©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Historical Foundations Chapter 4.

©2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Historical Foundations

Chapter 4


Historical Foundations Identify events that served as catalysts for

physical education, exercise science, and sport’s growth.

Identify some of the outstanding leaders in the fields.

Discuss recent developments in physical education, exercise science, and sport.

Draw implications from history of our fields for the future of physical education, exercise science, and sport


Sport History

Emerged as a subdiscipline in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

“… field of scholarly inquiry with multiple and often intersecting foci, including exercise, the body, play, games, athletics, sports, physical recreations, health, and leisure.” (Struna)

How has the past shaped sport and its experiences today?

1973: North American Society for Sport History held its first meeting.


Sample Areas of Study...

How did urbanization influence the development of sports in America?

How did the sports activities of Native Americans influence the recreational pursuits of the early colonists?

How have Greek ideals influences the development of sportsmanship?

How did segregation impact sports opportunities for blacks?

What factors influenced the inclusion of physical education in the school curriculum?


Greece

“Golden Age” of physical education and sport

Unity of the mind, body and spirit “Body beautiful” Areté – the pursuit of excellence Vital part of the education of every

Greek boy National festivals

Olympic Games


Rome

Exercise for health and military purposes. Greek gymnastics were introduced to Rome

after the conquest of Greece but were not popular Rome did not believe in the “body beautiful” Preferred to be spectators rather than participants Preferred professionalism to amateurism.

Exciting “blood sports”: gladiatorial combats and chariot races. “Duel to the death” or satisfaction of spectators.


Germany

Period of nationalism - focus on development of strong citizens through school and community programs of physical education

Physical education should be included in the school curriculum – programs emphasize the development of strength


German Leaders

Basedow (1723-1790) – designed physical education program for school students based on philosophy of naturalism; first school in modern Europe that included PE as part of the educational curriculum.

Guts Muths (1759-1839) – extensive program of outdoor gymnastics; stressed the value of physical education in the development and education of children.


German Leaders

Jahn (1778-1852) – Turnverein movement to mold youth into strong, hardy citizens capable of overthrowing foreign control.

Spiess (1810-1858) – advocated for the inclusion of gymnastics within the school curriculum; emphasis on professions, use of trained teachers, and contribution of gymnastics to total development of child


Sweden

Scientific study of physical education Use anatomy and physiology to study the

effects of physical education on the body Influenced by nationalism


Sweden Leaders

Per Ling (1776-1839) Design of gymnastic programs to meet specific

individual needs Different types of gymnastics: Educational,

military, medical and aesthetics gymnastics Teachers of physical education must have

foundational knowledge of the effects of exercise on the human body.

Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886) Significant role in development school

gymnastics and curriculum Day’s Order – daily exercises for school children


Denmark Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) – “father of

Danish gymnastics Worked with Danish public schools to

incorporate PE into their curriculum Established a school to train teachers of

gymnastics for the army and for the schools

Gymnastics emphasized fitness and strength, with formalized exercises being performed on command


Great Britain

Home of outdoor sports and recreational pursuits

Maclaren (1920-1884) Eager to make physical training a science;

system adopted by the British Army Health is more important than strength Exercise adapted to the individual Physical education essential in school curriculum

Muscular Christianity Sport contributes to the development of moral

character Reconciles sport and religion


PE in the U.S.

Influenced by European ideals Systems of gymnastics (exercises) Philosophies of physical education

Growth of influence of Ancient Asian cultures Yoga Martial arts Relationships between the mind, body,

and spirit


Colonial Period (1607-1783)

Colonists led an agrarian existence - physical activity through performing tasks essential to living and survival.

Colonists brought sports with them from their native lands.

Puritans denounced play as evil; recreational pursuits frowned upon.

Reading, writing, and arithmetic in schools, not physical education.


National Period (1784-1861)

Charles Beck (1798-1866) 1825 - introduced German gymnastics to his students at the Round Hill School

Charles Follen (1796-1840) 1826 - organized exercise classes based on the German system for his students at Harvard University

Catherine Beecher (1800-1878) 1828 – developed a program of calisthenics performed to music, which included Swedish exercises, to improve the health and vitality of her students at the Hartford Female Seminary.


