2011 Libyan Civil War

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First Edition, 2012

ISBN978-81-323-4269-4

All rights reserved.

Published by:White Word Publications

4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg,Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,Delhi - 110002Email: [email protected]


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Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - 2011 Libyan Civil War

Chapter 2 - Late March 2011 Libyan Rebel Offensive

Chapter 3 - Casualties of the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Chapter 4 - Domestic Responses to the 2011 Libyan Protests

Chapter 5 - 2011 Military Intervention in Libya

Chapter 6 - International Reactions to the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Chapter 7 - Protests against the 2011 Military Intervention in Libya

Chapter 8 - Muammar Gaddafi's Response to the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Chapter 9 - National Transitional Council

Chapter 10 - International Reactions to the 2011 Military Intervention inLibya

Chapter 11 - Timeline of the 2011 Libyan Civil War


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Chapter 1

2011 Libyan Civil War

2011 Libyan civil war

Part of 201011 Middle East and North Africa protests

Cities controlled by pro-Gaddafi forces


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Cities controlled by anti-Gaddafi forces (supported by coalitionforces)

Ongoing fighting/unclear situation (situation as of 29 March2011)

Date 15 February 2011 presentLocation Libya

Status Ongoing

Belligerents

NationalTransitional Council

Free LibyanAir Force

LibyanPeople's Army

NationalConference forthe LibyanOpposition

Anti-Gaddafitribes

UN member statesenforcing UNSCResolution 1973:

NATO Qatar UAE

full list

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

Libyan Armed Forceso Libyan Armyo Libyan Air Forceo Libyan Navy

Foreign mercenaries

Commanders and leaders

Mustafa AbdulJalil

Omar El-HaririAbdul Fatah

YounisSuleiman

Muammar Gaddafi

Saif al-Islam al-GaddafiKhamis al-GaddafiAbu-Bakr Yunis Jabr


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MahmoudKhalifa Belqasim

Haftar

Charles Bouchard

Strength

Approximately 17,000(1,000 trained men)

International Forces:Numerous air andmaritime forces

10,00012,000 (Al Jazeeraestimate)

Casualties and losses

1,5672,049opposition fighterskilled

International Forces: 1USAF F-15E StrikeEagle crashed (bothpilots survived) [non-combat loss]

585663 soldiers killed

Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians:2,00010,000

The 2011 Libyan civil waris an ongoing armed conflict in the North African country ofLibya against Muammar Gaddafi's 42-year rule, with protesters calling for newleadership and democratic elections. The situation began as a series of protests andconfrontations on 15 February 2011. Within a week, this uprising had spread and Gaddafiwas struggling to retain control across the country. Gaddafi responded with military forceand other such measures as censorship and blocking of communications. With hissoldiers across the country defecting, Gaddafi allegedly recruited foreign mercenaries tosupplement his forces. From a diplomatic angle, Gaddafi offered talks with oppositionleaders through a representative but the rebels have rejected any form of dialogue; theypledge to keep fighting at all costs until either Gaddafi resign or be defeated militarily.

The situation then escalated into armed conflict, with rebels establishing a coalitionnamed the Transitional National Council based in Benghazi. The International CriminalCourt warned Gaddafi that he and members of his government may have committedcrimes against humanity. The United Nations Security Council passed an initialresolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle, andrestricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to theInternational Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied,


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pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A furtherresolution authorized member states to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. The Gaddafigovernment then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it. A collection of statesbegan enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March by disabling Gaddafi's air defenses.

Background

History

Gaddafi has been the de-facto ruler of Libya since the overthrow of King Idris I in 1969.While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and governmentpositions, he has skilfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicatebalance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extends even to his ownchildren, as he changes affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.

Petroleum revenues contribute up to 58% of Libya's GDP. Governments with "resourcecurse" revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feelless pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use theincome from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specificgovernment supporters. Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small populationhas allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighboring countries.Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region at 21% (latest census), therewas a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on themarket. These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after thebeginning of hostilities.

Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US $14,878; itshuman development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%.These numbers were lower in Egypt and Tunisia. Indeed, Libyan citizens are consideredto be well educated and to have a high standard of living. This specific situation creates awider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and thegovernment's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).The uprising has been viewed as a part of the 20102011 Middle East and North Africaprotests which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacentTunisia and Egypt with the initial protests all using similar slogans. Social media hadplayed an important role in organizing the opposition.

Corruption

Gaddafi amassed a vast fortune during his 42-year rule.

Much of the country's income from oil, which soared in the 1970s, was spent on armspurchases and on sponsoring militancy and terror around the world. According to TheEconomist, the eastern parts of the country, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, havefared badly under Gaddafi's economic theories. Libya's corruption perception index in


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2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighboringcountries who have faced an uprising before Libya.

Human rights

According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored country inthe Middle East and North Africa.

Some 453Basic People's Congressesmeeting quarterly form the legal basis of thegovernment. Each elects a secretariat and various People's Committeesas its executivebranch.

TheBasic Congressesand their Committeesare overseen byRevolutionary committeeswhich report to Gaddafi via a Permanent Revolutionary Committee.Revolutionarycommitteesare embedded throughout most government-controlled organizationsincluding enterprises and the education sector. According to the U.S. State Department,

10 to 20 percent of Libyans work in surveillance for these committees, a proportion ofinformants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong Il's North Korea.

Engaging in political conversations with foreigners is a crime punishable by three yearsof prison in most cases. During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages wereremoved from the school curriculum. The government has reportedly paid forassassination of its critics around the world. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties forcritics, including US$1 million for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist. The regimehas often executed opposition activists publicly and the executions are rebroadcast onstate television channels.

Anti-Gaddafi movement

The flag of the former Kingdom of Libya. It, or modified versions, has been used bymany protesters as an opposition flag.


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Beginnings of open protest

Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and overpolitical corruption, protesters in Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities brokeinto and occupied housing that the government was building. On 24 January 2011, Libya

blocked access to YouTube after it featured videos of demonstrations in the Libyan cityof Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prisonmassacre. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch. By 27 January, thegovernment had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion investment fund toprovide housing and development.

In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed]on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya"inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car.Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for

his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be hiscall for demonstrations. In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met withpolitical activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be heldresponsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Uprising and civil war

A girl in Benghazi showing support for a united, democratic Libya, 23 February 2011.


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The protests and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of15 February, between 500 and 600 protesters chanted slogans in front of the policeheadquarters in Benghazi. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in 38injuries. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview withAl Jazeera about the police reaction to protests. In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of

protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police andsecurity buildings. In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre. Theprotests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda, leading to fourdeaths and three injuries. Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, andauthorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.

A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile is planned for 17 February. TheNational Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to theGaddafi regime protests on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi twoyears earlier. The plans to protest were inspired by the 20102011 Tunisian and Egyptianuprisings. In early February, Jamahiriya spokesperson Muammar Gaddafi met with

Libyan political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they wouldbe held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.

Organization

Libyan Boy Scouts helping in the social services in Benghazi

Many opposition participants called for return to the 1952 constitution and transition tomulti-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteershave formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoliunder the influence of Jalil. In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of theregime into a center for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local


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banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up acommittee to collect weapons.

