2006 Settles ISFV

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12TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FLOW VISUALIZATIONSeptember 10-14, 2006, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Gttingen, Germany

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ABSTRACT

This paper describes a new series of 10-15 minute narrated videos that use flow visualization to

illustrate basic fluid mechanics concepts. These videos are distributed in DVD form accompanyinga basic fluids textbook. Fluid mechanics is fundamentally visual, and visual topics can be taught by

modern multimedia methods. Our philosophy of thus providing a glimpse through the researchlaboratory window, as an adjunct to the textbook but not a replacement for it, is described andillustrated. The effort was sponsored by the US National Science Foundation.

This instrument can teach, it can illuminate; yes, and it can even inspire.-Edward R. Murrow, Chicago, October 15, 1958

1 INTRODUCTION

Funded by US National Science Foundation Grant DUE-0127219, we are producing a series of 10-15 minute digital videos that use flow visualization to illustrate basic fluid mechanics concepts.

These videos are distributed to teachers and students as a supplemental multimedia course-materialDVD bundled with a new undergraduate engineering textbook [1].

Engineering texts are nowadays expected to be accompanied by a supplemental multimediaDVD disk to enhance the learning process. Some fluids textbooks already in print providecollections of brief illustrative video clips without soundtracks, but this format falls short of our goalto provide a clear and coherent glimpse through the research laboratory window to supplement thesometimes-dry treatment of the typical textbook.

Our vision is to produce videos that appeal intuitively to student and teacher by way of flowvisualization (experimental and computational), providing a visual link with the textbook whileillustrating real-life applications. This invokes the confluence of two potent ideas: fluid mechanics isfundamentally visual, and visual things can be taught by modern multimedia. Much of the present

paper is devoted to the mechanics of how to go about making this happen effectively. The paper isbased in part on the Penn State Senior Honors Thesis of Gabrielle Tremblay [2].

In what follows, the models upon which this effort is based are first reviewed, including someof the literature on visual educational aids. Then we describe our first proof-of-concept effort thatproduced a compressible-flow-visualization CD-ROM, followed by the current textbook-illustrationproject. Many example images of visualized flows are shown, along with the apparatus necessary toobtain them. The paper concludes with early evaluation results of the educational value of suchmaterials and our plans for future work along the same lines.

TEACHING FLUID MECHANICS WITH FLOW

VISUALIZATION VIDEOS

G. S. Settles, G. Tremblay, J. M. Cimbala, L. J. Dodson, and J. D. Miller

Mechanical & Nuclear Engineering Dept., The Pennsylvania State University,

University Park, PA 16802 USA

Keywords: Fluid dynamics, flow visualization, education, video, NSF


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2 PRECEDENTS AND MODELS

The most important precedent and model for this work is the NSF-funded 1960s NationalCommittee for Fluid Mechanics Films (NCFMF) effort, which cost $3 million and resulted in 39

16mm movies superbly illustrating many fluid-flow concepts [3]. These films have been transcribedto videotape (distributed by Britannica Inc.) and are still useful today. They have been the goldstandard of fluid mechanics films for almost a half-century. However, changes in the nature ofmedia over that many years make such films less attractive now as a learning tool. They are inblack-and-white, are dated, proceed linearly from beginning to end as illustrated, taped lectures, andare not interactive. Many of these drawbacks can be overcome by modern multimedia formatting.Still, important lessons, such as the proper inclusion of voice-over dialog, are to be learned from thisexcellent NCFMF series. The preface to the series begins: Since things in motion sooner catch theeye than what stirs not. (Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida).

Prof. Milton Van DykesAlbum of Fluid Motion [4] is another key precedent and model for thecurrent effort. It contains 279 high-quality printed flow images, each with a brief descriptive caption

and a reference to be consulted for more detail. It was conceived as a visual supplement to texts onfluid mechanics, and it has fulfilled that role superbly for over 20 years, providing a resource forteachers and students alike. Though it exists only in print form, its emphasis on imagery without anyattempt to repeat or supplant the normal text material is seen by us as the best model for a fluidmechanics textbook supplement. Moreover, it is available at low cost to teachers and students alikewithout any formal program for its use or any combination with curricula, yet it is widely used andpraised for its utility. It is the textbook of Hertzberg and Sweetmans groundbreaking course onflow visualization [5].