National Period (1784-1861)

1839 - Invention of baseball 1851 – first national Turnfest held in

Philadelphia 1852: First intercollegiate competition: a

crew race between Harvard and Yale. Intercollegiate athletics becomes increasingly common on college campuses

Horseracing, foot races, rowing, and gambling on sport events popular


Civil War Period until 1900

Dioclesian Lewis (1823-1886) Developed system of “light” gymnastics 1861 – established Normal Institute for Physical

Education in Boston to train teachers Edward Hitchcock (1828-1911)

1861 – Director of Hygiene and Physical Education at Amherst College

Pioneering work in the scientific approach to physical education

Anthropomorphic measurement incorporated into program to assess outcomes

1885 – First president of the Association for the Advancement of Physical Education


Civil War Period until 1900 Dudley Sargent (1849-1924)

1879 – Director of Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University

Scientific and comprehensive approach to physical education; used anthropomorphic measurement to develop individualized conditioning programs for students

1881 – Sanatory Gymnasium to prepare teachers in his approach

William Anderson (1860 – 1947)

Played an instrumental role in the founding of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education in 1885

1885 – Director of Physical Training at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn


Civil War Period until 1900 Delphina Hanna (1854-1941)

1885 – Accepted teaching position at Oberlin College where, in 1903, became the first woman full professor of physical education in the US

Developed training program for prospective teachers which evolved into one of the first professional preparation programs

George Fitz (1860-1934) Research physiologist at Harvard. Emphasized the need for physical education programs to

be based on scientific principles so that the actual benefits of exercise could be determined

1892 – established a formal exercise physiology lab at Harvard where he and his students conducted research on physiological effects of physical activity


Civil War Period until 1900 Hartvig Nissen (1855-1924) –

Pioneered in the promotion of Swedish system of gymnastics in the US

1891-1990 Leadership role in physical education for the Boston Public School System where he influenced adoption of Swedish gymnastics

Baron Nils Posse (1862-1895) Leader in the promotion of Swedish system of

gymnastics in the US 1889 – helped establish the Boston Normal

School of Gymnastics to train teachers in the Swedish system


Civil War Period until 1900 Amy Morris Homans (1848-1933)

1889 – Director of the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics Mary Hemenway, Bostonian philanthropist, underwrote

the establishment of the school Played an influential role in getting the Boston Public

School system to adopt the Swedish system of gymnastics Luther Gulick (1865-1918)

Instrumental role in YMCA International Training School at Springfield, MA

Designed the YMCA logo, with the equilateral triangle representing the unity of the mind, body and spirit and importance of developing the whole person

1906 – helps form the Playground Association of America


Civil War Period until 1900

Battle of the Systems Late 1880s sparked debate among physical

educators regarding which system of gymnastics should serve as the curriculum for American schools.

1880 – Boston Conference on Physical Training

No consensus on which system would best serve needs of American people

Posse – need an American system designed for the American people


Civil War Period until 1900 Growth of American sport in popularity

Tennis Golf Bowling Basketball (Naismith)

Founding of forerunner of Amateur Athletic Association (AAU)

1896 - Revival of Olympics in Athens Colleges and universities develop

departments and expand programs


Civil War Period until 1900 1851 – first YMCA opens up in US; 1885 YMCA

training school established in Springfield, MA. Expansion of intercollegiate athletics

Abuses raise concerns Establishment of governing bodies

Emphasis on teacher preparation, scientific basis of PE, diagnosis and prescription of activity

Organized PE programs in elementary and secondary schools

1885 - Founding of the forerunner of AAHPERD


Early Twentieth Century (1900s-1940s)

Extensive interscholastic programs - controversy over programs for girls

Growth of intramural programs and emphasis on games and sports in our programs

Increased concern for the physically underdeveloped in our society

Playground movement Higher standards for teacher training (4 year

preparation) NCAA established to monitor collegiate

athletics



Thomas Dennison Wood (1864-1951) Called for the development of a “new” program of physical

education, initially called “Natural Gymnastics” His vision for “new” physical education calls for a program

with an “aim as broad as education itself… The great thought in physical

education is not the education of physical nature, but the relationship of physical training to complete education , and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual …”

Robert Tait McKenzie (1867-1938) Physician, physical educator, and noted artist-sculptor Helped develop physical education programs for individuals

with disabilities Authored many books, including Exercise in Education and

Medicine



Clark Hetherington (1870-1942) 1910 – articulates the four objectives of physical education

as organic (fitness), psychomotor development, character development, and intellectual development

Credited with inventing the phrase “new physical education” to describe Wood’s approach

Rosalind Cassidy (1895-1980) Advocate of “education through the physical” – carefully

designed programs of physical education could contribute to the development of the whole person

Prolific writer



Jesse F. Williams (1886-1966) Advocate of “education through the physical” philosophy of

physical education Stressed the development of social responsibility and moral

values through physical education and athletics 1927 – Principles of Physical Education

Jay B. Nash (1886-1965) Physical education should give students the ability to use

their leisure time in a worthy manner Recreational skills for enjoyment throughout the lifespan



Charles McCloy (1886-1959) Active in research and measurement, including

anthropometry Advocated for the “education of the physical” approach to

physical education School physical education’s unique contribution to the

education of the individual is organic and psychomotor development

Wrote Philosophical Bases for Physical Education



Extensive interscholastic programs - controversy over programs for girls

Growth of intramural programs and emphasis on games and sports in our programs

Increased concern for the physically underdeveloped in our society

Playground movement Higher standards for teacher training (4 year

preparation) NCAA established to monitor collegiate

athletics


World War I (1916-1919) Physical educators developed

conditioning programs for armed forces .