The National Transitional Council was established on 27 February in an effort toconsolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya. The main objectives of the group did

not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance effortsbetween the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to theopposition to present to the world. The Benghazi-based opposition government has calledfor a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya. The council refers to the Libyanstate as theLibyan Republicand it now has a website. Former Jamahiriya Justice MinisterMustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for electionsand they could be held in three months. On 29 March the political and internationalaffairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for the country in TheGuardiannewspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a nationalconstitution.

An independent newspaper calledLibyaappeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlledradio stations. Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans suchas "No to tribalism, no to factionalism". Libyans have said that they have foundabandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.

Composition of rebel forces

The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, andoil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Armyand joined the rebels. Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebelsincluded al-Qaeda fighters. NATO commander Admiral Stavridis stated that intelligence

reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but alsoadded that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaedaor terrorist presence. Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.

Gaddafi's response

Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenicdrugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffeeand Nescaf. He has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing thesehallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol. He later also claimed that the revoltagainst his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign countries, particularly blamingFrance, the US, and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. Gaddafi vowedto cleanse Libya house by house until he had crushed the insurrection. Gaddafi declaredthat people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live". A Swedish arms traffickingwatchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to adedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and militaryequipment.


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Muammar Gaddafi vowing to hunt down and execute any opposition members.

Blocking of communications and media

Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in the country, and arrested Libyans whohad given phone interviews to the media. International journalists were banned by theLibyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafigovernment. International journalists who have attempted to cover the events have beenattacked by Gaddafi's forces. ABBC Newscrew was beaten and then lined up against awall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them. A

journalist working for The Guardianand another Brazilian journalist have been detained.An Al-Jazeera journalist Hassan Al Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberatelytargeted.

On 21 February, The New York Timesreported that Gaddafi had tried to impose ablackout on information from the country. Several residents reported that cellphoneservice was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic.

The 26 March incident with Iman al-Obeidi, a Libyan woman who had been forciblysilenced and detained after she attempted to tell the international media of her allegedgang-rape by Gaddafi's troops, was seen by the media as representative of the trend.

Mercenaries and human shields

There have been reports of Gaddafi employing foreign nationals to attack Libyancivilians. French-speaking fighters apparently come from neighbouring African countriessuch as Chad and Niger. However, some have urged caution, noting that Libya has asignificant black population who could be mistaken for mercenaries but are actuallyserving in the regular army. Also, many Chadian soldiers who fought for Gaddafi in past


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conflicts with Chad were given Libyan citizenship. There have been reports of Gadaffiemploying mercenaries from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Sudan, Tunisia,Kenya and possibly even Asia and Eastern Europe. Speculation that members of theZimbabwe National Army were covertly fighting in Libya grew as Zimbabwe's DefenceMinister Emmerson Mnangagwa avoided giving a clear answer to a question on the topic

posed in Parliament. Some of Gaddafi's mercenaries stated they were deceived andforcibly airlifted to shoot demonstrators.

Human Rights Watch has argued that there has been no evidence of mercenaries beingemployed in Libya. Hysteria created by the alleged use of mercenaries has led tonumerous attacks on black Libyans and African migrant workers with subsequent moblynching in rebel controlled areas.

According the International Federation for Human Rights, thousands of migrants wouldhave been forced to join the army and are being used as front-line fighters or simplehuman shield for Libyan soldiers in street fights. Cases such as handcuffing truck drivers

to steering wheels to prevent them from running away have been documented.

Treatment of dissidents

Amnesty International has called Gaddafi's policy to kill those who oppose himunacceptable. The organization reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominentopposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in citiescontrolled by Gaddafi. There are fears they may be subjected to illegal detention, tortureor may have been killed. Amnesty International reported that Gaddafi's forces aretargeting paramedics who help injured protesters. In multiple incidents people have alsodocumented Gaddafi's forces using ambulances in their attacks. Injured demonstrators

have been denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The regime also bannedgiving blood transfusions to people who have taken part in the demonstrations.

Gaddafi suppressed the protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money andweapons for hired thugs to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs ofdissent. Military commanders appear to summarily execute soldiers who refuse to defendGaddafi. The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where Gaddafi'scommanders executed 130 soldiers who had refused to support Gaddafi. Gaddafi'scommanders have burned alive soldiers who have refused to fight protesters.

On 24 February, the International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi is

implementing a strategy of scorched earth and seeks to eliminate and suppress Libyancitizens who stood up against his regime.

Paid protesters

Libyans studying in the US have received phone calls from the Libyan embassy urgingthem to take part in pro-Gaddafi demonstrations or lose government-funded scholarships.Gaddafi has a history of using paid demonstrators for public relations, including paying


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US$2,000 to each hired demonstrator in a pro-Gaddafi rally when he visited the UnitedNations headquarters in New York City in 2009.

Battles between Gaddafi and opposition

Rebels on the outskirts of Brega.

By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themesunderlining the precarious state of the regime former justice minister MustafaMohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbiebombing, resignations and defections of close allies, the loss of Benghazi, the secondlargest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration" and other cities includingTobruk and Misrata reportedly falling with some reports that the government retainedcontrol of just a few pockets, mounting international isolation and pressure, and reportsthat Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable. By the end ofFebruary, Gaddafi had lost control of a significant part of the country, including themajor cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbors at Ra's Lanuf and Mersa

Brega.After taking over the city of Zawiyah on 24 February, Gaddafi's troops attacked theoutskirts of the city on 28 February, but were repelled. The town of Nalut, on theTunisian border, had also fallen to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forcesattempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreatedto Ra's Lanuf. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, theopposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale


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assault on Zawiyah with tank, artillery and air strikes. On 6 March, the rebel advancealong the coastline had been stopped by government forces at the town of Bin Jawad.Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed. At thesame time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far asthe centre of the city before their attack was stopped and they retreated to the city's

outskirts.

Gaddafi counteroffensive

On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf andMersa Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and Benghazi. Gaddafi has remained incontinuous control of Tripoli, Sirte, Zliten and Sabha, as well as several other towns. On10 March, Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf were retaken by Gaddafi's forces. By 15 March, thetown of Brega had also been recaptured by Gaddafi's forces and the rebel city ofAjdabiya, the last town before Benghazi, was surrounded.

United Nations intervention

On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-flyzone in Libyan airspace. As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi'sgovernment declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reportedthat government forces were still fighting with rebels. Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery shelling on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and governmentsoldiers continued approaching Benghazi.

BBC News reported that government tanks entered the city on 19 March while hundredsfled the fighting. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city. The same day, a Mig-

23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after beingengaged by rebel ground forces in error. The Libyan government subsequently arguedthat the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighterjet to bomb Libyan armed forces.

Coalition suppresses Libyan air defenses

A French Navy rescue helicopter, from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle,lands aboard the American command ship USSMount Whitney


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At 1600 GMT 19 March, the BBC News reported that the French Air Force had sentnineteen fighter planes over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city.French jets attacked government armour southwest of Benghazi, destroying four tanks.By 2031 GMT, the US and British naval vessels had fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruisemissiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems. Three U.S. B-2

Spirit stealth bombers reportedly flew non-stop from the United States to drop fortybombs on a major Libyan airfield with US fighter jets searching for Libyan ground forcesto attack. Twenty-five coalition ships, including three US submarines, began operating inthe area. Also on 20 March, Free Libyan Air Forcepilot Mohammed Mukhtar Osmancrashed his plane into the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli. Khamis al-Gaddafi wasallegedly killed in the attack.

