2 Air Pollutants Health Environ Effects

8/8/2019 2 Air Pollutants Health Environ Effects

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What are air pollutants?What are air pollutants?

1.1. Primary pollutantsPrimary pollutants (foreign matter(foreign matter

injected into the atmosphere by humaninjected into the atmosphere by human

activities.activities.

2.2. Secondary pollutantsSecondary pollutants (resulting from(resulting from

chemical transformations, typically withchemical transformations, typically with

primary pollutants and (often) sunlight.primary pollutants and (often) sunlight.

Air P ollutants:Air P ollutants:

1.1. Particulate Matter (PM) orParticulate Matter (PM) or

Total Suspended Solids (TSS)Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

2.2. Carbon Monoxide (CO)Carbon Monoxide (CO)

3.3. Nitrogen Oxides (Nitrogen Oxides (NOxNOx ))

4.4. Sulfur Oxides (Sulfur Oxides (SOxSOx))

5.5. Hydrocarbons (Hydrocarbons (H.CsH.Cs))

6.6. OzoneOzone

Effects on HealthEffects on Health

Effects on MaterialsEffects on Materials


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1. Particulate Matter1. Particulate Matter

PMPM

Solid or liquid particles with sizes from 0.005Solid or liquid particles with sizes from 0.005 100100 mm

General term isGeneral term is aerosolsaerosols

DustDustoriginates from grinding or crushingoriginates from grinding or crushing

FumesFumesare solid particles formed when vaporsare solid particles formed when vaporscondensecondense

SmokeSmokedescribes particles released in combustiondescribes particles released in combustionprocessesprocesses

SmogSmogused to describe air pollution particlesused to describe air pollution particles


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PM: SourcesPM: Sources

-- Natural:Natural:-- fires,fires,

-- volcanoes,volcanoes,

-- salty spraysalty spray

-- sand cyclonessand cyclones

-- ......

-- Anthropogenic:Anthropogenic:-- industrial activities,industrial activities,

-- miningmining

-- power plantspower plants

-- waste disposalwaste disposal

-- mobile sources (Pb)mobile sources (Pb)

-- ......

PMPM

PMPM--2.5 (1997)2.5 (1997)

< 2.5< 2.5 m diameterm diameter

Similar sources, butSimilar sources, but

tend to be moretend to be more

toxicologically activetoxicologically active

particlesparticles

EPA estimates newEPA estimates new

standard will savestandard will save

15,000 lives/yr15,000 lives/yr

PMPM--10 (1987)10 (1987)

< 10< 10 m diameterm diameter

fuel combustionfuel combustion(45%)(45%)

industrialindustrialprocessing (33%)processing (33%)

TransportationTransportation(22%)(22%)


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PM: Effects on HealthPM: Effects on Health Inhalable PM includes both fine and coarseInhalable PM includes both fine and coarseparticles.particles.

Coarse particlesCoarse particles aggravation of respiratory conditions, such asaggravation of respiratory conditions, such as

asthma.asthma.

Fine particlesFine particles increased hospital admissions and emergencyincreased hospital admissions and emergency

room visits for heart and lung diseaseroom visits for heart and lung disease increased respiratory symptoms and diseaseincreased respiratory symptoms and disease decreased lung functiondecreased lung function premature deathpremature death

Impact depends on particle size, shapeImpact depends on particle size, shape

and compositionand composition

Large particles trapped in noseLarge particles trapped in nose

Particles >10Particles >10 m removed inm removed in

tracheobronchialtracheobronchial systemsystem

Particles 2Particles 2 44 m most effectivelym most effectively

deposited in lungsdeposited in lungs

Particles


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Lead (Pb) ParticulatesLead (Pb) Particulates

Sources:Sources:

gasoline (historical)gasoline (historical)

metals processingmetals processing

Highest air Pb concentrationsHighest air Pb concentrations

in the vicinity of nonferrous and ferrous smelters,in the vicinity of nonferrous and ferrous smelters,

and battery manufacturers.and battery manufacturers.

Lead: Health EffectsLead: Health Effects

Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft tissues.Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft tissues.

Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous system,Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous system,

and other organs.and other organs.

Excessive exposure to Pb may cause neurologicalExcessive exposure to Pb may cause neurologicalimpairments, such as seizures, mental retardation,impairments, such as seizures, mental retardation,

and behavioral disorders.and behavioral disorders.

May be a factor in high blood pressure andMay be a factor in high blood pressure and

subsequent heart disease.subsequent heart disease.


