertical with a view to avoid flow of concrete due to

vibration in the mould and scope of segregation. The poker is kept into formwork where

concrete is placed and kept for 30-40 seconds only.

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CURING

Concrete surfaces are kept wet for a certain period after placing of concrete so as to promote

the hardening of cement. It consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement

from and into the concrete. The term Curing Of Concrete is used to indicate all such procedures

and processes.The temperature should be minimum and water loss should be prevented while

curing.

The period of curing depend upon cement and nature of work. Normally the period is about 7-

14 days.

PURPOSE:-

1) To protect the concrete surface from sun and wind.

2) It is necessary to retain water until the concrete has fully hardened as presence of water

is essential to cause chemical action between cement and water.

3) The strength, durability, impermeability increased with curing.

METHOD:-

1.Ponding with water.

2Continuous

sprinkling.

3. Covering with jute bags, cotton mats, wet sand.

4. Covering with specially prepared paper, polyethylene

5. applying curing compounds.

SLAB:

Ponding should be done on the slab by constructing bunds of mortar

BEAMS AND COLUMNS:

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The beams and columns can be maintained wet by tying gunny bags around the periphery and

by maintaining it wet always.

LAYOUT

The layout of the building is the first stage before the execution of the project. The layout is

carried on every floor which is important for the casting of various units of the floor. Layout

should be carried out be an experienced mason in presence of site engineer.

Layout is the fixing of centre lines for columns and beams and other structure i.e. lift etc.

Generally two reference points are given on site according to which the outlines of the building

are fixed. One reference point is used to make the horizontal grid and one reference point is

used for vertical grid. From the given reference points i.e. Bhurji, several bhurjis are fixed at

different spaces according to the drawings in front of every grid. From these bhurjis, every grid

is marked by placing theodolite at the bhurji station. After the complete marking of horizontal

and vertical grids, the reinforcement, for the foundations is carried out. On the reinforcement

the sizes of columns is marked by colour and additional reinforcement is carried out for

columns. After the casting of the columns, the bench mark is fixed at plinth level of the

building on the ground floor. For fixing shuttering of the plinth beam, a plumb bob is

suspended from the centre of the bottom and it should touch the centre line marked on the floor.

The height of the column is taken as per drawings.

Layout of the other floors is carried according to the ground floor. Here it is supposed that the

layout of the ground floor is absolutely correct and on level. A plumb bob is suspended from

the first floor to the ground floor and distance measured between plumb line and face of wall

and column or any other structure. The measured distance should be same on 1 st floor. A line is

marked on the 1st floor which is considered to be correct one. Further layout of different units

on the floor is carried out according to the mark line. For marking cement mortar ratio of 1:4

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are used and after placed wet mortar, dry cement is sprinkled to dry quickly and to have clear

marking. The markings are carried out with the help of a thread. Each marking is checked by

the site engineer before the casting of starter for the column.

At our site lay out is done by equipiment electronic thedolite. Electronic thedolite is equipment

suitable for all surveying and engineering applications. They are used to obtain accurate lay

out, rough distance calculation, etc. in surveys. They are designed for accuracy, ease of

operation and rugged dependability

EXCAVATION

Excavation was carried out both manually as well as mechanically. Normally 1-2 earth

excavators (JCB’s) were used for excavating the soil. Adequate precautions are taken to see

that the excavation operations do not damage the adjoining structures. Excavation is carried out

providing adequate side slopes and dressing of excavation bottom. The soil present beneath the

surface was too clayey so it was dumped and was not used for back filling. The filling is done

in layer not exceeding 20 cm layer and then it’s compacted.

LEVELLING

Leveling is very important for any type of civil engineering project. Leveling is done at all the

stages in the project such as for excavation in foundation, any type of concrete casting (raft,

columns, slabs, etc) etc. In any project first of all assume bench mark (B.M). On our site bench

mark is made 1.475 m high from the main pakhowal road Ludhiana, assume the level of the

pakhowal road is 100.00m and the level of bench mark at site is 101.475m. The basement

excavation level of all the towers is 96.725m. Level instrument are of two types.

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Auto level

Dumpy level

At our site leveling is done by auto level. Auto level consist of, auto level, tripod stand and 5m

staff. The least count of the staff is 5mm. Auto Level is equipment suitable for all surveying

and engineering level applications. They are used to obtain accurate levels in surveys. They are

designed for accuracy, ease of operation and rugged dependability.

