Caesar’s ‘Conquest’ Roman Perception of Britain

Romanization Begins

Answer

• Maiden Castle – 47 acres

400 yds.

Roman ‘Knowledge’ of Britain

• Reports of sailors – mainly Greek• Extrapolation from Gauls

Our Knowledge of early Roman Britain• Caesar• Tacitus (56-117), son-in-law of Agricola• Cassio Dio (~155-230)

Mediterranean Reports• C.600 IERNE (Ireland) and ALBION (Britain)

described in Massilia (Marseille)• 325 BCE Pytheas,a Phoenician claims he had

sailed around Britain • 135-150 BCE Posidonius, or Poseidonios - of Syria

writes about Druids• 56 BCE Diodorus Siculus combines accounts

CantiumBelerium

Orca

Posidonius’ Map (150-130 B.C.)

1638 rendering based loosley on his descriptionsEarth circumference ~18-24,000 miles

Tribes

Religion and some manifestations

• Causeways 1500-300 BCE• Deposits in waterways• Shrines 400 BCE-43 CE

– Often connected with later Romano-British temples

• Druids

Fiskerton, Causeway Excavation457-300 BCE

Fiskerton log boat

Trackway, Corlea

Iron Age Road?

Development of a ShrinePhases – Hayling Island

• Phase I: Two enclosures and pit ~50 BCE– Association with Belgae and Commius?

• Phase II Temple: Circular structure surrounds pit ~0-25 CE

• Roman Temple ~60 CE

Human Sacrifice

Human Sacrifice

Cauldron found In Denmark

Lindow Man

• Residence: Lindow Bog, Cheshire c. 50 [2 BCE – 119 CE] -1984

• Current residence: British Museum

Lindow man: forensics

• Male; Age, 25; Height, 5’7”; Weight, 135• Bearded; hair and beard cut recently; nails

well manicured • Last meal: Unleavened bread with a drink

containing mistletoe pollen

Lindow man: death

• Probable cause of death: 2 blows to the head with a heavy object; also strangulation by a thin cord; throat cut

• Motive: Religious sacrifice?

Druids

• Repository of traditional knowledge– Gods– Tribal Law

• Administration of justice.• Supervision of sacrifices. • Used lunar calendar.

Goddess?

Epona•Goddess of horses; fertility•Found throughout Romano-Celtic area

Celt and Roman Worldviews

• Nature• Human sacrifice

• Individualistic• Abstract• Higher status for women• Oral tradition

• Engineering• Execution

(abolished human sacrifice in 97 BCE)

• Organized• Realistic• Low status for women• Written tradition

Trade

Trade –Roman Influence

SE England

Oppida

• Administrative centers• Fortified• Industrial• Trading centers• Mints

Impending Clash

• Rivalry between tribes• Relationship with Gauls• Roman expansion into Gaul• An ambitious warrior - Caesar

Evolution of the Roman Army

Property owning farmersReform of Marius (107 BCE)- all citizensCavalry of alliesGovernment of provinces given to high officials

whose offices arose from wealth not ability. Officers of senatorial or equestrian rank.

91-89 BCE Italian property owners gain citizenship

Roman Legion

• One legion = Six to ten cohorts– First cohort ~800 men; others ~480 men– Legatus (senatorial rank)

• One cohort = Five to eight centuries– 80 men– Senior centurion

• One century = 8 contubernium (tent units)– Centurion/ optio

Invasion – 55 BCE

Legio VII Claudia Legio X Equestris

AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE

FromCAESAR’S INVASION OF BRITAINNS 293, U of ILLINOIS, NROTCCapt M. T. Carson, MOI

Captain M. A. Boccolucci, U of San Diego

Major Pfiester, Marquette University

Major Darin Clay U of Wisconsin

Captain Howell, University of Kansas

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Significant Points

In the first invasion, the Romans must fight ashore, actually fighting it out in the surf.

The campaigns, taken together, give a good example of how Caesar learned from his mistakes the first time out. i.e. specialized landing craft, larger force.

