Caesar’s ‘Conquest’ Roman Perception of Britain
Romanization Begins
Answer
• Maiden Castle – 47 acres
400 yds.
Roman ‘Knowledge’ of Britain
• Reports of sailors – mainly Greek• Extrapolation from Gauls
Our Knowledge of early Roman Britain• Caesar• Tacitus (56-117), son-in-law of Agricola• Cassio Dio (~155-230)
Mediterranean Reports• C.600 IERNE (Ireland) and ALBION (Britain)
described in Massilia (Marseille)• 325 BCE Pytheas,a Phoenician claims he had
sailed around Britain • 135-150 BCE Posidonius, or Poseidonios - of Syria
writes about Druids• 56 BCE Diodorus Siculus combines accounts
CantiumBelerium
Orca
Posidonius’ Map (150-130 B.C.)
1638 rendering based loosley on his descriptionsEarth circumference ~18-24,000 miles
Tribes
Religion and some manifestations
• Causeways 1500-300 BCE• Deposits in waterways• Shrines 400 BCE-43 CE
– Often connected with later Romano-British temples
• Druids
Fiskerton, Causeway Excavation457-300 BCE
Fiskerton log boat
Trackway, Corlea
Iron Age Road?
Development of a ShrinePhases – Hayling Island
• Phase I: Two enclosures and pit ~50 BCE– Association with Belgae and Commius?
• Phase II Temple: Circular structure surrounds pit ~0-25 CE
• Roman Temple ~60 CE
Human Sacrifice
Human Sacrifice
Cauldron found In Denmark
Lindow Man
• Residence: Lindow Bog, Cheshire c. 50 [2 BCE – 119 CE] -1984
• Current residence: British Museum
Lindow man: forensics
• Male; Age, 25; Height, 5’7”; Weight, 135• Bearded; hair and beard cut recently; nails
well manicured • Last meal: Unleavened bread with a drink
containing mistletoe pollen
Lindow man: death
• Probable cause of death: 2 blows to the head with a heavy object; also strangulation by a thin cord; throat cut
• Motive: Religious sacrifice?
Druids
• Repository of traditional knowledge– Gods– Tribal Law
• Administration of justice.• Supervision of sacrifices. • Used lunar calendar.
Goddess?
Epona•Goddess of horses; fertility•Found throughout Romano-Celtic area
Celt and Roman Worldviews
• Nature• Human sacrifice
• Individualistic• Abstract• Higher status for women• Oral tradition
• Engineering• Execution
(abolished human sacrifice in 97 BCE)
• Organized• Realistic• Low status for women• Written tradition
Trade
Trade –Roman Influence
SE England
Oppida
• Administrative centers• Fortified• Industrial• Trading centers• Mints
Impending Clash
• Rivalry between tribes• Relationship with Gauls• Roman expansion into Gaul• An ambitious warrior - Caesar
Evolution of the Roman Army
Property owning farmersReform of Marius (107 BCE)- all citizensCavalry of alliesGovernment of provinces given to high officials
whose offices arose from wealth not ability. Officers of senatorial or equestrian rank.
91-89 BCE Italian property owners gain citizenship
Roman Legion
• One legion = Six to ten cohorts– First cohort ~800 men; others ~480 men– Legatus (senatorial rank)
• One cohort = Five to eight centuries– 80 men– Senior centurion
• One century = 8 contubernium (tent units)– Centurion/ optio
Invasion – 55 BCE
Legio VII Claudia Legio X Equestris
AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE
FromCAESAR’S INVASION OF BRITAINNS 293, U of ILLINOIS, NROTCCapt M. T. Carson, MOI
Captain M. A. Boccolucci, U of San Diego
Major Pfiester, Marquette University
Major Darin Clay U of Wisconsin
Captain Howell, University of Kansas
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Significant Points
In the first invasion, the Romans must fight ashore, actually fighting it out in the surf.
The campaigns, taken together, give a good example of how Caesar learned from his mistakes the first time out. i.e. specialized landing craft, larger force.