FUNCTIONS:

The important functions are:

They are very useful for conducting research work smoothly in extreme weather

conditions.

They ensure accuracy to the test performed.

The apparatus offers telescopic magnification.

APPLICATION

Auto Level is mainly used to obtain accurate leveling. Some of its application is:

Excavation

Optical Surveys

Topographic Surveys

Construction (Buildings, Roadways, etc.)

Mapping

PCC (Plain Cement Concrete):

After the process of excavation, laying of plain cement concrete that is PCC is done. A layer of

75mm was made in such a manner that it was not mixed with the soil. It provides a solid base

for the raft foundation and a mix of 1:4:8 that is, 1 part of cement to 4 parts of fine aggregates

and 8 parts of coarse aggregates by volume were used in it. Plain concrete is vibrated to achieve

full compaction. Concrete placed below ground should be protected from falling earth during

and after placing. Concrete placed in ground containing deleterious substances should be kept

free from contact with such a ground and with water draining there from during placing and for

a period of seven days. When joint in a layer of concrete are unavoidable, and end is sloped at

an angle of 30 and junctions of different layers break joint in laying upper layer of concrete.

The lower surface is made rough and clean watered before upper layer is laid.

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LAYING OF FOUNDATION

At our site, isolated footings (rectangular or square) at different depth and 500 mm combined

Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the

entire area of the structure. Normally raft foundation is used when large load is to be distributed

and it is not possible to provide individual footings due to space constraints that are they would

overlap on each other. Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements

as the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions. They are often

needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a

larger area.

In laying of raft foundation, special care is taken in the reinforcement and construction of plinth

beams and columns. It is the main portion on which ultimately whole of the structure load is to

come. So a slightest error can cause huge problems and therefore all this is checked and passed

by the engineer in charge of the site.

FORMWORK

The temporary structure erected to support the concrete in its required shape till it hardens and

becomes self supporting is called formwork. It is temporary structure used as a mould to east

the members of the structure at the site. It is also known as shuttering.

REQUIREMENT FOR GOOD FORMWORK:

1. The material from which form is made should be cheaply and easily available in local

market.

2. It should be sufficiently rigid so that deflections do not occur while concreting.

3. It should be strong enough to resist effectively all the loads coming on it.

4. It should easy to strip and erect.

5. Supports on which formwork rest should be strong and non yielding.27

6. All joints of formwork should be stiff and strong.

7. Surface of the formwork coming directly in contact with the concrete, should be smooth.

WOODEN AND STEEL SHUTTERING:

At our site plywood plates of size 120cm*60cm*5mm are used. 5mm thick steel frame is used

on back side of the plate. Plywood is used stiff, water proof and a higher usable value.

Wood to be used should free from knots, twists, shakes, and imperfections, which could

otherwise affect the strength of forms and finished surface of the concrete.

.Diameter of props should not be less than 7.5 cm and it should be straight, as for as possible.

Steel formwork is the more expansive type of formwork as it is made completely of steel. This

shuttering is easy to erect and to deshutter. The manpower required is very less. True horizontal

and vertical planes of concrete surface can be achieved with the help of steel formwork, which

ultimately reduces thickness of the plaster and the cost of construction.

FORMWORK OF BEAM AND SLAB:

R.C.C. beams are the horizontal structure member in tension. The function of beam is to take

the load coming from the masonry and the slab resting on it and to transfer it to the column.

R.C.C. slab is a horizontal structure member. The function of slab is to take the dead load and

the live load coming on it.

Beam and slab is the major and important member of the structure. In framed structure, slab

and beam are casted monolithically.

Mark one level on every column.

Check the position and level of beam bottom supports (cap), with respect to the depth of

the beam.

Depth of the cap should be same as the width of the beam.

Cap should be fixed firmly to the column with help of binding wire and 6cm nails in

plumb.

Bottom plank of the beam should not bend but be in straight line.

Check the level of the beam bottom before providing beam sides.28

Provide bracing to beam bottom supports after leveling the beam bottom. Supports

should be perfectly vertical.

There should not be any joints in the props.

Check the depth of the beam.

Check the depth of the slab.

Plate should be of uniform thickness.

Plate should be in perfectly right angle.

Check the level of the slab with dumpy level.

Oil the shuttering plates before placing the reinforcement.

Bracing should be provided for each prop to avoid lateral movement.

Check the line, plumb and supports of the beam side.