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2. Carbon Monoxide2. Carbon Monoxide

Most abundant airMost abundant air

pollutantpollutant

Produced by incompleteProduced by incomplete

combustioncombustion

insufficient Oinsufficient O22 low temperaturelow temperature

short residence timeshort residence time

poor mixingpoor mixing

Major source (~ 77%) isMajor source (~ 77%) is

motor vehicle exhaustmotor vehicle exhaust

http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/co.html

COCO

Colorless and odorlessColorless and odorless

When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin inWhen inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in

blood to formblood to form carboxyhemoglobincarboxyhemoglobin,,

reducing the oxygen carrying capacityreducing the oxygen carrying capacity brain function reduced, heart ratebrain function reduced, heart rate

increased at lower levelsincreased at lower levels

asphyxiation occurs at higher levelsasphyxiation occurs at higher levels


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COCO

(Carbon monoxide: CO which attaches to blood cells, cuts off O(Carbon monoxide: CO which attaches to blood cells, cuts off O22))

-- Characteristics: CO colorless, odorlessCharacteristics: CO colorless, odorless

-- origination: in volcanoes fires naturallyorigination: in volcanoes fires naturally

-- automobiles: incomplete combustionautomobiles: incomplete combustion

-- furnaces, cigarettesfurnaces, cigarettes

-- Toxicity:Toxicity:

-- blood has an affinity for CO over oxygenblood has an affinity for CO over oxygen

--we suffocate from too much COwe suffocate from too much CO

COCO22 has not been regulated as a pollutant.has not been regulated as a pollutant.


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COCO


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Carbon monoxide is extremely hazardous to the pointCarbon monoxide is extremely hazardous to the point

of death with longof death with long--term exposure to even smallterm exposure to even smallconcentrationsconcentrations

3. Nitrogen Oxides:3. Nitrogen Oxides: NOxNOx

Bacterial action in the soil releases nitrousBacterial action in the soil releases nitrous

oxide (Noxide (N22O) to the atmosphere.O) to the atmosphere.

In the upper troposphere andIn the upper troposphere and

stratosphere, atomic oxygen reacts withstratosphere, atomic oxygen reacts with

the nitrous oxide form nitric oxide (NO).the nitrous oxide form nitric oxide (NO).


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National NOx EmissionsNational NOx Emissions

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%

Other

Ind. & Comm Fuel Comb.

Off road Mobile

Electric Utilities

Highway Vehicles

Health Effects ofHealth Effects ofNOxNOx

Exposure to NOExposure to NO22 concentrations above 5concentrations above 5 ppmppm for 15for 15minutes results in cough and irritation of theminutes results in cough and irritation of therespiratory tract.respiratory tract.

Continued exposure may produce an abnormalContinued exposure may produce an abnormalaccumulation of fluid in the lung (pulmonary edema).accumulation of fluid in the lung (pulmonary edema).

The gas is reddish brown in concentrated form andThe gas is reddish brown in concentrated form andgives a brownish yellow tint at lower concentrations.gives a brownish yellow tint at lower concentrations.

At 5At 5 ppmppm it has a pungent sweetish odor.it has a pungent sweetish odor.

The average NO2 concentration in tobacco smoke isThe average NO2 concentration in tobacco smoke isapproximately 5approximately 5 ppmppm..

Slight increases in respiratory illness and decrease inSlight increases in respiratory illness and decrease inpulmonary function have been associated withpulmonary function have been associated withconcentrations of about 0.10concentrations of about 0.10 ppmppm..


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ShortShort--term exposure at concentrations greater thanterm exposure at concentrations greater than3 parts per million (3 parts per million (ppmppm) can measurably decrease) can measurably decreaselung function.lung function.

Concentrations less than 3Concentrations less than 3 ppmppm can irritate lungs.can irritate lungs.

Concentrations as low as 0.1Concentrations as low as 0.1 ppmppm cause lungcause lungirritation and measurable decreases in lung functionirritation and measurable decreases in lung functionin asthmatics.in asthmatics.

LongLong--term lower level exposures can destroy lungterm lower level exposures can destroy lungtissue, leading to emphysema.tissue, leading to emphysema.

Children may also be especially sensitive to theChildren may also be especially sensitive to theeffects of nitrogen oxides.effects of nitrogen oxides.

EffectsEffects ofofNOxNOx onon Plants & MaterialsPlants & Materials

Seriously injure vegetation at certainSeriously injure vegetation at certain

concentrations.concentrations.

Effects include:Effects include:

Bleaching or killing plant tissue.Bleaching or killing plant tissue.

Causing leaves to fall.Causing leaves to fall. Reducing growth rate.Reducing growth rate.

Deteriorate fabrics and fade dyes.Deteriorate fabrics and fade dyes.