Caesar, Veniti and Britain
• Threat to trade• Veniti attack Roman fleet
– High, sturdy sailing vessels• Roman fleet
– Oared vessels• Use hooks to cut rigging
Model of Roman Trireme
Background
Cassivellaunus¨ Ruler in the S.E. of Britain¨ Subdued his eastern neighbors -- the “Trinovantes”
• Executed their King• Banished his son and heir --- “Mandubraces” --- to the
continent
¨ Mandubraces goes to Caesar’s Camp begging for help
¨ Caesar sends “Commius” --- to stir up trouble
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Policy Considerations
Caesar part of the Roman triumvirate, attacks Britain to enhance his reputation
Caesar’s area is Gaul, has trouble with the Gallic tribes, some leaders are using Britain as a refuge, some mercenaries are coming from there
Invades to punish Britons for helping Gauls. Invades to gain territory and fame
Political Aspects
Excitement of crossing the ‘Ocean’Keeps Caesar before the eyes of
Rome Letter to the Senate Commentaries
Intelligence Shortcomings
• Campaigns preceded by poor intelligence• Possible Sources
– Merchants – not forthcoming; warn Britons– Volusenus fails to find Richborough – Envoy, Commius, had influence with Atrebati but not tribes in
the area of invasion• Campaigns work as intelligence gathering – not as
conquest
Rose Mary Sheldon (2002): “Caesar, Intelligence, and Ancient Britain,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 15:1, 77-100
Capt. Carson, UIUC
First Landing August 55 B.C.
– Embarks two Veteran Legions [VII, X] and some cavalry.
– Launches following a “reconnaissance in force” • Could not land since force was too small and had been
observed
– Caesar sails from Boulogne to the Dover area. Sees British are there in force, so sails north for better beach
– He is tracked by British in chariots
Route
Capt. Carson, UIUC
First Landing (Cont)
– Finds a better beach by Deal– Must fight ashore
• Romans reluctant to leave ships– Hand to hand fighting in the surf
• Transport ships cruise parallel to the shore delivering supporting fire
• Romans finally secure a foot hold on dry land– After three weeks, Caesar re-embarks and
leaves, accomplishing little
Landing
Heroes
• The Eagle standard bearer• Caesius Scaeva – one man stand
The Fighting
– “Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of battle, our men did not all exert the same vigor and eagerness which they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground.”
– Caesar ordered …”the enemy to be beaten off and driven away, with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great service to our men “
– “All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish color, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight.
British and Roman Helmets
Artillery
Aftermath – First Invasion
• Envoys from enemy promise hostages• Commius returns, reporting ill treatment• Only two kingdoms provide hostages
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Preparations: 2nd Invasion
After building special flat-bottom, low freeboard, minimum draft landing craft, Caesar attacks again
5 legions (including veteran VII, X), plus 2,000 cavalry, for a total of about 22,000 troops
A total of 800 ships to include 28 warships
Opposing forces
2,000 war chariots Horses suitable for
chariots but not cavalry
Briefly united tribesSome knowledge of
Roman tactics “Indirect warfare”
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Second Invasion, July 54 B.C.Lands at the same beach
Lands unopposed; (Britons seeing the size of the force decide not to oppose)
Caesar immediately marches inland 12 miles, catching Britons off guard.
7th Legion attacks, hit with flank attack, but the veterans withstand, improvise and take position
Britons united under Cassivellaunus Storm damages Roman fleet. Not separate Naval
commander hurts repair effort. Lose 10 days.
Route
Bigbury
Capt. Carson, UIUC
The Land Campaign
Cassivellaunus divides force to attack base camp and to get main body to pursue Cassivellaunus sees Caesar’s extreme sensitivity to the
security of base camp Realizes even with chariots, cannot win pitched fight Caesar pursues, conducts masterful forced crossing of
Thames, sends cavalry around flanks, brings up supporting fires and conducts frontal assault
Capt. Carson, UIUC
The Land Campaign (Cont) Romans unable to force the Britons into a
pitched battle Roman base camp attacked, attack is beaten
off, but commander sends word to Caesar that he expects to be attacked again
Caesar leaves main body, rushes back, surveys situation and decides to abandon campaign
Caesar withdraws after receiving few hostages, and a promise of tribute
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Strategic Considerations
Virtually no strategic thought, at least for the first invasion. Land and take over. Little planning.