A recent precedent is the NSF-fundedMultimedia Fluid Mechanics [6]. Its modular CD-ROMformat emphasizes brief, interlinked, interactive modules including both text and visuals, each beingone screen length in size. It also includes a library of brief video clips collected from various

sources. Multimedia Fluid Mechanics is a stand-alone product that students purchase separatelyfrom their course textbook. Our approach differs in that we include no textbook text in our purely-visual video materials, we shoot mostly original footage, and all our videos feature natural sound aswell as voice-over narration and an occasional musical sound track where appropriate.

Finally we have also drawn inspiration from the films of Charles and Ray Eames [7], who sawfilm-making as part of a lifetime creative venture that spanned art, design, architecture, and science.

3 THE ROLE OF VISUAL AND COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS

The value of visual materials in conveying technical concepts was very well established long ago(e.g. [8,9]). Educational films, though previously requiring clumsy projection equipment, have beenstaple classroom supplements for many years across all grade-school and college levels. This visualtradition naturally transitions into modern computer-based multimedia learning aids. According toHmelo et al. [10], Multimedia is particularly powerful in engineering education for allowingstudents to visualize various dynamic physical phenomena. Montgomery [11] found thatmultimedia software favors visual learners over verbal learners, but expected the latter to build abetter visual context from such materials. Multicolor line drawings [12] were found superior to thestandard monochrome ones in conveying scientific concepts. Although few fluid mechanicstextbooks employ color, it can be used to great advantage in a video supplement to the text.


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TEACHING FLUID MECHANICS WITH

FLOW VISUALIZATION VIDEOS

The need for and value of computer-based learning materials in SMET education is supportedby a broad range of research findings. For example, Gil-Perez [13] lamented In spite of the greatimportance assigned to experimentation, science teaching remains purely bookish. Tobin et al. [14]also remarked that Unfortunately, most studies of classrooms have shown students do not have

many opportunities for direct experience with phenomena." Kozma [15] found help in the fact thatThe transformation capabilities of the computer connected the symbolic expressions of graphs tothe real-world phenomena they represent. Baird [16] noted that the success of computer-basededucational materials requires low cost, availability, and compatibility with common computerhardware. The Vanderbilt Cognition and Technology Group (as cited in [17]), which dealt withvideodisk-based materials before the advent of the CD-ROM or DVD text supplement, observed thatthese materials helped students develop pattern-recognition skills, rich mental models, and dynamic,visual, spatial perceptions. This was found especially valuable for low-achieving learners. Marshand Kumar [18] noted in particular that hypermedia allows learners to explore in a nonlinear fashion,a feature that many education researchers have recognized and applauded. Berger et al. [17] foundthat this allowed more student involvement in determining their own learning and discovering on

their own, and that it fostered critical, original, flexible thought. They concluded: It is clearthatthe future of instructional technology lies with the ability to use multimedia to provide supportinginstruction experiences. Pea [19] showed results indicating that the student retains more newknowledge through actively participating in the instruction via multimedia than by just listening to alecture. Finally, the National Research Council Committee on Undergraduate Science Education[20] noted that computer-based educational materials give the opportunity for simulated labexperiments, and concluded that the great advantage of multimedia systems is that a combinedaudio and visual explanation helps students to learn and remember.

4 PROOF-OF-CONCEPT EFFORT

According to NSF Division of Undergraduate Education protocol, a proof-of-concept effort isrequired before any full-scale development of educational materials. This was proposed and fundedfor the calendar year 2001 as NSF Award Abstract # 9952653, Compressible Flow Visualization, aCD-ROM for Engineering Education.

Fig. 1 - Selected still frames from a video sequence, produced during our Proof-of-Concept Grant, showing the

detachment of an oblique shock wave from a cone with increasing cone half-angle (20-60 ) in airflow at Mach 3. Theflow from left to right is imaged by schlieren videography, and the original video is in motion and color withaccompanying wind tunnel sound effects. The detachment of an oblique shock wave from a cone is usually illustrated influid-dynamics texts by line drawings of the attached and detached cases, which tells the student nothing about thedynamics of the process. Students (per the CD-ROM evaluation results) learn here that shock detachment occursgradually rather than popping forward exactly at the theoretical detachment angle of 49 degrees. (Because NSFsFastlane proposal submission system only accepts black-and-white illustrations, the original color version has been lost.)