On March 20, the Free Libyan Air Force carried out a suicide attack on the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli, one of Gaddafi's residences, when pilot Muhammad MukhtarOsman crashed his plane into the barracks. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in theattack. Widespread reports stated that Khamis had sustained severe burn injuries, and

died in intensive care several hours later. U.S. officials confirmed that they hadunconfirmed reports that one of Gaddafi's sons may have been killed. Gaddafi's regimedenied the reports.

Libyan State TV reported that Libyan forces had shot down a French warplane overTripoli, a claim denied by France. On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles werelaunched against Libyan targets by British jets. Sustained anti-aircraft fire was reported inTripoli throughout the night. Gaddafi's forces claimed they had shot down two planes, aclaim denied by the US. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombingmission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officerejected and were recovered by US rescue teams.

By 22 March, US forces had fired 161 Tomahawk cruise missiles against Libyan targets.The UK also fired US-made Tomahawk missiles; two fired from a British submarine hadhit Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli on 21 March.

On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-fly-zone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operationsin Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to aninternational organization.

Second rebel advance

After airstrikes began, rebel forces began a renewed offensive towards Tripoli. Theyadvanced 150 miles along the coast, and retook all lost ground, while internationalairstrikes targeted government armour and supply columns. Government forces put upresistance in Ajdabiya, which fell to the rebel push after intense airstrikes. Rebels tookBrega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad. Airstrikes inflicted heavy losses on governmentforces, and forced them into a chaotic retreat eastward. Gaddafi's soldiers left behindmilitary equipment, uniforms, and rations as they fled, and their morale significantly


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dropped. On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Gaddafi's home town of Sirt, andgovernment troops managed to halt the rebel advance. Due to increasing airstrikestargeting military vehicles, government troops increasingly replaced armour with civilianvehicles fitted with weapons.

On 29 March, government forces launched a counteroffensive, forcing the rebels into achaotic retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf.

On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ras Lanuf due to heavy tankand artillery fire from loyalist forces. The rebels also pulled back from Ajdabiyah, andhundreds of cars and small trucks heading east clogged the highway on the approaches toBrega. Gaddafi's forces subsequently pushed forward, retaking lost ground, as airstrikeson government targets throughout Libya took place. The Coalition began consideringwhether to supply arms to the rebels.

Humanitarian situation

Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in the country. On 25February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appealfor US$6.4 million to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrestin the country. On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part inthe violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.

Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 people were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping theviolence were foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks as well asLibyans. By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were heldin dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya. By 3 March, anestimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisionalrefugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with anestimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on theLibyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logisticalnightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.

With a migrant population of about two million, countries that border Libya, especiallyEgypt and Tunisia, have been receiving a flow of migrants and nationals escaping theviolence. Migrants workers as well as Libyan nationals have been finding their way to the

border cities of Sallum in Egypt and Ras Ajdir in Tunisia creating a humanitarian crisis.According to the International Organization for Migration, as of 7 March, 115,399migrants had arrived in Tunisia (19,184 of them Tunisians, 47,631 Egyptians and the restfrom various nationalities), 101,609 in Egypt (of which 65,509 were Egyptian), 2,205 inNiger (1,865 Nigerians) and 5,448 in Algeria.


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African migrants attacked by anti-Gaddafi mobs

Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured andperhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were beingattacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say

that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old buildingsupervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by theKenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said.

Al Jazeera was told by Seidou Boubaker Jallou, a Malian citizen, that he fled Libya aftermany black migrants were attacked. Some injured migrants were unable to seek medicaltreatment for fear of being killed. Saad Jabbar, deputy director of the North Africa Centreat Cambridge University, confirmed that Africans have become targets of anti-government Libyans and that they "will be slaughtered in Libya" Jabbar said. HumanRights organisations claim that some anti-Gaddafi protesters mistakenly associateAfrican workers with state-sponsored violence.

"African immigrants are now linked to state-orchestrated violence and mass killings, andwe may therefore fear the worst about the violent backlash that may follow particularlyafter Gaddafi is ousted," said Hein de Haas, a senior fellow with the InternationalMigration Institute. "I think it is urgent to do something about it now, otherwise, agenocide against anyone who has black skin and who doesn't speak perfect Arabic ispossible," said Jabbar.


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Casualties

People protesting against Gaddafi's use of violence against Libyans.

Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made

available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the deathtoll at 1,000, The International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 killed on 7 March. Thenumbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February. On 2 March, theInternational Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000 and theWorld Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed. At the same time, theopposition claimed that 6,500 people had died. The Libyan Human Rights Leagueestimated 6,000 killed on 5 March. Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reportedthat the death toll reached 8,000.

On 20 March, it was reported by the anti-Gaddafi Al Manara Media that Khamis al-Gaddafi had died from his injuries sustained when pilot Muhammad Mokhtar Osman

allegedly crashed his plane into Bab al-Azizia a week earlier. However, this had not beenconfirmed by any other independent media. The crashing of the plane itself had also notbeen previously reported or confirmed by any other independent media except Al Manaraand the Algerian Shuruknewspaper, which is closely connected to Al Manara, and with itthere is a possibility of the reports being part of the rebel propaganda operations.


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Domestic responses

Resignation of government officials

In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan publicofficials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. JusticeMinister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General AbdulFatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and ForeignMinister Mussa Kussa fled the country, with the latter defecting to the UK. LibyanProsecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined theopposition.

A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including Major GeneralSuleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, BrigadierGeneral Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. TwoLibyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta, and requestedasylum, after being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters inBenghazi Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base alsodefected.

The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemnedthe action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Unionand United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support thegovernment. The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium, People's Republic of China,France, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, and the US alsorenounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.

Economic, religious and tribal

The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya,announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. Islamic leaders andclerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema Libya urged all Muslims to rebelagainst Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of theprotesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exportsfrom fields in its part of the country if Libyan security forces continued attackingdemonstrators.


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Libyan royal family

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty hastraditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroes

who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on theinternational community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for internationalsupport to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview toAl Jazeerawhere he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from powerand stop the ongoing "massacre". He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyanpeople and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that internationalcommunity needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence. He asked for a no-flyzone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.

In an interview withAdnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne,

announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21February, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonightto discuss the uprising. InMarch, it was reported Idris had held meetings at the State Department and Congress inWashington with US government Officials. It was also reported attempts at contact hadbeen initiated by French and Saudi officials. On 3 March, it was reported that Prince AlSenussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum inTotebo, Sweden.


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International reactions

Official responses

March for free Libya in Japan.

A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military andmercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega,North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and VenezuelanPresident Hugo Chvez all expressed support for Gaddafi. Italian Prime Minister SilvioBerlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he calledthe attacks on protesters unacceptable.

The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergencymeeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against thecurrent peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".

Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council by a unanimousvote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use ofviolence against protesters. On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council votedunanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and, refer Gaddafiand other members of his regime to the International Criminal Court for investigationinto allegations of brutality against civilians. Interpol issued a security alert concerningthe "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the UnitedNations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen membersof his clan or his regime. A number of governments, including Britain, Canada,Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia took action to freeze assets ofGaddafi and his associates.

The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the UnitedNations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians. TheArab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against themeasure.