Caesar, Veniti and Britain

• Threat to trade• Veniti attack Roman fleet

– High, sturdy sailing vessels• Roman fleet

– Oared vessels• Use hooks to cut rigging

Model of Roman Trireme

Background

Cassivellaunus¨ Ruler in the S.E. of Britain¨ Subdued his eastern neighbors -- the “Trinovantes”

• Executed their King• Banished his son and heir --- “Mandubraces” --- to the

continent

¨ Mandubraces goes to Caesar’s Camp begging for help

¨ Caesar sends “Commius” --- to stir up trouble

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Policy Considerations

Caesar part of the Roman triumvirate, attacks Britain to enhance his reputation

Caesar’s area is Gaul, has trouble with the Gallic tribes, some leaders are using Britain as a refuge, some mercenaries are coming from there

Invades to punish Britons for helping Gauls. Invades to gain territory and fame

Political Aspects

Excitement of crossing the ‘Ocean’Keeps Caesar before the eyes of

Rome Letter to the Senate Commentaries

Intelligence Shortcomings

• Campaigns preceded by poor intelligence• Possible Sources

– Merchants – not forthcoming; warn Britons– Volusenus fails to find Richborough – Envoy, Commius, had influence with Atrebati but not tribes in

the area of invasion• Campaigns work as intelligence gathering – not as

conquest

Rose Mary Sheldon (2002): “Caesar, Intelligence, and Ancient Britain,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 15:1, 77-100

Capt. Carson, UIUC

First Landing August 55 B.C.

– Embarks two Veteran Legions [VII, X] and some cavalry.

– Launches following a “reconnaissance in force” • Could not land since force was too small and had been

observed

– Caesar sails from Boulogne to the Dover area. Sees British are there in force, so sails north for better beach

– He is tracked by British in chariots

Route

Capt. Carson, UIUC

First Landing (Cont)

– Finds a better beach by Deal– Must fight ashore

• Romans reluctant to leave ships– Hand to hand fighting in the surf

• Transport ships cruise parallel to the shore delivering supporting fire

• Romans finally secure a foot hold on dry land– After three weeks, Caesar re-embarks and

leaves, accomplishing little

Landing

Heroes

• The Eagle standard bearer• Caesius Scaeva – one man stand

The Fighting

– “Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of battle, our men did not all exert the same vigor and eagerness which they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground.”

– Caesar ordered …”the enemy to be beaten off and driven away, with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great service to our men “

– “All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish color, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight.

British and Roman Helmets

Artillery

Aftermath – First Invasion

• Envoys from enemy promise hostages• Commius returns, reporting ill treatment• Only two kingdoms provide hostages

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Preparations: 2nd Invasion

After building special flat-bottom, low freeboard, minimum draft landing craft, Caesar attacks again

5 legions (including veteran VII, X), plus 2,000 cavalry, for a total of about 22,000 troops

A total of 800 ships to include 28 warships

Opposing forces

2,000 war chariots Horses suitable for

chariots but not cavalry

Briefly united tribesSome knowledge of

Roman tactics “Indirect warfare”

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Second Invasion, July 54 B.C.Lands at the same beach

Lands unopposed; (Britons seeing the size of the force decide not to oppose)

Caesar immediately marches inland 12 miles, catching Britons off guard.

7th Legion attacks, hit with flank attack, but the veterans withstand, improvise and take position

Britons united under Cassivellaunus Storm damages Roman fleet. Not separate Naval

commander hurts repair effort. Lose 10 days.

Route

Bigbury

Capt. Carson, UIUC

The Land Campaign

Cassivellaunus divides force to attack base camp and to get main body to pursue Cassivellaunus sees Caesar’s extreme sensitivity to the

security of base camp Realizes even with chariots, cannot win pitched fight Caesar pursues, conducts masterful forced crossing of

Thames, sends cavalry around flanks, brings up supporting fires and conducts frontal assault

Capt. Carson, UIUC

The Land Campaign (Cont) Romans unable to force the Britons into a

pitched battle Roman base camp attacked, attack is beaten

off, but commander sends word to Caesar that he expects to be attacked again

Caesar leaves main body, rushes back, surveys situation and decides to abandon campaign

Caesar withdraws after receiving few hostages, and a promise of tribute

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Strategic Considerations

Virtually no strategic thought, at least for the first invasion. Land and take over. Little planning.