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The effort resulted in a CD-ROM supplement for undergraduate compressible-flow classes in whicha variety of difficult-to-learn topics were visually illustrated with digital video footage shot in thesupersonic wind tunnel facility of the Penn State Gas Dynamics Laboratory. The video footage wasintegrated using 1st-generation HTML code written in-house. This educational material was not

nationally distributed, but was produced by Penn State University for limited distribution, evaluated,and then subsumed into the result of the full-development NSF award, to be described below. Anyinstructor teaching compressible flow can obtain a copy of this CD-ROM without charge bycontacting Lori Dodson at [email protected]. Results were presented at the 2000 APS/DFD meeting[21]. Several still-frame examples of the work are shown here in Figs. 1-4.

Fig. 2 - Still frame from color schlieren video sequence of a Space Shuttle Orbiter model in the Penn State SupersonicWind Tunnel at Mach 3 being rolled about its longitudinal axis, produced during our Proof-of-Concept NSF Grant.

Fig. 3 - NSF-sponsored CD-ROM containing compressible-flow visualization videos. Available to compressible-flowinstructors by contacting Lori Dodson at [email protected].


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Fig. 4 Collage of compressible-flow visualization color schlieren video still-frames from our proof-of-concept effort.a) normal shock in wind-tunnel test section at Mach 1.5, b) Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan at Mach 2.4, c) wedge flowfieldand d) cone flowfield at the same freestream Mach number = 3, e) wedge flowfield at Mach 2 and f) Mach 4.

5 FULL-DEVELOPMENT EFFORT

Based on the above proof-of-concept results a full-development grant was proposed to NSF in 2001,and was funded for 2002-2005 as NSF Award Abstract #0127219, Thermofluid Dynamics: CD-ROMs for Engineering Education. This effort sought to produce supplemental multimedia coursematerial of broader scope than before, and to achieve national distribution. Early in the awardperiod, discussions began with representatives of McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc. Their newflagship fluid mechanics text, engel-Cimbala [1], is co-authored by one of us (JMC). It arose fromthese discussions that engineering texts are now expected to be accompanied by a supplemental


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multimedia disk to enhance the learning process, and that we had the opportunity to supply thatmaterial for the engel-Cimbala textbook. It meant shifting our priority somewhat from thermofluidmechanics to basic, incompressible fluid mechanics, but that was in fact suggested by the NSFReview panel who recommended funding our full-development award. It was agreed that the result

of our efforts would be bundled with the McGraw-Hill textbook upon its release in the form of aStudent Resources DVD disk.

While our goal has never been to wed our educational materials inescapably to a single text, wenonetheless seized this opportunity to achieve the national distribution that is an absoluterequirement for success in NSFs DUE programs. Still, we strove to produce stand-aloneeducational videos that could be with minimal reformatting used with other texts or bythemselves in the classroom.

Early on, it was necessary to decide upon a format. Other basic fluids textbooks already inprint, e.g. Munson et al. [22], provide a large collection of brief illustrative video clips withoutsoundtracks. This simple format, of itself, falls short of our goal to provide a clear and coherentglimpse through the research laboratory window, with narration, to supplement the sometimes-dry

treatment by a textbook. Rather, our paradigms are those set forth in Sec. 2 above.The engel-Cimbala textbook [1] consists of 15 chapters, beginning with an introduction tofluid mechanics and ending with more-specialized chapters on topics like turbomachinery and CFD.We approached the task of producing videos to illustrate the book on a chapter-by-chapter basis.

For each chapter, an initial outline of needed visualizations preceded the shooting of therequired footage. For continuity, some 90% of the required footage was shot in the Penn State GasDynamics Laboratory. Sometimes elaborate test rigs such as a soap-film wind tunnel wereconstructed as described further below. Outside footage was limited to the occasional use of NASA,NOAA, DOE, or DOD material from the public domain. On even rarer occasions we foundappropriate and useful footage by other investigators footage that we could not shoot ourselves and requested permission to use it with proper acknowledgement. Finally, CFD animations of fluid

flows were incorporated where appropriate, usually to compare experiment with computation.Based on a storyboard, a draft script for the narration of each video was written. Timing wasestablished by having the narrator (GSS) read the draft script while the assembled video clips wereplayed on a computer monitor using Adobe Premiere Software. Script and video were then edited toachieve proper time correspondence. The final narration track was recorded and then integrated withthe video using Adobe Premiere to produce a full-resolution avi file, later compressed to an mpegfile for inclusion in the final distribution DVD.