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Evacuations

During the uprising, many countries evacuated their citizens. China set up its largestevacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100citizens from twelve other countries. On 25 February, 500 passengers, mostly Americans,

sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day waitfor the seas to calm. South Korea evacuated 1,200 residents of Libya, utilizing cars,airplanes and ferries, to nearby countries, including Malta.

Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinesecitizens. The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated15,000 of its nationals. The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul. The Irish Department of ForeignAffairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya. Several Russians, twenty-oneTadjiks and some Kazachs were evacuated by Russia authorities.

A number of international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees fromLibya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, SuncorEnergy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employeesincluded Siemens and Russian Railways.

The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The UnitedKingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberlandto assist in the evacuations.China's frigateXuzhouof the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard theChinese evacuation efforts. The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Youngarrivedoff the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens. The UK RoyalNavy destroyer HMS Yorkdocked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43

nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by theSwedish government. Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetownto aid in theevacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations inconjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraftcarrier USS Enterprise.

Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboardevacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from thedesert south of Benghazi. A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK andGermany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oilworkers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete. An attempt by the Royal Netherlands Navy

frigate HNLMS Trompon 27 February to evacuate a Dutch civilian and anotherEuropean from the coastal city of Sirte by helicopter failed after its three-man crew wasapprehended by Libyan forces loyal to Gaddafi for infiltrating Libyan airspace withoutclearance. The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve dayslater, but the helicopter was confiscated. A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinosin Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home tothe Philippines.


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Mediation proposals

There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict,Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, whohad dealings with Gaddafi in the last few years, mediate the crisis. Blair, however,

bluntly refused and downplayed his dealings with the Libyan regime. The South Africangovernment proposed an African Union-led mediation effort to prevent civil war.Venezuelan President Hugo Chvez also put himself forward as a mediator. AlthoughGaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chvez to negotiate a settlement between theopposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no needfor any foreign mediation. The proposal has also been under consideration by the ArabLeague, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.

The Libyan opposition has stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down.The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafito remain in power. Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the al-

Gaddafi prize for Human Rights, has offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed thatGaddafi appoint a president acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973

On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zoneto prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft againstcivilians. A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backedby the UN.

US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially skeptical of this option, warning the

US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's airdefenses. Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicatedthey were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone. Romania, India and Turkeyalso indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.

On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition ofanonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN SecurityCouncil to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya.

The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UNto impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone

alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were comingfrom tanks and rockets, not aircraft. The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces werequickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept.

On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973(2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favor, zeroagainst, and five abstentions. The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order toprotect civilians. A collection of countries began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.


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On 29 March, in his position as Foreign Minister of Libya, Mussa Kussa wrote to UNSecretary General Ban Ki Moon, nominating the former foreign minister of Nicaragua'ssocialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly,Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated thatBrockmann was nominated, as Ali Abdussalam Treki, also a former General Assembly

president who was their first choice, was denied a visa to enter the US under UN SCR1973.

Reactions to the international intervention

The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolutionwhich finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes whichcan be considered crimes against humanity. The Human Rights Watch stated that the UNSecurity Council at last lived up to its duty to prevent mass atrocities. It furthercommented the Arab League's role, stating that "the league had watched silently asSudan's Omar al-Bashir committed crimes against humanity in Darfur or, less recently,

as Iraq's Saddam Hussein massacred Shia and Kurds, and Syria's Hafez al-Asaddestroyed the town of Hama. But the league apparently sensed the winds of changewafting through the Middle East and North Africa, and felt compelled to respond. TheEgyptian presidential aspirations of the league's secretary-general, Amr Moussa, certainlyhelped as well." al-Qaeda have also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafiand at least a few dozen fighters have al-Qaeda connections. Egypt has also beenshipping arms over the Libyan border to arm the rebels.

Demonstrators in the United States opposing the intervention.

According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of thepopulation supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the

run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention beganshowed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing. In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%,according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, while after the intervention a CBSNews poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% ofdemocrats and republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes.However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civiliansand rebels from Gaddafi's forces.


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China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces. AmrMoussa, the head of The Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearlydefining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombingcampaign. However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted,and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting

civilians. Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATOalliance, which was left divided and split over the operation. NATO members Germanyand Poland are not participating in the campaign, and Malta did not offer its airports foruse by coalition forces.

In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported, though it has also provoked strongopposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs JeremyCorbyn and Caroline Lucas. In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition tomilitary action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications anddebate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic andRepublican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner, House

Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon, and Democratic House Caucuschair John Larson. Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, hasexpressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels arevictorious.


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Chapter 2

Late March 2011 Libyan Rebel Offensive

Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensivePart of Libyan Civil War

Date March 26, 2011 March 30, 2011Location Coast of the Gulf of Sidra, Libya

Result

Pro-Gaddafi victory

Rebel advance repelled

Belligerents

Anti-Gaddafists

Libyan People'sArmy

Gaddafi Loyalists

Libyan Army Paramilitary

forces Foreign

mercenaries


Khalifa Belqasim Haftar Al-Saadi al-Gaddafi

Strength

1,000+ Saadi Brigade


At least 7 killed At least 7 killed

The Late March 2011 Libyan rebel offensivewas mounted by Anti-Gaddafi forcesafter the Battle of Ajdabiya. The offensive was meant to have the rebel forces quicklyreach Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte. The rebels managed to take almost 300 kilometers ofterritory in just two days. However, by day three into the rebel advance, loyalist troops


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stopped the opposition forces and the rebels were in full retreat back to their startingpositions.

The Offensive

Rebels capture oil towns and reach western Libya

After loyalist forces lost the Battle of Ajdabiya on March 26, rebels immediately pressedtheir momentum and took the oil town of Brega without a fight.

The next day, on March 27, opposition forces reached the even bigger oil town of Ra'sLanuf and too had fallen without a shot being fired as loyalist forces had earlier retreatedto Sirte following Coalition air-strikes. By the end of the day, rebels entered Bin Jawad,150 kilometers east of Sirte, unopposed and captured the town. Pro-Gaddafi forces hadretreat for over 300km (190 miles) to defensive positions between Sirte and Bin Jawad injust two days.

Skirmishes along the road to Sirte

On March 28, rebel forces advanced further west toward Sirte and took the town ofNawfaliya. After securing Nawfaliya, they continued westwards to the village ofHarawah. There they tried to negotiate with the tribal leaders for the locals to join theiruprising. However, the civilians in the village attacked the rebels with automatic weaponsand the opposition was forced to withdraw from Harawah. At the same time, the longrebel coloumn, coming from Bin Jawad, was ambushed a number of times on thehighway and loyalists managed to flank the rebels and attack them from the rear. Thisforced the opposition forces to withdraw back to Nawfaliya, 120km (75 miles) fromSirte. Some of them even retreated back to Bin Jawad.

Counteroffensive by pro-Gaddafi forces

On March 29, pro-Gaddafi forces intensified attacks on Libyan rebels, forcing them toabandon Bin Jawad. The rebels first retreated from Nawfaliya to Bin Jawad, some 30kmfurther east. Later intense fighting over Bin Jawad was reported, including artillery duels,

before the rebels fled in hundreds of vehicles towards Ra's Lanuf. The opposition'smilitary commanders suggested that lack of discipline and stretched supply lines arepartly to blame for the retreat. Later during the day, pro-Gaddafi forces advanced to

20km away from Ra's Lanuf and began shelling the town with artillery and mortars,forcing the rebels to retreat further east.