Was the first invasion a reconnaissance in force, or a true attempt to invade
For second invasion, Caesar comes to play, 5 legions a substantial force
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Operational ConsiderationsFirst invasion hindered by lack of plan
Few supplies, few troops, no landing craft Intelligence: recon force too small; no beach survey Deal chosen because looked good upon arrival No attempt at surprise
Second invasion; planned. Larger fleet, larger force Landing craft, faster debarkation, close to beach. Uses same beach, brings supplies.
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Tactical ConsiderationsFirst landing, no landing plan, fight in the surfGood fire support in the first landing, brought
the heavy stuff along on the cargo vessels.Once fight is joined and Romans are
organized, their superior training and fighting skills are apparent and they prevail.
The Britons chariots a factor until Romans learn how to counter
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Tactical Considerations (Cont)
Shortage of cavalry adequate recon and force screening difficult for Romans
Cassivellaunus conducts a textbook guerrilla fight Avoids decisive engagement Harasses foraging parties Strikes at the beachhead with a
sufficient force to cause alarm
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Technical Consideratons
First time, no landing craft, rectified the second time out.
Returned with the gunships, not as critical the second invasion.
Good use of heavy artillery in crossing the Thames.
Capt. Carson, UIUC
ConclusionsSecurity of beachhead and LOC to Gaul,
primary concerns for Caesar.Britons conduct guerrilla campaign,
Cassivellaunus able to recognize that he cannot conventionally defeat Romans. Wins without winning a battle.
Caesar commands both land and sea. Caused problems in 54 after the storm
Good naval gunfire support, earliest known example
Testudo
Capt. Carson, UIUC
Conclusions (Cont)
Somehow, Caesar’s reputation is not damaged.
Flexibility of Cassivellaunus - exploited Roman sensitivity to base camp
Crossing of Thames excellent example of supporting arms.
As veteran troops gain familiarity with new weapons(chariots in this case), they adapt tactics to cope or overcome the new system. The new weapon then loses most of its impact.
Conclusions (Cont)
Romans aware of the pitfalls of invasionOpportunity for Roman and Romanized
merchantsBritish leaders adopt aspects of Roman cultureBritish policy reflects events in Rome
“…a Celtic-Gallic midget called Asterix (fix meant "king" in Celtic… for about 20 years has been beating up on Romans all over the place-to the delight of
citizens who have never quite forgotten, or forgiven, Caesar”
Dora Jane Hamblin. Smithsonian, May 1993
An Opposing View
• Purpose was only Caesar’s greed• Loss of troops and ships• Leaving Gaul might have threatened Italy• Failure to find wealth (silver, gold, pearls?)• Britain’s only asset – barbarous slaves who can
neither write poetry or music
After Caesar leaves
• Conflict in Gaul– Troops disbanded to winter quarters however
• Approach of fall– Enough supplies to overwinter
• Uprisings in 53 and 52 in Gaul prevent return
Evaluations
• Success– 55 reconnaissance in force; 54 police action– Trading patterns established– Loyal allies cultivated– 90 years of peace
Evaluation
• Failure– No occupation for enforcement– Did not successfully counteract chariot guerilla
warfare– Did not gain access to mineral resources– Did not learn about agriculture, industry
Effects On Britain
• Subject to tribute• Roman ‘technical assistance’ leads to
improved coinage. • Those who aided Rome benefit economically• Those who opposed Rome wait their chances.
“British” Reaction
A kind of conquest Caesar made here; but made not here his brag Of 'came, and saw, and overcame.' With shame- The first that ever touch'd him- he was carried From off our coast, twice beaten; and his shipping- Poor ignorant baubles!- on our terrible seas, Like egg-shells mov'd upon their surges, crack'd As easily 'gainst our rocks
Queen, Cymbeline Act III, Scene 1