When completed, the individual chapter videos were provided to McGraw-Hill who producedthe distribution DVD that includes a user interface produced in Macromedia Director (Fig. 5). Thusfar, five separate narrated chapter videos have been produced, namely Introduction, FluidKinematics, Fluid Properties, Fluid Statics, and Dimensional Analysis & Similarity. Fig. 6 shows

still frames excerpted from these videos. An excerpt from the script forIntroduction is given below:Welcome to the ancient and modern field of fluid mechanics! Fluid flows (gases orliquids) are all around us, from the very small to the very large, from the very slow to the very fast.Fluid mechanics is important in everything from sports and recreation, to transportation, to nationaldefense. There are fluid flows inside our bodies as well as other fluid flows outside. Were going tostart by introducing a wide variety of fluid flows, both experimental and computational, anddiscussing how these flows are classified..


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Fig. 5 - a) cover of engel-Cimbala [1] b) DVD bundled with engel-Cimbala [1] c) DVD screen capture showing thefive chapter videos and the final frame (NSF acknowledgement) of the Introductory chapter video.


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Fig. 6 (previous page) Mosaic of selected still frames from the 5 videos produced thus far: a) supersonic Laval nozzle flow, fromIntroduction. b) laser-sheet slice of turbulent smoke, from Introduction. c) Ludwig Prandtl, a father of fluid mechanics, fromDimensional(artwork by GSS), d) schlieren image of hair-dryer airflow, from Fluid Kinematics, e) hydraulic jump, used in bothFluid Kinematics and Dimensionalf) milk-drop splash, used in both Fluid Kinematics and Fluid Properties, g) mixing of colorpaints, fromFluid Kinematics,h) rod-climbing non-Newtonian fluid, fromFluid Properties, i) ripple-tank simulation of sound waves,from Dimensionalj) schlieren image of the human thermal plume, used in both Introduction and Fluid Kinematics, k) Venturi

nozzle with water flow, from Fluid Statics, l) schlieren image of salt fingers, from Fluid Properties, m) Sir Isaac Newton and thedefinition of Newtonian-fluid viscosity (artwork by GSS), from Fluid Properties, n) model dam spillway, used in bothFluid Staticsand Dimensionalo) CFD simulation of vortex shedding from a cylinder, from Fluid Kinematics, p) CFD simulation of model oil rigand wave motion, fromDimensional Analysis & Similarity.

5.1 Experimental Apparatus

In addition to the Penn State Supersonic Wind Tunnel, mentioned earlier, several other specializedexperimental setups were required in order to produce the footage for the subject videos. A schlierenoptical system based on a 1m-diameter parabolic mirror [23] was used for several visualizations (e.g.Fig. 6 frames d and j). A soap-film wind tunnel, Fig. 7a, was constructed in order to reveal 2-Dvortex shedding about a cylinder. A ripple tank, Fig. 7b, was constructed to illustrate the Froude

number and the analogy with subsonic, transonic, and supersonic gas flows. A vintage smoketunnel, Fig. 7c, was reconditioned and put to use to illustrate streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines.Laser-sheet illumination was provided by a 3W argon-ion laser and a cylindrical lens. Finally aKodak Ektapro HRC1000 camera yielded color video footage at up to 1000 frames/sec. In Fig. 6,frames b, f, and i show typical laser-sheet, Ektapro, and ripple-tank results. Typical soap-film windtunnel and smoke tunnel results are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7 a) schematic of soap-film wind tunnel, b) schematic of ripple tank, c) photograph of smoke tunnel.


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Fig. 8 left) soap-film wind tunnel, image of Karman vortex shedding from a circular cylinder, right) smoke tunnel video frame offlow about a rotating flat plate, where overlaid colored lines denote streamlines (yellow), a streakline (red), and a pathline (blue)

5.2 Production Values

We have evolved a philosophy of production values for our videos that emphasizes motion, color,sound, narration, and occasional music while avoiding excesses or calling undue attention to themedium itself. The thermal sciences have an innate visual elegance whose appeal is too easilyspoiled by animated monkeys dancing to an acid rock soundtrack, or the like. We use simple cuts orfades to join video clips, never the fancy distracting ones. Artwork (see Fig. 6) is used whennecessary to illustrate a concept or an equation, but is carefully not overused. The flow visualizationitself is always the star of the show.