On March 30, loyalist forces recaptured the oil refinery town of Ras Lanuf forcing rebelsto retreat further to the east. The coalition then began launching air-strikes againstGaddafi's forces around Ras Lanuf and on the road to Uqayla. Reporters on the groundblamed a sandstorm and low visibility from the air for the lack of air-strikes the previousday. Later during the day, rebels were pulling out of Brega to Ajdabiyah. In the evening,


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the BBC reported that Brega was in control of pro-Gaddafi forces and they wereapproaching Ajdabiya. A CNN corespondent in Ajdabiya reported that rebels were"massing outside Ajdabiya for a counter-offensive".


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Chapter 3

Casualties of the 2011 Libyan Civil War

Estimates of deaths in the 2011 Libyan civil warvary from 2,000-10,000 as of March 7.An exact figure is hard to ascertain, partly due to a media clamp-down by the Libyan

government. Some conservative estimates have been released. Some of the killing "mayamount to crimes against humanity" according to the United Nations Security Counciland as of March 2011 is under investigation by the International Criminal Court.

Deaths caused by Loyalist forces

On February 23, the International Coalition Against War Criminals gave an estimate that519 people had died, 3,980 were wounded and over 1,500 were missing.

Human Rights Watch have estimated that at least 233 people had been killed by February22.

On February 23, Italy's Minister of Foreign Affairs Franco Frattini stated that accordingto his information 1,000 had died so far.

On February 24, the IFHR said that 130 soldiers had been executed in Benghazi and al-Baida, after they mutinied and sided with the protesters.

On February 25, Navi Pillay, the High Commissioner for Human Rights of the UnitedNations, said that reports indicated that "thousands may have been killed or injured".

On March 20, Abdul Hafiz Ghoga, spokesman for the National Transitional Council,stated that "more than 8,000" people are killed as a result of the uprising.

Deaths caused by Anti-Gaddafi forces

Among the security forces there had been more than 450 dead, including civilians insupport of the government, mercenaries and government soldiers. There have been manyreports that members of the security forces have been killed by both the government and


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the opposition. On February 18, two policemen were hanged by protesters in Benghazi.Also, on the same day, 50 African mercenaries, mostly from Chad, were executed by theprotesters in al-Baida. Some of them were killed when protestors burned down the policestation in which they locked them up and at least 15 were lynched in front of thecourthouse in al-Baida. The bodies of some of them were put on display and caught on

video. By February 23, the government confirmed that 111 soldiers had been killed.

Alleged deaths caused by Coalition forces

The Libyan official sources claimed that at least between 64 and 90 people were killedduring the bombardments on the first two days of the U.N. intervention and another 150had been wounded. These claims have not been verified by independent sources.

Legal status

On 26 February 2011, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) stated in UNSCResolution 1970, "the widespread and systematic attacks currently taking place in theLibyan Arab Jamahiriya against the civilian population may amount to crimes againsthumanity" and referred "the situation" in Libya since 15 February 2011 to theInternational Criminal Court (ICC), a permanent tribunal that presently can prosecuteindividuals for genocide, crimes against humanity or war crimes. On 4 March, the ICCassigned investigation of the case to Pre-trial Chamber I, consisting of Judge CunoTarfusser from Italy, Judge Sylvia Steiner from Brazil and Judge Sanji MmasenonoMonageng from Botswana.

Contrary to widespread perceptions, NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh

Rasmussenhas stated on the 28th March that it was impartial and that it interpreted theterms of the UNSC resolutions on the protection of civilians to apply to rebel, as well asgovernment forces. However, it was also reported by the BBC that the rebels felt theyhad a "private understanding" of the NATO mission. The NATO Secretary Generaldescribed the possibility that NATO would attack rebel forces who endanger civilianpopulations as "hypothetical".

Timeline of reported deaths per event

DateOpposition

fatalitiesGovernment

fatalitiesDetail

February 16 1 None reported Protests in Roujdane.

February 17-20 332-479 163 First Battle of BenghaziFebruary 17-25 300 None reported Tripoli clashes

February 17 4-10 None reported Protests in Ajdabiya.

February 18 2 None reported Protests in Qubah.February 18-23 6-14 None reported Protests in Misrata.


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February 20 4 None reported Protests in Tobruk.February 24-March 10

234-247 65 Battle of Az Zawiyah

February 24-ongoing

243-427 137-171 Battle of Misrata

February 26 22 None reportedCapture and execution ofrebel fighters at Sirte.

March 2 14 2-10 First Battle of Brega

March 4-12 71-81 4-27 Battle of Ra's Lanuf

March 4 34-100 None reportedExplosion at an arms depot inBenghazi.

March 6 12-60 1 First Battle of Bin Jawad

March 6 5-6 None reported Fighting in Zintan.

March 13-15 5 25 Second Battle of Brega

March 14 4 None reported Government re-taking ofZuwarah.

March 15-26 136 41 Battle of Ajdabiya

March 15 1 None reported Rebel fighter plane crashes.

March 17 None reported 1-2Bombing run on the Benghazimilitary air base.

March 18 1 4 Fighting in Nalut.

March 18 3-6 None reported Fighting in Zueitina.

March 19-20 120 27-30 Second Battle of Benghazi

March 21-22 9 None reported Fighting in Yefren.March 22-24 None reported 19-28

Coalition air-strikes onTripoli.

March 22-ongoing

16-21 90 Battle of Zintan

March 27-30 7 7 Late March rebel offensive

Based on the numbers, 1,586-2,077 opposition members/fighters and 586-664 Gaddafiloyalists have been killed by March 29, 2011, for a total of 2,172-2,741 reported deaths,of which some have not been independently confirmed. In addition, another 370opposition fighters and activists have been confirmed as missing in the fighting in theeast and 122 are reported to be missing in the Battle of Misrata for a total of 492 rebelsreported missing. However, this number could be higher since it was reported that 700rebels were missing following the First Battle of Bin Jawad.

If these numbers were to be confirmed as true, they would be in line with at least theWHO estimate of more than 2,000 killed or the IFHR estimate of 3,000 dead in the war.


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Deaths overall

The total number of people killed includes protesters, armed belligerents, and captivesexecuted:

SourceLibyan

casualtiesTime period

United Nations 1,000killed February 15 - March 7,2011

World Health Organization 2,000killed February 15 - March 2,2011

International Federation for HumanRights

3,000killed February 15 - March 5,2011

Libyan Human Rights League 6,000killed February 15 - March 5,

2011National Transitional Council 8,000killed February 15 - March 20,

2011

International Criminal Court 10,000killed February 15 - March 7,2011


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Chapter 4

Domestic Responses to the 2011 Libyan

Protests

The former Libyan flag used between 1951 and 1969 has been used by some protesters asan opposition flag.

This is a list of officialswho resigned or refused to take orders from the Gaddafi regimeduring the 2011 Libyan protests.