Was the first invasion a reconnaissance in force, or a true attempt to invade

For second invasion, Caesar comes to play, 5 legions a substantial force

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Operational ConsiderationsFirst invasion hindered by lack of plan

Few supplies, few troops, no landing craft Intelligence: recon force too small; no beach survey Deal chosen because looked good upon arrival No attempt at surprise

Second invasion; planned. Larger fleet, larger force Landing craft, faster debarkation, close to beach. Uses same beach, brings supplies.

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Tactical ConsiderationsFirst landing, no landing plan, fight in the surfGood fire support in the first landing, brought

the heavy stuff along on the cargo vessels.Once fight is joined and Romans are

organized, their superior training and fighting skills are apparent and they prevail.

The Britons chariots a factor until Romans learn how to counter

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Tactical Considerations (Cont)

Shortage of cavalry adequate recon and force screening difficult for Romans

Cassivellaunus conducts a textbook guerrilla fight Avoids decisive engagement Harasses foraging parties Strikes at the beachhead with a

sufficient force to cause alarm

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Technical Consideratons

First time, no landing craft, rectified the second time out.

Returned with the gunships, not as critical the second invasion.

Good use of heavy artillery in crossing the Thames.

Capt. Carson, UIUC

ConclusionsSecurity of beachhead and LOC to Gaul,

primary concerns for Caesar.Britons conduct guerrilla campaign,

Cassivellaunus able to recognize that he cannot conventionally defeat Romans. Wins without winning a battle.

Caesar commands both land and sea. Caused problems in 54 after the storm

Good naval gunfire support, earliest known example

Testudo

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Conclusions (Cont)

Somehow, Caesar’s reputation is not damaged.

Flexibility of Cassivellaunus - exploited Roman sensitivity to base camp

Crossing of Thames excellent example of supporting arms.

As veteran troops gain familiarity with new weapons(chariots in this case), they adapt tactics to cope or overcome the new system. The new weapon then loses most of its impact.

Conclusions (Cont)

Romans aware of the pitfalls of invasionOpportunity for Roman and Romanized

merchantsBritish leaders adopt aspects of Roman cultureBritish policy reflects events in Rome

“…a Celtic-Gallic midget called Asterix (fix meant "king" in Celtic… for about 20 years has been beating up on Romans all over the place-to the delight of

citizens who have never quite forgotten, or forgiven, Caesar”

Dora Jane Hamblin. Smithsonian, May 1993

An Opposing View

• Purpose was only Caesar’s greed• Loss of troops and ships• Leaving Gaul might have threatened Italy• Failure to find wealth (silver, gold, pearls?)• Britain’s only asset – barbarous slaves who can

neither write poetry or music

After Caesar leaves

• Conflict in Gaul– Troops disbanded to winter quarters however

• Approach of fall– Enough supplies to overwinter

• Uprisings in 53 and 52 in Gaul prevent return

Evaluations

• Success– 55 reconnaissance in force; 54 police action– Trading patterns established– Loyal allies cultivated– 90 years of peace

Evaluation

• Failure– No occupation for enforcement– Did not successfully counteract chariot guerilla

warfare– Did not gain access to mineral resources– Did not learn about agriculture, industry

Effects On Britain

• Subject to tribute• Roman ‘technical assistance’ leads to

improved coinage. • Those who aided Rome benefit economically• Those who opposed Rome wait their chances.

“British” Reaction

A kind of conquest Caesar made here; but made not here his brag Of 'came, and saw, and overcame.' With shame- The first that ever touch'd him- he was carried From off our coast, twice beaten; and his shipping- Poor ignorant baubles!- on our terrible seas, Like egg-shells mov'd upon their surges, crack'd As easily 'gainst our rocks

Queen, Cymbeline Act III, Scene 1