Corrode metals (due to nitrate salts formed fromCorrode metals (due to nitrate salts formed from

nitrogen oxides).nitrogen oxides).

Reduce visibility.Reduce visibility.


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Oxides of nitrogen, in the presence ofOxides of nitrogen, in the presence ofsunlight, can also react with hydrocarbons,sunlight, can also react with hydrocarbons,

forming photochemical oxidants orforming photochemical oxidants or smog.smog.

Also,Also, NOxNOx is a precursor to acidicis a precursor to acidic

precipitation, which may affect bothprecipitation, which may affect both

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

4. Sulfur Oxides (4. Sulfur Oxides (SOSOxx))

SOSO22, SO, SO33, SO, SO4422

formed duringformed duringcombustion of fuelcombustion of fuelcontaining sulfurcontaining sulfur

HH22S released isS released is

converted to SOconverted to SO22 1010 TgTg/yr natural/yr natural

sourcessources

7575 TgTg/yr/yranthropogenicanthropogenicsourcessources

http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/so2.html


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SO2 National EmissionsSO2 National Emissions

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Other

Mobile Sources

Industrial Processes

Other Fuel Comb.

Electric Utiilities

Health Effects ofHealth Effects ofSOxSOx

Sulfur dioxide not only has a bad odor, it canSulfur dioxide not only has a bad odor, it canirritate the respiratory system.irritate the respiratory system.

Exposure to high concentrations for shortExposure to high concentrations for short

periods of time can constrict the bronchi andperiods of time can constrict the bronchi andincrease mucous flow, making breathingincrease mucous flow, making breathingdifficult.difficult.

Children, the elderly, those with chronic lungChildren, the elderly, those with chronic lungdisease, and asthmatics are especiallydisease, and asthmatics are especiallysusceptible to these effects.susceptible to these effects.


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High concentrations of SOHigh concentrations of SO22 can result incan result in

temporary breathing impairment.temporary breathing impairment.

LongerLonger--term exposures to high concentrations ofterm exposures to high concentrations of

SOSO22, in conjunction with high levels of PM,, in conjunction with high levels of PM,

include respiratory illness, alterations in theinclude respiratory illness, alterations in the

lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existinglungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing

cardiovascular diseasecardiovascular disease

ShortShort--term exposures of asthmatic individuals toterm exposures of asthmatic individuals toelevated SOelevated SO22 levels may result in reduced lunglevels may result in reduced lung

function.function.

5. Hydrocarbons (HC)5. Hydrocarbons (HC)

Historically, the HC have been regarded as important toHistorically, the HC have been regarded as important tohuman health only through their role in the formation ofhuman health only through their role in the formation ofphotochemical oxidants.photochemical oxidants.

With the exception of the aromatics, HC have beenWith the exception of the aromatics, HC have beenconsidered toxicologically inert. In the 1980s, the EPAconsidered toxicologically inert. In the 1980s, the EPA

began a major effort to identify and regulate toxicbegan a major effort to identify and regulate toxicorganic compounds that we have lumped into the HCorganic compounds that we have lumped into the HCcategory.category.

Many of theMany of the polynuclearpolynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (aromatic hydrocarbons (PARsPARs))have been recognized as carcinogens for many years.have been recognized as carcinogens for many years.

Other air toxics, including pesticides, polychlorinatedOther air toxics, including pesticides, polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins, have also been identified.biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins, have also been identified.


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HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons that exist in the gas phase are generallyHydrocarbons that exist in the gas phase are generallyconsidered to be those with five or fewer carbon atoms.considered to be those with five or fewer carbon atoms.Methane andMethane and terpenesterpenes are the two major hydrocarbonsare the two major hydrocarbonsemitted by natural sources.emitted by natural sources.

Unlike methane, which results from decaying organicUnlike methane, which results from decaying organicmatter,matter, terpenesterpenes are released from living plants.are released from living plants.

TerpenesTerpenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. They are theare unsaturated hydrocarbons. They are thecompounds that give the characteristic scent to lemoncompounds that give the characteristic scent to lemonand pine.and pine.

The worldwide natural release of these twoThe worldwide natural release of these twohydrocarbons has been estimated to be 1.6hydrocarbons has been estimated to be 1.6 petagramspetagrams

(Pg).(Pg).

The major anthropogenic sources are partiallyThe major anthropogenic sources are partiallyburned gasoline and incinerator emissions.burned gasoline and incinerator emissions.