Government officialsMinisters in the General People's Committee

Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil, resigned 21 February 2011 Interior Minister and Army Major General Abdul Fatah Younis, defected 22

February 2011 as he announced his support for the protestors Minister for Immigration Ali Errishi, resigned 7 March 2011


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Foreign Affairs Minister Moussa Koussa, resigned and fled to Britain on 30March 2011

Other government officials

Nouri Al-Mismari, former head of protocol Ahmad Qaddaf al-Damm, a cousin and aide of Gaddafi has fled to Cairo reporting

of "grave violations to human right and human and international laws." Saif Al Arab Gaddafi, (not to be confused with Saif Al Islam Gadaffi), second

youngest son of Muammar al-Gaddafi joined protestors on 24 February 2011. Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar, Libyan Prosecutor General resigned on 25 February

2011 and joined the opposition. Mohamed Amer Bayou, spokesman for the Gaddafi regime, resigned on 25

February over violence against protesters. By February 27, Libya's biggest oil company, Agaco, turned against the Gaddafi

regime.

Libyan diplomatic personnel

Country/Organization

Official Date Notes

Arab League

AmbassadorAbdulmoneimal-Honi

20 February 2011The reason for his resignationwas the "oppression againstprotesters".

The Libyandelegation to the

Arab League inCairo hasrenouncedGaddafi andnow represents'the people'

25 February 2011They condemned his attack on"unarmed citizens".

UnitedNations

AmbassadorAbdel RahmanShalgham

25 February 2011

Did not resign, but denouncedGaddafi in a speech before theSecurity Council and nolonger supports the regime.

DeputyAmbassadorIbrahim OmarAl Dabashi

21 February 2011

Did not resign, but no longersupports government. On 26February 2011, he stated thathe supported "in principle" thealternative government beingformed in Benghazi.

Delegation tothe Human

25 February 2011


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Rights CouncilEntire missionto the UN inGeneva

UNESCO

Ambassador

Abdoulsalam ElQallali

25 February 2011

Australia Musbah Allafi 20 February 2011

Austria Embassy staff 23 February 2011

The Libyan Embassy inAustria condemned 'excessiveviolence against peacefuldemonstrators', stated that theyrepresent the Libyan peopleand offered condolences to thefamilies of the victims.

Bangladesh Ambassador AHElimam 20 February 2011

Belgium Ambassador 21 February 2011

CanadaCounsellor IhabAl-Mismari

23 February 2011

Son of Gaddafi's formerprotocol chief Nuri Al-Mismari told Toronto Star heresigned because embassy'scharg d'affaires was "hiding"the gravity of the deadlycrackdown back home....killing the friends with

whom I grew up, they arekilling my brothers andsisters.

China

SecondSecretary to theambassadorHussein Sadiq alMusrati

20 February 2011He also called on the army tointervene and called for allLibya's diplomats to resign

EgyptConsularemployees in

Alexandria

22 February 2011

Staff at the Libyan consulatein Alexandria removed theGaddafi-era green flag andjoined protestors outside

EuropeanUnion

Ambassador 21 February 2011

France

AmbassadorMohamedSalaheddineZarem

25 February 2011


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HungaryEmbassy staff

(undefined)22 February 2011

Two members of the staff leftthe embassy to join theprotesters in front of thebuilding. On the 21st Marchthe Libyan embassy in

Budapest is seen flying the oldtricolor flag which indicatesthat they have officiallychanged sides in favor of theNational Transitional Council.

IndiaAmbassador Alial-Essawi

21 February 2011

IndonesiaAmbassadorSalaheddin M.El Bishari

21 February 2011

Jordan

AmbassadorMohammedHassan AlBarghathi

24 February 2011

Malaysia Embassy staff 22 February 2011Distanced themselves from thegovernment and called theprotests a "massacre."

Mali

Consul generalMusa Al-Koni(later referred as"Musa Kuni")

March 5

Later accused by Malianofficials of being an"impostor" who initiallyrecruited Tuareg mercenaries

before fleeing to Paris with themoney entrusted to him forthat purpose.

MaltaEmbassy staff(undefined)

22 February 2011

Left the embassy to join theprotestors in front of it. Theembassy is now flying the flagof the protestors.

Morocco Embassy staff 23 February 2011Staff destroyed images ofMuammar al-Gaddafi anddestroyed the Gaddafi-era flag

Nambia

Second-highestrankingdiplomat SaadBakar

3 March 2011

The second-highest rankingdiplomat in Namibia, SaadBakar, his wife and fourchildren has left for aMediterranean country to jointhe opposition movement.

Netherlands Embassy staff 8 March 2011Replacement of the Gaddafi-era flag with the Libyan 1951


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1969 flag as used by the 2011protesters; no furthercomments where made.

Poland Ambassador 22 February 2011

Portugal

Ambassador Ali

IbrahimEmdored

25 February 2011

SomaliaAmbassadorIssa Ashur

26 February 2011

Announced he is "joining therevolution", and wouldcontinue to carry out his duties"as a representative of theLibyan people"

Sweden

Ambassador;DeputyAmbassador

AbdelmagidBuzrigh;non-diplomaticstaff

23 February 2011

After days of protests, theembassy announced on 23

February that they no longersupport Gaddafi and lifted theformer Libyan flag

Switzerland Embassy staff 11 March 2011

"The members of the embassyno longer have any link to theregime of Moammar Gaddafi,and call on all countries tofollow the example set by theRepublic of France inrecognising the National

Transitional Council whichrepresents the interests of theLibyan people".

United States

of America

Ambassador AliSuleimanAujali;

22 February 2011

Ambassador did not initiallyresign, even though hedistanced himself from theLibyan government. However,he resigned on 22 Februarysaying he does not serve the"dictatorship." On 26 February2011, he stated that he

supported the efforts to forman alternative government inBenghazi.

Counsel SalehAli Al Majbari,Counsel JumaaFaris

21 February 2011


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Contrary to previous reports, the Ambassador of Libya to the United Kingdom has notresigned, but did not want to discuss his support for Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi.

According to the Toronto Star, the Ambassador of Libya to Canada is on "sick leave".

A growing number of Libyan embassies around the world have started to fly the formerflag of Libya used between 1951 and 1969.

Military

Abdul Fatah Younis, interior minister who resigned and defected, held theposition of Major General, and was the top military leader.

Major General Suleiman Mahmoud whom Al Jazeera describes as "a commanderof the Libyan army in Tobruk" called Colonel Gaddafi "a tyrant" and announcedthat he and his forces changed sides towards the protestors.

On March 1, Brigadier Musaed Ghaidan Al Mansouri the head of the Al Wahat

Security Directorate and Brigadier Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi defected to theanti-government side. Brigadier Dawood Issa Al Qafsi later joined the oppositionas well.

Brigadier Dawood Issa Al Qafsi also said that he "join[s] the Feb 17 revolution.With me are officers, non commissioned officers and soldiers in the ArmedForces units in Ajdabia, Braiga, Bisher, Ogaila, Sultan and Zwaitina...Glory to themartyrs of the revolution...We announce that we join the Libyan Military Councilformed in Benghazi." This came after he said "two war planes took off from AlQurdabiyeh base in Sirte for a raid on the town of Ajdabia. It was confronted byAnti-aircraft guns and forced it to flee without human casualties. We call on ourhonorable people in Sirte to intervene and to advice their sons to refuse

bombarding any Libyan town to spare the blood of the innocent of our greatpeople."

Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Maltaafter being ordered to carry out air strikes against anti-government protesters inBenghazi. One of the Libyan colonels has reportedly requested asylum.

On 13 March 2011, Ali Atiyya, a colonel of the Libyan Air Force at the Mitigamilitary airport, near Tripoli defected and joined the rebellion.