Prop of slab shuttering plates should be perfectly vertical at required spacing, minimum

2’0’’ (0.60mm) c/c.

Check weather the slab thickness is marked on the side of slab or nails are driven in

steel plate’s side as per the thickness of slab.

CHECKING OF FORMWORK:

Before the concrete is placed, the formwork must be checked otherwise there will be

chances to the formwork as well as concrete.

Firstly check the dimensions of the forms according to plans. Position of

vertical and horizontal face is checked.

All the supports and particular jointed are checked to ensure that the formwork

is stable and leak proof. If gaps are found then they are covered by steel strip

or wooden pieces according to the requirement.

The surface should be washed with water and cleaned otherwise foreign

material such as wood, chips etc. will be embedded in concrete and which will

lead to reduction in strength of concrete.

The surface should be properly oiled for easy removal, smooth and even

finish.

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Level of bolts or insert plate provided in formwork should be checked

properly.

Props should be brushed and anchored properly.

SCAFFOLDING

INTRODUCTION

When the height of wall or column or other structural member of a building or any

Other kind of structure exceeds about 1.5 m, temporary structures are needed to

support the platform over which the workman can sit and carry on the construction

Work .These temporary structures, constructed very close to the wall ,is in the form of timber

or steel frame work ,commonly called scaffolding .

COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SCAFFOLDING :

Scaffolding has the following components

Standards: These are the vertical members of the framework supported on the ground or

drums or embedded into the ground.

Ledgers: These are the horizontal members running parallel to the walls.

Boardings: These are the horizontal platforms provided to support Workmen and the

material ; these are supported on the putlogs.

Steel scaffolding is practically similar to the timber scaffolding except that

Wooden members are replaced by steel bars and rope lashings are replaced by steel

Couplets or fittings. Such scaffolding can be erected and dismantled rapidly. It has

greater strength, greater durability and higher fore resistance. On our site, for the

construction of side retaining steel walls, steel scaffolding is used. For providing the

30

scaffolding, we used the small steel trusses which were in the form of a triangle .These

trusses were tied to their proper position by means of the steel bars and bolts. Tie roads

are the members which are used during the shuttering for lying of concrete at the lower

levels. So as these roads provides great support to these trusses or concrete becomes

very hard on drying .On these trusses steel jail’s or planks are used for making the

working platform. The other parts of the scaffolding are planks, ledgers, transoms,

bracings and Coupling etc.

PRECAUTIONS WHILE CONCRETING:

Carpenter should keep eye on formwork while concreting is being done.

Some props, nails, bolt, clamps, are kept in spare for emergency repair.

Supervision should keep eye to see danger of leak, loose props, and brace, due to

impact of concrete placing or due to vibration of vibrator.

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement is one of important part of building construction. As we know that concrete is

good in compression but weak in tension, thus steel is reinforced with cement concrete. At our

site HYSD 415 is used. They are used for slabs, beams, columns and footings as the main

reinforcement. They are having rib face for grip to concrete. At our site section used were of

diameter

8, 10, 12,16,20, 25, 28, 32 etc.

Some descriptions of reinforcement:

MAIN STEEL:

It is provided at bottom. The number and diameter of main or longitudinal bars

depend upon load on the structure. The main bars are placed along shorter span.

DISTRIBUTION OF STEEL:

It is provided over main bars and in other direction of main bar and placed

along longer span. It helps in distributing the load properly and distributing temperature

stresses.

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BINDING WIRE:

It is used for binding steel bars. 600 wires used for 1 tone steel.

BINDER:

It is also known as under crank. It is used to bind crank and extra bars. It is usually 8mm

diameter.

DOWELS:

Main bars are extended beyond shuttering where the slab or column reinforcement may

extend. When the slab of adjoining portion or columns of upper storey get constructed, these

dowel bars are joined by new bars by providing proper lap length.

PLACING OF REINFORCEMENT:

The reinforcement is placed as specified in drawing. After shuttering the marks with chalk are

marked on shuttering plates which indicate the centre to centre distance of steel bars 1st main

bars are placed, similarly distribution steel are placed after marking its c/c distance. The cranks

are bent up at a distance of L/4 from the support or as specified otherwise. After this binder or

cranks are bonded, at a site 1 part up to, a portion of slab from where bars are bent up to a

length of extra. Extra are then binding on this binder above main steel bars. Chairs are then

placed below this so to maintain cover.