These sources account for 38 and 23 percent ofThese sources account for 38 and 23 percent ofthe global emissions, respectively.the global emissions, respectively. Gasoline evaporation, refinery losses, and solventGasoline evaporation, refinery losses, and solvent

evaporation account for another 27 percent.evaporation account for another 27 percent.

On a mass basis these sources amounted to 80On a mass basis these sources amounted to 80teragramsteragrams ((TgTg) in 1965H7) in 1965H7

Many of the hydrocarbons are oxidized.Many of the hydrocarbons are oxidized.

Several of the hydrocarbons are converted toSeveral of the hydrocarbons are converted toother organic compounds in the presence ofother organic compounds in the presence ofnitrogen oxides.nitrogen oxides.

Ultimately they may be converted to particles.Ultimately they may be converted to particles.


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Photochemical oxidantsPhotochemical oxidants

Although the photochemical oxidants includeAlthough the photochemical oxidants includeperoxyacetylperoxyacetyl nitrate (PAN),nitrate (PAN), acroleinacrolein,,peroxybenzoylperoxybenzoyl nitrates (nitrates (PBzNPBzN),), aldehydesaldehydes, and, andnitrogen oxides, the major oxidant is ozone (03).nitrogen oxides, the major oxidant is ozone (03).

Ozone is commonly used as an indicator of theOzone is commonly used as an indicator of thetotal amount of oxidant present.total amount of oxidant present. Oxidant concentrations above 0.1Oxidant concentrations above 0.1 ppmppm result in eyeresult in eye

irritation. At a concentration of 0.3irritation. At a concentration of 0.3 ppmppm, cough and, cough andchest discomfort are increased.chest discomfort are increased.

Those people who suffer from chronic respiratoryThose people who suffer from chronic respiratorydisease are particularly susceptible.disease are particularly susceptible.

Photochemical OxidantsPhotochemical Oxidants

Unlike the other pollutants, the photochemical oxidantsUnlike the other pollutants, the photochemical oxidantsresult entirely from atmospheric reactions and are notresult entirely from atmospheric reactions and are notdirectly attributable to either people or nature.directly attributable to either people or nature.

Thus, they are called secondary pollutants. They areThus, they are called secondary pollutants. They areformed through a series of reactions that are initiated byformed through a series of reactions that are initiated bythe absorption of a photon by an atom, molecule, freethe absorption of a photon by an atom, molecule, freeradical, or ion.radical, or ion.

Ozone is the principal photochemical oxidant. ItsOzone is the principal photochemical oxidant. Itsformation is usually attributed to the nitrogen dioxideformation is usually attributed to the nitrogen dioxidephotolytic cycle. Hydrocarbons modify this cycle byphotolytic cycle. Hydrocarbons modify this cycle byreacting with atomic oxygen to form free radicals (highlyreacting with atomic oxygen to form free radicals (highlyreactive organic species). The hydrocarbons, nitrogenreactive organic species). The hydrocarbons, nitrogenoxides, and ozone react and interact to produce moreoxides, and ozone react and interact to produce morenitrogen dioxide and ozone. This cycle is represented innitrogen dioxide and ozone. This cycle is represented insurmnarysurmnary form in Figure 6form in Figure 6--6. The whole reaction6. The whole reactionsequence depends on an abundance of sunshine. Asequence depends on an abundance of sunshine. Aresult of these reactions is the photochemicalresult of these reactions is the photochemicalsmogsmogforforwhich Los Angeles is famous.which Los Angeles is famous.


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Sulfur oxides (Sulfur oxides (SOxSOx) and total suspended) and total suspended

particulates (TSP)particulates (TSP) The sulfur oxides include sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfurThe sulfur oxides include sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur

trioxide (SO3), their acids, and the salts of their acids.trioxide (SO3), their acids, and the salts of their acids.Rather than try to separate the effects of SO2 and SO3,Rather than try to separate the effects of SO2 and SO3,they are usually treated together. There is speculationthey are usually treated together. There is speculationthat a definite synergism exists whereby fine particulatesthat a definite synergism exists whereby fine particulatescarry absorbed SO2 to the LRT. The SO2 in the absencecarry absorbed SO2 to the LRT. The SO2 in the absenceof particulates would be absorbed in the mucousof particulates would be absorbed in the mucousmembranes of the URT.membranes of the URT.

Patients suffering from chronic bronchitis have shown anPatients suffering from chronic bronchitis have shown anincrease in respiratory symptoms when the TSP levelsincrease in respiratory symptoms when the TSP levelsexceeded 350 jg/m3 and the SO2 level was above 0.095exceeded 350 jg/m3 and the SO2 level was above 0.095ppmppm. Studies made in Holland at an interval of three. Studies made in Holland at an interval of threeyears showed that pulmonary function improved as SO2years showed that pulmonary function improved as SO2and TSP levels dropped from 0.10and TSP levels dropped from 0.10 ppmppm and 230 jtg/m3and 230 jtg/m3to 0.03to 0.03 ppmppm and 80 1agJm3, respectively.and 80 1agJm3, respectively.