Colonel Nuretin Hurala, of the Libyan Navy, comanding Benghazi Naval baseand his command, defected to the rebellion.

OtherThe Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second largest state-owned oil company in Libya,announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces. This will prove a majorboost for the embattled rebel forces highly low on funds.

Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema Libya urgedall Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi. The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes have


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announced their support of the protesters. The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya,have threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in their part of the country if Libyansecurity forces continued attacking demonstrators.

Youssef Sawani, a senior aide to Muammer Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, resigned

from his post "to express dismay against violence".

On 28 February, Gaddafi reportedly appointed the head of Libya's foreign intelligenceservice to speak to the leadership of the anti-government protesters in the east of thecountry.

A young Benghazian carrying King Idris' photo. Support of the royal Senussi dynasty hastraditionally been strong in Cyrenaica.

Former royals

Libyan-throne claimant, Muhammad as-Senussi, sent his condolences "for the heroeswho have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on theinternational community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect." as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for internationalsupport to end the violence.


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On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview toAl Jazeera Englishwhere he calledupon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop theongoing "massacre". He has dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people andthe tribes have proven they are united".

Questioned about what shape a new government could take, and whether the 1951 royalconstitution could be revived, as-Senussi said that such questions are "premature and areissues that are to be decided by the Libyan people," adding that for now the priority is tostop the "killing of innocent people." On whether he desires to return to Libya he says"The Senussi family considers itself as in the service of the Libyan people." When askedabout reestablishing the monarchy, he has stated that he "is a servant to Libyan people,and they decide what they want".

The White House said it will not specify which individuals and groups it is working andreaching out with, when asked if it supports as-Senussi's calls for international support.

In an interview withAsharq Al-Awsat, he stated that it is too early to answer if themonarchy in Libya could be restored and if he will be active in Libyan poltics. He alsosays the main objective is to end the violence on the streets in Libya.

On 3 March, it was announced that he planned to return to Libya. On 4 March, he calledthe West to use airstrikes against Gaddafi after his contacts in Libya told him they needairstrikes. He also argued that a no-fly zone would be insufficient but later calls for theno-fly zone.

He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop theviolence. He has asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground

troops. He sent a letter to current UN secreatary general Ban Ki-moon calling the UN toimpose the no fly zone. He has also stated that a no-fly zone is the only way to stopGaddafi who he has said is relying comptely on the air force.

In an interview withAdnkronos, Idris al-Senussi, a pretender to the Libyan throne,announced he was ready to return to the country once change had been initiated. On 21February 2011, Idris made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonightto discuss theuprising.

On 24 February, his brother Hashem called on Gaddafi "to have mercy" on thedemonstrators, just as he did with members of the former Royal Family in 1969 when he

allowed them to leave the country unharmed after the coup that overthrew the monarchy.On 3 March, it was reported that Prince Al Senussi Zouber Al Senussi had fled Libyawith his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.

On March 17 Prince Mohamed Hilal El Senusi returned to Libya after 41 years in exile.


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Chapter 5

2011 Military Intervention in Libya

Military intervention in Libya

Part of 2011 Libyan civil war

The no-fly zone over Libya as well as bases and warships

which are involved in the intervention

Date 19 March 2011ongoingLocation Libya

Status Ongoing (precision airstrikes, no-flyzone and naval blockade)

Belligerents

Countries enforcingUN SC Resolution 1973:

Libyan ArabJamahiriya:

Armed forces Militia


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NATO

Belgium Bulgaria

Canada Denmark France Greece Italy Netherlands Norway Romania Spain Turkey United

Kingdom United States

QatarSwedenUnited Arab Emirates

Foreignmercenaries


Charles Bouchard

douard GuillaudRinaldo Veri

Sir Stuart PeachCarter HamSam LocklearHamad bin Khalifa Al

ThaniSverker GranssonKhalifa bin Zayed Al

Nahyan

Muammar Gaddafi

Saif al-Islam al-GaddafiKhamis al-GaddafiAl-Saadi al-GaddafiAbu-Bakr Yunis

Jabr


1 USAF F-15E StrikeEagle crashed (both pilotssurvived)

16 soldiers killed and 70vehicles destroyed nearBenghazi: 14 tanks, 20APCs, 2 mobile MRLs,1 mobile SAM and 33Jeeps, SUVs, technicalsor trucks;4 out-of-service mobileMRLs destroyed inTripoli;20 surface-to-air missile


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sites bombed;

6 Libyan Soko G-2Galeb aircraft and 2 Mi-35 military helicopters

destroyed near Misrata22 tanks, armouredvehicles, and artillerypieces hit by RAF

'[A]lmost 100' - probably 98 - dead civilians and 445wounded, as of 25 March*

*Libyan health ministry claims 'almost 100' civilians killedand 445 wounded. The U.S. military claims it has noknowledge of civilian casualties.

On March 19, 2011 a multi-national coalition began a military intervention in Libyatoimplement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which was taken inresponse to events during the 2011 Libyan uprising. On March 19, military operationsbegan, with US and British forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the FrenchAir Force and British Royal Air Force undertaking sorties across Libya and a navalblockade by the Royal Navy. Air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles byFrench jets have since been confirmed. The official names for the interventions by thecoalition members are Opration Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the UnitedKingdom; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawnfor the United States.

Since the beginning of the intervention, the initial coalition of Belgium, Canada,Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US has expanded to 16 nations,with newer nations mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade. The effort wasinitially largely led by France and the United Kingdom, with command shared with theUnited States. NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, named OperationUnified Protector. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign (whilstkeeping political and strategic control with a small group), first failed over objections bythe French, German, and Turkish governments. On 24 March, NATO agreed to takecontrol of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remains withcoalition forces. The handover is to occur in the following days.

Proposal for the no-fly zone

Both Libyan and international states and organisations called for a no-fly zone overLibya in light of airstrikes against Libyan rebels conducted by Muammar Gaddafi'smilitary in the 2011 Libyan uprising.


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Chronology

21 February 2011- Libyan deputy Permanent Representative to UN AmbassadorIbrahim Dabbashi "[called] on the UN to impose a no-fly zone on all Tripoli tocut off all supplies of arms and mercenaries to the regime."

28 February 2011- British Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea ofa no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from "airlifting mercenaries" and "using hismilitary aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians."

7 March 2011- U.S. Ambassador to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATOdecided to step up surveillance missions of E-3 AWACS aircraft to 24 hours aday. On the same day it was reported that an anonymous UN diplomat confirmedto Agence France Presse that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution onthe no-fly zone that would be considered by the United Nations Security Councilduring the same week. The Gulf Cooperation Council also on that day called upon

the UN Security Council to "take all necessary measures to protect civilians,including enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya."

VOA News report on the United States support of the no-fly zone


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9 March 2011- The head of the Libyan National Transitional Council, MustafaAbdul Jalil, "pleaded for the international community to move quickly to imposea no-fly zone over Libya, declaring that any delay would result in morecasualties". Three days later, he stated that if pro-Gaddafi forces reachedBenghazi, then they would kill "half a million" people. He stated, "If there is no

no-fly zone imposed on Gaddafi's regime, and his ships are not checked, we willhave a catastrophe in Libya."

On 12 March, thousands of Libyan women marched in the streets of the rebel-held townof Benghazi, calling for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya.