NORMAL AREA AND WEIGHT OF STEEL

General equation for calculating the weight of bar per meter length.

Weight of bar in Kg per metre length = D²/162

=2(dia. Of bar/18)²

Dia of bar Cross section Weight

8 50 .395

10 78.5 .617

12 113 .88832

16 201 1.579

20 314 2.469

25 491 3.858

28 616 4.839

32 804 6.321

CUTTING OF STEEL:

In the beginning the detailed schedule is made containing descriptions of length

of bars, diameter of bars, no. of bars considering the bending and then the bars are cut in

required length accommodating the bar length in resulting minimum scrap or wastage. No. of

bars are cut as per detailed schedule prepared at first. Bar cutting machine along with chisel,

base and hammer are required for cutting.

Clear cover used for different items are as:

Slab = 15mm

Beam = 25mm

Column = 40mm

Footing = 50mm

LAP LENGTH:

Steel bars available in the market are of length 11-14 meters. But sometime the length required

is more than the single bar length. At the joint of bar to develop the bend strength both the bars

are allowed to overlap. The lap length of member in two tensions is 40d and in compression it

is 50d. Where‘d’ is the dia of the bar which is to be lapped. But on our site the lap is used in

columns is 23.75d and in beams 50d.

EXTRA STEEL:

33

This includes chairs, spacers, supporting bars used in reinforcement of slab, beams and

footing. Chairs are used in slab in b/w top &bottom reinforcement so that it doesn’t sink due to

the load of concrete and vibrator. Spacers are used in beams where there are reinforcement bars

in two layers. It keeps the two layers of bars apart and distance constant. The points which are

to be checked before concreting are:

In columns- size of column, number of bar and diameter of bar are checked.

In beam- size of beam, number of bars, diameter of bars, diameter of links and

covering to the beam is checked.

In slab- diameter of bars, spacing of bars, bent up distance and covering to steel is

checked.

The lap lengths of joint bars are checked.

Typing of bars and rings to the steel is checked.

The ‘L’ a given to the bottom and top bar in beams and columns is also checked.

BAR BENDING SCHEDULE:

Bar bending schedule helps the site engineer and R.C.C. fitter to give the exact cutting

length of steel required for each member, i.e. beam, slab, columns etc. this reduces the wastage

of steel. With the help of bar bending schedule, site engineer can calculate exact quantity of

steel required for slab, beam & columns. A counter check on quantities, calculated by the site

engineer is also easy, when it is accompanied by bar bending schedule. R.C.C. fitter get

familiar with the bar cutting and bent-up bar lengths before cutting of steel and mistakes in

bending can be avoided. Bar bending schedule also help in checking the slab reinforcement.

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PROCEDURE FOR REINFORCEMENT WORK

(a) Procedure For Column Reinforcement:

Consider floor to floor height and lap length to be added into the length.

Cutting should be done first for the main reinforcement.

Cut the bars for rings of columns, to required length.

For lapping, make the joggle if bar diameter is more than 12mm.

(b) Procedure For Beam Reinforcement:

Fitters are generally takes the actual measurement of the beam after shuttering

and then proceed for the cutting of steel.

Cutting should be done beam wise and for the total no. of beams, required for

slab.

Then cutting of rings should be done.

Beam can be bound on fitter’s platform with the bent up bars.

Shift the bound beam to the shuttering of the slab.

Place these beams to the position with proper anchorage in the end columns.

For continuous beam, bent up bars should be properly extended in the adjacent

beams and tied with the binding wire.

Proper cover should be provided to the bottom and the side of the reinforcement.

Procedure For Slab Reinforcement :

Take the measurement of cutting length of the slab reinforcement and according the

cutting is done.

For continuous slab, consider the projection of bent-up bars in the adjacent slab

while calculating the cutting lengths of the slab.

Marking for c/c distance of the bars should be done on the slab plates with the help

of chalk.

Lay the main reinforcement as per the marking, but at bottom & to the shorter span.

Bent-up bars should be bent at the required length from support as per the type of

slab, i.e. continuous or simply supported etc.

Place the chair under every bent-up bar to maintain the top reinforcement at top. 35

ELECTRICAL CONDUITS

LAYING OF ELECTRICAL CONDUITS:

The spaces for the fan hooks, tube lights etc. as maintained on the layout plan are given to the

conduit laying team. These spaces are marked on the shuttering provided for the slab. The pipes

used a conduits are of two sizes; of diameter 1 inch and of dia. ¾ inch. The conduits pipes are

cut in desired length and screwed at both ends on the site itself. Then these are laid on the

shuttering and joined with each other forming the required network on the slab. At the fan

hooks, boxes having outlet of sizes of conduits are placed. Conduits end at main switches and

individual switches. Thus these boxes and pipes provided medium for laying electric wires in

slab long after the slab has been cast in concrete.