Future work (Sec. 6 below), if funded, will be shot in High-Definition (HDTV) digital format.HDTV is scheduled to become the US national broadcast standard in 2009, replacing the 1941-

vintage NTSC 525-scan-line TV standard with a broader aspect-ratio video frame and more thantwice the vertical resolution. We anticipate educational uses for our proposed work to continue formany years, thus it is important not to burden the raw footage with a video format that is about tobecome obsolete. Just one of the many benefits of the HDTV format is that single frames can beextracted from it with sufficient resolution to make fully-acceptable photographic-quality textbookillustrations.

5.3 Evaluations

To date, faculty evaluator comments have been overwhelmingly in favor of our narrated-videoformat compared to un-narrated supplemental videos. A survey of student opinions revealed that 85-

90% claimed that the videos added to their learning experience. In written comments, theyresponded strongly to the visual presentation of the topic and the real-life examples shown. Motioncues in the video provided them with insight they could not gain from text illustrations. Severalstudents remarked that the videos helped them connect the math with the actual fluid motion.(Substantial literature shows that questionnaires can be valid and reliable means of evaluation, e.g.Hinton [24]).

However, an important issue was raised by faculty-evaluator comments: evaluators were almost2:1 in favor of random access to specific video clips rather than solely our one-video-per-chapter


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format. We believe random access is important to the teacher but the continuity of the chapter videoformat is likewise important to the student. Providing both is an interface issue rather than afundamental one. For example, random access to desired clips can be built into the interface designusing Macromedia Director, while preserving the overall chapter video format. Another solution is

to provide a video-clip library in addition to the chapter videos. Either way, this problem will besolved in future embodiments of the work presented here.

Our national-dissemination partner, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, automatically carries outassessments of their products as a matter of policy. These are typically quite diverse and elaborate(e.g. a multi-institution, 72-faculty evaluation of an early stage of our videos), and we have someinput into the questions posed to the evaluators. Therefore this is also an important evaluationmechanism for us. Some 3700 copies of engel-Cimbala [1] were sold by McGraw-Hill in 2005,insuring that our work reaches a broad audience consisting of hundreds of faculty and thousands ofstudents, both in the US and in other countries.

6 FUTURE WORK

The project continues with the eventual goal of illustrating each of the 15 chapters of engel-Cimbala [1] with a flow visualization video. It is has been proposed to NSF to do so, and also tobroaden the applicability of our work by applying it to introductory heat transfer andthermodynamics as well. There are many textbooks in this field, including at least 13 published byour partner, McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Thus, by further developing our library of videoillustrations of thermal-science phenomena, we will be able to combine these in various formats toillustrate a variety of textbooks by way of bundled DVD video supplements.

Based on the success of the effort to date and the strong precedents cited earlier, we willcontinue to avoid duplicating any text material or derivations, but rather maintain our purely-visualand aural approach. The visual material will be generated primarily in the Penn State Gas Dynamics

Laboratory with the goal of being strikingly illustrative of key technical concepts. As before, thebasic video clips will be mainly experimental but CFD will also be included. All final videos willinclude both motion and sound. The themes of real-life visualizations and a window into theresearch lab were clearly singled out by the students in evaluations of our prior work, and we intendto build on those themes in the future, provided that funding is available.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the National Science Foundation and McGraw-Hill Higher Education for cooperation andsupport. Several computational video clips were made available to us by FLUENT Inc. Manyfaculty evaluators have provided helpful comments. Additional video material was provided by the

following sources: B-2 bomber and F-117 stealth fighter footage Anthony J. Hicks; cavitation PSU Applied Research Laboratory, David Stinebring, Jay Lindau, & Robert Kunz; Meteor footage George Varros; Hoover Dam US Bureau of Reclamation; Crash test dummy Allianz AG;dragster Kearney Raceway Park; Smoke tunnel flow visualization Adrian Thomas, Insect flightGroup, Oxford University; Helicopter downwash CGSD Corporation, Mountain View, CA;Windmill AMEC Wind, Vestas Wind Systems A/S; Freefall Pete Guisasola, Parachute Center;Parachute Svante Lundberg; Thrust reverser Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universityof Michigan, Melissa Duckett, Warren Imker, Erin Romanowski, Bruce Scannell; High-speed golf


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ball Photron USA Inc.; Race car Ultima Sports, UK; Robo-Fly Michael Dickinson, CaliforniaInstitute of Technology; Atomic bomb footage US Department of Defense. Wind tunnel andrelated footage NASA.