9 March 2011- The United States had naval forces positioned off the coast ofLibya, as well as forces already in the region, including the aircraft carrierUSS Enterprise. Canada had dispatched naval frigate HMCS Charlottetownto thearea, reinforcing the display of Western power. Canadian Defence Minister PeterMacKay stated, "We are there for all inevitabilities. And NATO is looking at this

as well ... This is taken as a precautionary and staged measure." Canadian PrimeMinister Stephen Harper stated that the Canadian Forces Air Command is readyto contribute to setting up a no-fly zone if the UN and NATO decided to do this.

10 March 2011- France recognized the Libyan NTC as the legitimategovernment of Libya soon after French President Nicolas Sarkozy met with themin Paris. This meeting was arranged by Bernard-Henri Lvy.

12 March 2011- The Arab League "called on the United Nations SecurityCouncil to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from airattack". The Arab League's request was announced by Oman's Foreign minister,

Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah, who stated that all member states present at themeeting agreed with the proposal.

15 March 2011- A resolution for a no-fly zone was proposed by Nawaf Salam,Lebanon's Ambassador to the United Nations. The resolution was immediatelybacked by France and the United Kingdom.

Demonstrators urging the international community to establish a no-fly zone and sendGaddafi to the International Criminal Court in Hague.

17 March 2011- The United Nations Security Council, acting under the authorityof Chapter VII of the UN Charter, approved a no-fly zone by a vote of 10 in


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favour, zero against, and five abstentions, via United Nations Security CouncilResolution 1973. The five abstentions were: Brazil, Russia, India, China, andGermany. Less than 24 hours later, Libya announced that it would halt all militaryoperations in the country in response to the Security Council resolution.

18 March 2011- The Libyan foreign minister, Mussa Kussa, said that he haddeclared a ceasefire, attributing the UN resolution. However, artillery shelling onMisrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approachingBenghazi. Government troops and tanks entered the city on 19 March. Artilleryand mortars were also fired into the city.

19 March 2011- Coalition forces began the military intervention in Libya withstrikes against armoured units south of Benghazi and attacks on Libyan air-defence systems, as United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 called forusing "all necessary means" to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas fromattack, imposed a no-fly zone, and called for an immediate cease-fire, while also

strengthening travel bans on members of the regime, arms embargoes, and assetfreezes.

24 March 2011- In telephone negotiations, French foreign minister Alain Jupphas conceded to let NATO take over all military operations on Tuesday 29 Marchat the latest, allowing Turkey to veto strikes on Gaddafi ground forces from thatpoint forward. Later reports stated that NATO would take over enforcement of theno-fly zone and the arms embargo, but discussions were still under way aboutwhether NATO would take over the protection of civilians mission. Turkeyreportedly wants the power to veto airstrikes, while France wants to preventTurkey from having such a veto.

U.S President Barrack Obama addressing the nation about the U.S intervention in Libya


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25 March 2011NATO Allied Joint Force Command in Naples took command ofthe no-fly zone over Libya and combined it with the ongoing arms embargooperation under the name Operation Unified Protector.

Enforcement

Coloured in blue are the nations currently involved in implementing the no-fly zone overLibya (coloured in green)

Initial NATO planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and earlyMarch, especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom. France and theUnited Kingdom were early supporters of a no-fly zone and have sufficient airpower toimpose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additionalassistance for a more extensive exclusion zone.

The U.S. has the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious to supportsuch an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. However,due to the sensitive nature of military action by the U.S. against an Arab nation, the U.S.has sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone.

At a congressional hearing, United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates explained

that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences ... and thenyou can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. Butthat's the way it starts."

On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began, and othercountries began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with theinvolvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy and Canada.


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On 24 March, NATO ambassadors agreed that NATO will take command of the no-flyzone enforcement, while other military operations remained the responsibility of thegroup of nations previously involved, with NATO expected to take control as early as 26March. The decision was made after meetings of NATO members to resolvedisagreements over whether military operations in Libya should include attacks on

ground forces. The decision will create a two-level power structure overseeing militaryoperations. In charge politically will be a committee, led by NATO, that includes allcountries participating in enforcing the no-fly zone, while NATO alone will beresponsible for military action. Lieutenant General Charles Bouchard has been appointedto command the NATO military mission.

Operation names

NATO: Operation Unified Protector(arms embargo and no-fly zone) Belgium: Operation Odyssey Dawnand/or Operation Freedom Falcon Canada: Operation MOBILE France: Opration Harmattan United Kingdom: Operation Ellamy United States, Italy, Denmark, Norway: Operation Odyssey

Dawn

Forces committed

Belgium: Six F-16 Falcon fighter jets of the Belgian Air Component arestationed at Araxos, Greece, and flew their first mission in the afternoon of 21March. They are monitoring the no-fly zone and have successfully attackedground targets with no collateral damage on 27 March, as reported by the Belgian

Ministry of Defence. The Belgian Naval Component minehunter BNSNarcisisassisting in the naval blockade.

Bulgaria: The Bulgarian Navy Wielingen class frigateDrazkiwill participatein the naval blockade, along with a number of "special naval forces", two medicalteams and other humanitarian help. The frigate can leave port on 15 April at theearliest as it needs additional preparations.

Canada: Canadian Forces Air Command has deployed seven (6 front line, 1reserve) CF-18 fighter jets, two CC-150 Polaris refuelling aircraft, two CC-177Globemaster III heavy transports, two CC-130J Super Hercules tactical transports,and two CP-140 Aurora maritime patrol aircraft. In total 440 military personnel aswell as theHalifax-class frigate HMCS Charlottetownare participating in

operations. There are reports that there are members of JTF2 working withBritains SAS and SBS on the ground in Libya.

Denmark: The Royal Danish Air Force is participating with six F-16AMfighters, one C-130J-30 Super Hercules military transport plane and thecorresponding ground crews. Only four F-16s will be used for offensiveoperations, while the remaining two will act as reserves. The first airstrikes fromDanish aircraft were carried out on March 23, with four aircraft making twelvesorties as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.


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France: French Air Force Mirage and Rafale aircraft are participating in themission, while C-160G SIGINT aircraft are stationed at Souda Bay, Greece. Inaddition, the French Navy anti-air destroyer Forbinand the frigateJean Bartare

participating in the operations. On 22 March, the aircraft carrier Charles deGaullewas sent to be positioned in international waters near Crete to provide

military planners with a rapid-response air combat capability. Accompanying theCharles de Gaulleare the frigatesDupleixandAconitand the fleet replenishmenttankerMeuse. France will also station three Mirage-2000 aircraft at Souda Bay,Crete.

Greece: The Elli-class frigateLimnosof the Hellenic Navy is currently in thewaters off Libya as part of the naval blockade. The Hellenic Air Force providesSuper Puma search-and-rescue helicopters and an Embraer 145 AEW&C airborneradar plane.

Italy: Four Tornado ECRs of the Italian Air Force participated in SEADoperations, supported by two Tornado IDS variants in an air-to-air refuelling roleand four F-16 ADF fighters as escort. As of 24 March, the Italian Navy is

engaged in Operation Unified Protector with the light aircraft carrier Garibaldi,theMaestrale-class frigateLibeccioand the Etna-class auxiliary ship Etna.Additionally theHorizon-class frigateAndrea Doriaand Maestrale-class friga

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2011 Libyan Civil War

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