ELECTRICAL CONDUITS

Separate conduits are laid for following systems:

a) Normal light, fan b) Power points

c) AC points d) Internet wiring

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e) Fire alarm system

Deshuttering Of Formwork:

This is removal of forms after concreting is sufficiently hardened. Formwork must support

the concrete until it has become hard enough to takes it loads. Forms may be struck after

following period:

1. Wall, columns, vertical sides of beam days 24 hour

2. In horizontal direction

a) If the span is below 3m 07 days

b) Span b/w 3 to 4.5m 14 days

c) Span b/w 4.5 to 6m 21 days

d) Span more than 6m 28 days

The formwork should be planned and done in such a way that it can be removed with ease.

Oiling should be done properly on the shuttering plates so as to remove the plates with ease.

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FOUNDATION

CONCEPT OF FOUNDATION

The lowest part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the soil lying

underneath is called foundation.

The foundation of a structure is always constructed below ground level so as to increases the

lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion if the structure below ground level and

other artificial arrangements in the from of concrete block grillage, raft, piles, etc. at its base so

as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of

the soil laying underneath.

PURPOSES OF FOUNDATION:

All the engineering structure is provided with foundation at the base to fulfill the following

objects or purposes:

I. To distribute the load of structure over large bearing area so as to bring

intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.

ii. To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.

iii. To prevent the lateral movements of the supporting materials.

iv. To secure a level and firm bed for building operation.

v. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FOUNDATIONS :

The following factors affect the selection of foundation to be provided to different structure:

38

a. Types and intensity of loads acting on various parts of the structure, which may be

dead load, live load, snow load, etc.

b. Nature and bearing capacity of the soil in which the structure directly rests. After

obtaining the particulars, the selection of foundation to be provided to the particular

structure can be made.

TYPE OF FOUNDATIONS:

Foundation can be broadly classified into the two following categories.

i. Shallow foundations, ii. Deep Foundations

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ;

The foundation provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the

ground level is known as Shallow Foundation. The object of this type of foundation is to

distribute the structural load over a considerable base area at the foundation bed.

Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:

a. Spread footing or open trench foundations.

b. Grillage foundation.

c. Raft foundation.

d. Stepped foundation.

e. Inverted arch foundation.

RAFT FOUNDATION:

The foundation that covers the entire area under the structure is known as raft foundation.

It is made up of a thick Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C.) slab that covers the entire

area in the form of a mat. This type of foundation is used to construct heavy structures on

soft ground.

39

To construct this type of foundation, the entire area is due out to the specified depth and

300 mm wider than the actual area to be covered under construction. Initially, at the base

either a lime concrete or a cement concrete (1:18:16) is laid, then the reinforcement of

closely spaced bars are placed at right angles to each other. On the reinforcement, cement

concrete (1:2:4) is laid to a specific thickness. The raft foundation is constructed for school

buildings, offices buildings and residential quarters, where the safe bearing capacity of the

soil is low and the individually constructed spread footing is not effective.

COLUMNS

Column is a vertical member in compression and made up of R.C.C. The main function of the

column is to take the load coming from slab to beam & transfer the same to the foundation &

and then ultimately to the soil strata below the footing.

LAYOUT: .

A plumb bob is suspended from the first floor to the ground floor and distance measured

between plumb line and face of wall and column or any other structure. The measured distance

should be same on 1st floor. A line is marked on the 1st floor which is considered to be correct

40

one. Further layout of different units on the floor is carried out according to the mark line. For

marking cement mortar ratio of 1:4 are used and after placed wet mortar, dry cement is

sprinkled to dry quickly and to have clear marking. The markings are carried out with the help

of a thread. Each marking is checked by the site engineer before the casting of starter for the

column. Sometime the main bar of columns is shifted from its position while concreting. In

such case a joggling becomes necessary practice. Doing joggle is not a good construction.

Practice but I.S. allows 7cm shifting in 6m running length of column.

REINFORCEMENT FOR COLUMN :

The length of reinforcing bars is taken by adding floor to floor height and the lap length

required for the same bar diameter.