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2006.2. Tremblay G.Fluid mechanics videos for use in undergraduate education. Bachelor of Science Honors Thesis,

Engineering Science & Mechanics Dept., Penn State University, 2005.3. Shapiro AH. Illustrated experiments in fluid mechanics: The National Committee for Fluid Mechanics Films

book of film notes. Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press, 1972.4. Van Dyke M.An album of fluid motion. Stanford, CA:Parabolic Press, 1982.5. Hertzberg JR and Sweetman A. A course in flow visualization: The art and physics of fluid flow. Proc. 2004

ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, pp. 2449-2459, 2004.6. Homsy GM, Aref H, Breuer KS, Hochgreb S, Koseff JR, Munson BR, Powell KG, Robertson CR, Thoroddsen

ST.Multimedia Fluid Mechanics - CD-ROM.Cambridge University Press , 2004.7. Albrecht D. The work of Charles and Ray Eames: A legacy of invention. New York:Harry N. Abrams, 1997.8.

Kelves DJ. Historical Foreword to Robin, H., The scientific image: from cave to computer, New York, Harry N.Abrams, 1992.

9. Ford BJ. Images of science, a history of scientific illustration. New York:Oxford University Press, 1993.10. Hmelo CE, Lunken EY, Gramoll K, and Yusuf I. Multimedia courseware for teaching dynamic concepts:

assessment of student learning, IEEE Frontiers in Education Conf., 1995, paper 2b2.19.11. Montgomery S. Addressing diverse learning styles through the use of multimedia, IEEE Frontiers in

Education Conf., 1995, paper 3a2.13.12. Dwyer FM. The effect of overt responses in improving visually programmed science instruction,J. Res. Sci.

Teaching, Vol. 9, 1972, pp. 47-55.13. Gil-Perez D. New trends in science education,Int. J. Sci. Educ., Vol. 18, 1996, pp. 889-901.14. Tobin K, Tippins DJ, and Gallard AJ. Research on instructional strategies for teaching science, Handook of

Research on Science Teaching and Learning, ed. Gabel DL, Macmillan, 1994, p. 45ff.15. Kozma RB. Learning with media,Rev. of Educ. Research, Vol. 61, 1991, pp. 179-211.16. Baird WE. Status of use: microcomputers and science teaching, 1988 AETS Yearbook, pp. 85-104.17. Berger CF, Lu CR, Belzer SJ, and Voss BE. Research on the uses of technology in science education,

Handbook of Research on Science Teaching and Learning, ed. Gabel DL, Macmillan, 1994, p. 466-490.18. Marsh EJ and Kumar DD. Hypermedia: A conceptual framework for science education and review of recent

findings,J. Educ. Multimedia & Hypermedia, Vol. 1, 1992, pp. 25-37.19. Pea R. Learning through multimedia,IEEE Computer Graphics & Applications, Vol. 11, pp. 58-66, 1991.20.National Research Council Committee on Undergraduate Science Education. Science Teaching Reconsidered, a

Handbook. National Academy Press, Washington, 1997.21. Miller JD, Settles GS, and Dodson LJ. Hypermedia flow visualization for compressible flow instruction,

Presentation PD.001, 53rd Annual Meeting of the American Physical Society, Division of Fluid Dynamics,November 19-21, 2000, Washington, DC.

22. Munson, B.R., D. F. Young, and T. H. Okiishi. Fundamentals of fluid mechanics. NY:John Wiley & Sons,2005.

23. Settles GS. Schlieren and Shadowgraph Techniques. Berlin:Springer-Verlag, 2001.24. Hinton, H., Reliability and validity of student evaluations: testing models vs. survey research models, PS:

Political Science and Politics, Sept. 1993, pp.562-569.

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