Oxides of Nitrogen (Oxides of Nitrogen (NONOxx))

Primarily NO and NOPrimarily NO and NO22

NONO33, N, N22O, NO, N22OO33, N, N22OO44,,

NN22OO55 are also known toare also known to

occuroccur

ThermalThermalNONOxx created bycreated byoxidation of atmosphericoxidation of atmospheric

NN22 when T > 1000 Kwhen T > 1000 K

FuelFuelNONOxx from oxidationfrom oxidation

of N in fuelof N in fuel

http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/no2.html


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WhatWhats in smogs in smog

particulates (especiallyparticulates (especially

lead)lead)

nitrous oxidesnitrous oxides

potassiumpotassium

Carbon monoxideCarbon monoxide

Other toxic chemicalsOther toxic chemicals

Oxides of Nitrogen (Oxides of Nitrogen (NONOxx))

NO has few health effects, but is oxidizedNO has few health effects, but is oxidized

to NOto NO22

NONO22 irritates lungs and promotesirritates lungs and promotesrespiratory infectionsrespiratory infections

NONO22 reacts with hydrocarbons in presencereacts with hydrocarbons in presence

of sunlight to produce smogof sunlight to produce smog

NONO22 reacts with hydroxyl radicals toreacts with hydroxyl radicals to

produce nitric acidproduce nitric acid acidacid precipitationprecipitation


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Photochemical SmogPhotochemical Smog

hydrocarbons +hydrocarbons +NONOxx + sunlight+ sunlight

photochemical smog (oxidants)photochemical smog (oxidants)

primaryprimary

oxidantsoxidants

produced:produced:

ozone (Oozone (O33))

formaldehydeformaldehyde peroxyacetylperoxyacetyl

nitrate (PAN)nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical SmogPhotochemical Smog


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Ozone: Health EffectsOzone: Health Effects Increased incidents of respiratory distress.Increased incidents of respiratory distress.

Repeated exposures to ozone:Repeated exposures to ozone:

Increased susceptibility to respiratoryIncreased susceptibility to respiratory

infectioninfection

Lung inflammationLung inflammation

Aggravation of preAggravation of pre--existing respiratoryexisting respiratory

diseases such as asthma.diseases such as asthma. Decreases in lung function and increasedDecreases in lung function and increased

respiratory symptoms such as chest pain andrespiratory symptoms such as chest pain and

cough.cough.

Health Effects of OzoneHealth Effects of Ozone

Ozone acts as a powerful respiratory irritant atOzone acts as a powerful respiratory irritant atthe levels frequently found in most of thethe levels frequently found in most of thenation's urban areas during summer months.nation's urban areas during summer months.

Ozone exposure may lead to:Ozone exposure may lead to: Shortness of breath.Shortness of breath. Chest pain when inhaling deeply.Chest pain when inhaling deeply. Wheezing and coughing.Wheezing and coughing.

LongLong--term, repeated exposure to high levels ofterm, repeated exposure to high levels ofozone may lead to large reductions in lungozone may lead to large reductions in lungfunction, inflammation of the lung lining, andfunction, inflammation of the lung lining, andincreased respiratory discomfort.increased respiratory discomfort.


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Ozone: Environmental EffectsOzone: Environmental Effects Ozone also affects vegetation andOzone also affects vegetation and

ecosystemsecosystems

reductions in agricultural andreductions in agricultural and

commercial forest yields ($0.5commercial forest yields ($0.5

billion/yr in US alone)billion/yr in US alone)

reduced growth and survivabilityreduced growth and survivability

of tree seedlingsof tree seedlings

increased plant susceptibility toincreased plant susceptibility to

disease, pests, and otherdisease, pests, and otherenvironmental stresses (e.g.,environmental stresses (e.g.,

harsh weather).harsh weather).

https://reader009.{domain}/reader009/html5/0528/5b0c156c341c8/5b0c157cd6d74.jpg

PM: Environmental EffectsPM: Environmental Effects

Decreased visibilityDecreased visibility

Damage to paintsDamage to paints

Damage to buildingDamage to buildingmaterialsmaterials


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SO2: Environmental EffectsSO2: Environmental Effects

Acid RainAcid Rain

Decreased Visibility

http://www.epa.gov/oar/vis/rockymtn.html

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