The steel for ties is cut according to bar bending schedule. The anchoring of columns ties is

also checked (6d) care is taken that ties are placed as per the arrangement show in the R.C.C.

drawing and according to mentioned c/c distance.

FORM-WORK FOR COLUMN:

Form-work of column is made up of steel plates or plywood with angle frame. According to the

size of column, sides for formwork are prepared by steel plates to which battens are fixed

vertically, 7 horizontally at short interval. But on our site plywood formwork is used for

columns, beams & slabs with angle steel frame on back side.

All the sides of formwork are oiled before fixing. First cap is prepared according to the

marking on slab. Then shuttering plates are placed in position. Proper supports, is then given by

props to the column shuttering from four sides. The plumb of column is checked by mean of

plumb bob. Correction, if any, is corrected by tightening or loosening the props used for

supporting.

The clamps are provided on the opposite faces of formwork. All supports are checked to be in

fixed position along with the stakes.

CONCRETING OF COLUMNS:

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Cement mortar (1:1.5) is pored before starting the concreting of column. Since the coarser

aggregates of concrete goes first to the bottom due to gravity, this rich mortar mix cover the

aggregates to avoid honey combing at the bottom of the columns.

The concrete of the mix M-40 is pored in to the formwork in layer of 20-30cm &properly

vibrated by needle vibrator. During concreting, the needle of vibrator is immersed 100mm in

concrete vibrates earlier. At every construction joint in column, a layer of cement slurry called

laitance on the top of set cement is removed & surface is kept rough to get proper bonding with

fresh concrete.

DESHUTTERING OF FORM-WORK:

Form-work of column is removed after 24 hours of the concreting. First of all the props

provided for supports are removed from all the sides of column. The clamps 7 yokes are

removed with hammer. Thus nuts of columns are opened & sides of the column form-work are

removed with crow bars in such a manner that edge of column doesn’t get damaged. If

honeycombing is appear, then all loose particles are removed with hammer & filled with rich

cement concrete of proportion 1:1:2 known as dry pack with the help of fingers pressing the

concrete inside the gap.

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BEAM AND SLAB

FORMWORK AND REINFORCEMENT OF BEAM

The fitters are ready with cutting of beam reinforcement along with the completion of the slab

and beam form-work. The fitter hangs the beam reinforcement and stirrups of beam are tied in

position according to the schedule of the beam. Then that reinforcement is lowered in the

position then the slab reinforcement starts. Cover blocks at the bottom of beam is fixed before

lowering of beam respectively. The development length and lap length is checked. Specified

cover should be given.

All stirrups are kept normal to the span of beam and is starting from 40mm distance from the

face of columns. The no. and hook to the stirrups of beams are checked. Stirrups of beam are

kept horizontal and at right angle to the side of the beam. The dowels for stair case flight are

checked.

After checking of reinforcement of external beam sides are fixed by supporting it with props

and are checked properly with plumb-bob and nylon string.

Generally lap is used 50d. But on our sit lap is used 23.75d for columns, 50d in slab and beams,

SLAB REINFORCEMENT:

Take the measurement of cutting length of the slab reinforcement and accordingly

the cutting is done.

For continuous slab, consider the projection of bent-up bars in the adjacent slab

while calculating the cutting lengths of the slab.

Marking for c/c distance of the bars should be done on the slab plates with the help

of chalk.43

Lay the main reinforcement as per the marking, but at bottom & to the shorter span.

Bent-up bars should be bent at the required length from support as per the type of

slab, i.e. continuous or simply supported etc.

Place the chair under every bent-up bar to maintain the top reinforcement at top.

CONCRETING:

Concreting of the slab is the major type of concreting, so there should be adequate stock of

material near the mixer. Vibrator, mixer should keep ready at the time of concreting. At our

site, slab concreting is carried by pump. For small concreting purposes, such as concreting of

lift, chajjas etc wee make use of trolley and manual concreting.

First shuttering of slab is cleaned with water. Cement slurry is poured at the junction of the

column; the level of the slab is marked on side plank by mean of nails and on column main

steel by mean of cello-tape.

First beam are concreted, up to slab deck and the slab is concreted, at joint rich cement slurry is

pored. Beam are filled with concrete is layer of 300mm and proper vibration is given and then

slab portion is filled with concrete. A wooden table like frame of the slab thickness is used to

get required slab thickness uniformly. The slab is leveled with a 150mm*100mm*100mm*

wooden joist called bottom, also there by compacting on the surface. The surface of slab

concrete is then finished with wooden floor and trowel. Checking of the level of slab must be

done time to time.