After the war, health statistics revealed that the nation was in poor shape (1/3 of men were physically unfit for armed service).

Growth and upgrade of PE programs in schools following war due to legislation in some states.


Golden Twenties (1920-1929)

Move away from formal systems of gymnastics toward games, sports, and valuable recreation and leisure time.

“New” physical education emphasized contribution to the total development of the individual; “education through the physical” vs. “education of the physical”.

Calls for reform of collegiate athletics due to increasing professionalism, public entertainment, and commercialization.

Women’s programs increase staff, activities, required participation, and facilities.


Depression Years (1930-1939)

Economic forces lead to cutbacks in PE programs and growth of recreational programs.

Physical educators more involved in recreational programs for the unemployed.

Growth of interscholastic, intercollegiate and women’s programs.

Charles McCloy (1886-1959) – advocated “education of the physical” and stressed the importance documenting results and measuring progress of using scientific data


Mid-twentieth Century (1940-

1970)

Impact of WW II physical training programs

Physical fitness movement President’s Council on Physical Fitness and

Sports

Athletics Increase opportunities for girls and women Increased interest in lifetime sports Sport programs below high school level increase Increased number of intramural programs


Mid-twentieth Century (1940-1970)

Professional preparation Colleges and universities increase programs for

teachers American College of Sports Medicine (1954) National Athletic Trainers’ Association (1950)

Programs for individuals with disabilities Special Olympics (1968)

Research grows in importance and becomes increasingly specialized


Significant Recent Developments Growth of the discipline

Franklin Henry in 1964 calls for the study of the academic discipline of physical education

During 1970s knowledge base expands and subdisciplines emerge

Debate about the primary focus of the field; in late 1990s there is a growing consensus that the focus should be physical activity

1989 – American Academy of Physical Education changes its name to the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education

Ongoing debate about what is the best name for the discipline


Significant Recent Developments Disease prevention and health promotion

Healthy People Objectives for the Nation Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and

Health Healthy People 2000 Healthy People 2010

Legislation promoting opportunities for girls and women, and people with disabilities

Increased technology


School Physical Education

Recognition of the critical role school PE in achieving national health goals

Fitness status and physical activity of children and youth is a concern

Congressional support for high-quality, daily physical education

Daily PE declines from 42% in 1991 to 28% in 2003.

Only one state, Illinois, requires daily PE for all students, K-12

National Content Standards offer a national framework

Emergence of new curricular models


Physical Fitness and Participation in Physical Activity

Expansion of the fitness movement and involvement in physical activity

Shift from performance- to health-related fitness to an emphasis on moderate-intensity physical activity

Physical inactivity recognized as a major health problem


The Growth of Sport

Phenomenal growth of participation in sports at all levels

Youth sports involve more than 25 million children

Interscholastic sports involve more than 7 million boys and girls Trend toward early specialization


The Growth of Sport Intercollegiate sports involves nearly

400,000 athletes Growth of sport as “big business” in some

institutions Growth of recreational sport leagues and

amateur sports for adults of all ages Professional sports continue to expand

including professional leagues for women


Girls and Women in Sport

Rapid growth since the passage of Title IX in 1972

Changes in governance of intercollegiate sports

Challenges to Title IX Changes in physical education

classes following passage of Title IX


Programs for Individuals with Disabilities

Federal Legislation 1973 - PL 93-122 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act 1975 - PL 94-142 Education of All Handicapped Children

Act of 1975 1978 - PL 95-696 Amateur Sports Act of 1978 1986 – PL 99-457 Education for All Handicapped Children

Amendments 1990 - PL 101-336 Individuals with Disabilities Education

Act 1990 – 101-336 Americans with Disabilities Act 1998 – PL 105-277 Olympic and Amateur Sports Act

Paralympics


Olympics

Rebirth of the Olympics in 1896 Centennial Olympics celebrated in Atlanta

in 1996 Politicization of the Olympic Games Evolving definitions of amateurism “Fairness” issues in the Olympics Addition of non-traditional sports Commercialization of the Olympics


Technology

Computer technology and sophisticated research equipment

Has led to record-breaking achievements for elite athletes in nearly all sports

Facility improvement User-friendly technology such as heart

rate monitors provide more specific information about individuals’ physical activity

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