CHECKING LIST AFTER CONCRETING:

Deshuttering of outer beam after 24 hours.

Make small ponds in cement and sands (1:10) for ponding method curing of slab.

Check any waste of material like sand, metal and steel cut pieces.

Deshuttering of internal beam sides after 48 hours.

Curing of slab for minimum 7 days.

Paint the date of casting of slab, on the front beam.

Deshuttering of slab after 7, 14, 21 28 depending upon the span.

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Hacking of beam sides, bottom and slab bottom.

Checking all honeycombing surface

CURING OF THE SLAB:

Curing of the slab is done by ponding method. After completing the concreting of slab, next

day bays of cement mortar are prepared from the outer side of the gala and then water is

collected in it. Curing of the slab is done for minimum 7 days.

BRICK MASONRY

An assemblage of bricks properly bounded together with mortar is called brick masonry or

brick work. In this type of masonry, the bricks are arranged and bedded in mortar in such a

manner as to form a homogenous mass of the structure. In such a structure, the point or

other loads and stresses are dispensed and distributed throughout the mass without tending

to disintegrate the structure.

The mortar to be used in bricks masonry may mud mortar, lime mortar or cement mortar,

depending upon the class and strength of the desired work.

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BRICK:

An artificial masonry unit in the form of rectangular block of prepared lay is called a brick.

Bricks are manufactured by molding brick earth in rectangular blocks of uniform size and

shape, then drying and burning these blocks in a suitable clamp or kiln. The brick are

simply dried in the sun are known as sun dried or kachha brick, and those burnt in a clamp

or kiln are known as burnt or pucca bricks. Bricks are burnt to provide them strength and

durability.

Brick can be manufactured of any required shape and size. The actual size of brick is

190*90*90 mm. Their normal size is considered as 200 mm X 100 mm because it includes

the thickness of one mortar joint on each side of the brick.

TYPE OF BONDS IN BRICKWORK AND THEIR SUITABILITY:

The following are the different types of bonds use in brickwork:

a. English Bond h. hoop Iron Bond

b. Flemish Bond i. Facing Bond

c. Header Bond j. Dutch Bond

e. Garden Wall Bond l. Monk Bond

f. Raking Bond m. Brick-on-edge Bond

g. English Cross Bond n. Silver locks Bond

AT SITE, WE USE ENGLISH BOND

ENGLISH BOND:The bond having Headers and Stretchers laid in the alternate courses is

called English bond. In this bond a queen closer is placed after every quoin heard in the

header courses to break the continuity of vertical joints. This bond is considered as the

strongest bond and does not require any special attention in its formation. This bond is also

known as an Old English Bond.

SOME SALIENT FEATURES OF ENGLISH BONDS ARE GIVEN BELOW:

46

a. Header and stretchers are laid in alternate courses.

b. A queen closer is placed after every quoin header in the heading course when the

thickness of the wall is 200 mm or above. The length of queen closer is usually kept

equal to the thickness of wall.

c. The same course will show header or stretchers on face and back if the thickness of

wall is an even multiple of half brick.

d. Each alternate header in the heading course lies centrally over every stretcher of the

under laying stretching course.

e. Continuous vertical joints do not occur on the face as well as on inside of the structure.

f. The inner filling is done in header in the walls having thickness of 400 mm

STAIRCASE

It is a structure having steps and which provide movement b/w the floors.

It should be easily approachable from all the rooms of the building. Rise of the steps should be

easy. It should be neither too small nor too large.

Steps should be sufficient wise.

It should be strong, durable and stiff.

Wider steps are avoided as far as possible.

AT MY SITE DOG LEGGED STAIRCASE WAS USED.

WAIST SLAB: Waist slab 150mm thick of R.C.C.

FLIGHT: There are two flights in one flat.

STEPS: There are 14 &10 steps in basement flights.

SIZE OF STEPS: Tread-250mm, riser -178mm

WIDTH OF STAIRCASE: 1000mm

WIDTH OF LANDING: 1200 X 120Omm

FORM-WORK OF STAIRCASE:

After getting the sizes of the riser and tread, bottom of waist slab of flight & mid landing

was fixed at proper level. For this the length of extreme face of the staircase is marked parallel

47

to and from the centre line as per plan. Thus by fixing the one fixed face of staircase further

length of mid landing slab and were marked. For this the length of the flight & the length of

mid landing can be calculated from given riser and tread marking sectional elevation on graph

paper.

First mid-landing level was transferred on the column and then according to the depth of the

beam provided for mid-landing slab, cap was fixed on booth column.

Theses column were previously casted up to the bottom level of the beam and remaining

portion of the column casted with staircase. Now beam bottom and sides of the beam were for

mid-landing slab was fixed by supporting it with props. The level of mid-landing was checked.

From that the centering of waist slab of flight were fixed. Them proper supports were given by

props vertically as well as in inclined position, sides was fixed from both sides of the flight. On

this sides position of first step and last step was marked. The riser were fixed vertically b/w the

two sized by leaving waist slab thickness with the help of cleats. Nylon string was tied and

according to that all intermediate risers were fixed in position according to the marking. The

size of riser and tread were properly checked and thickness of waist slab was also checked.

Formwork for remaining portion of column and beam was all fixed.

REINFORCEMENT OF STAIRCASE:

The reinforcement of staircase were tied and completed in all manners before fixing the riser

according to R.C.C. design. All main bars and distribution steel were placed truly perpendicular

to each other and they were tied by binding wire. The reinforcement should properly checked

before concreting.

CHECKING OF STAIRCASE:

After placing of steel reinforcement, the riser was fixed at specified distance. The distance

indicates the tread. The tread were kept open as to permit the filling of concrete. Before

concreting all risers were checked that they are perfectly vertical or not. Checking of riser and

tread was done. The care was taken that there should be no gap as source of leakage of cement

slurry occurs while casting it. Clamps were fixed to the beam side.

CASTING OF STAIRCASE:

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Thick cement slurry was poured on the pervious roughed concrete face to achieve a firm

construction joint. The concreting was done by filling M-25 grade concrete from bottom step

and ended it to the last step, then proper vibration was given by needle vibrator and leveling

was done according to level.

CURING:

Curing for mid-landing was done by ponding and for step of staircase done by sprinkling of

water for 7 days.

DESHUTTERING:

Deshuttering of waist slab and mid-landing slab was removed after 14 days. While deshuttering

the staircase care was taken that the edge of steps mid-landing should not break.

ADVANTAGES OF R.C.C.STAIRCASE

They are good in fire resisting.

They are strong, durable and non-slippery and good looking in appearance.

Maintenance cost is practically nil.

In modern sky scraper construction which has always framed structure, R.C.C. stairs are

the only stairs which can be used.

They can be designed for any width, length and loading.

ROLE AS A TRAINEE AT THE SITE

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During the 6 months period of the industrial training, it is the duty of every trainee to take as

much as possible field knowledge at the site. A trainee has got training about the constructional

techniques, surveying methods & estimation of costs.

As a trainee on the site our role at the site is as follows:

1. To learn & perform cost estimation of the constructional materials & labor rates.

2. To learn & perform the layout operation of the different structural components with the help

of drawings.

3. To learn & perform the surveying process at the site.

4. To know about the constructional techniques of the components of Sub structure & Super

structure.

5. To help the site engineers & site in charges in performing different tasks at the site.

6. To keep an eye on the laborers performing the construction works at the site.

7. To ask relevant questions where needed to make the doubts clear.

8. To make daily report of the work done at the site for the daily dairy.

CONCLUSION

The entire period of industrial training has a good practical exposure of construction

work. At the end of three months of six months industrial training, I feel myself better equipped

to face the field problems of Civil Engineering branch related with the construction of the

buildings which are a lot more different from the hypothetical based theory which is taught to

the students in the college. This has given me the much needed field exposure to shape up my

thinking in a better way as a professional making me a lot more capable to face the challenges

in the field. It has provided explicit knowledge of carrying out of the various elements of the

construction work. Working with experienced Engineers like P.M. Mr. Tarun Dubey, Er. 50

Varun sharma, has enhanced my technical skills greatly for which I am grateful to them. Their

professional approach towards work is worth appreciable. These six months were very

worthwhile and apart from all, it has helped me getting acclimatized to the construction work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.S. 456:2000(Plain and Reinforcement Concrete)

Building Construction – By B.C.Punmia.

Building materials – By Rangawala

Treasure of R.C.C. Design – By S.S Bhavikatti

Surveying- By B.C Punmia

Estimation and Costing- By B.N Dutta

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