INTERNATIONAL HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAMME
CYANONET A Global Network for Cyanobacterial Bloom and Toxin Risk Management
Initial Situation Assessment and Recommendations By G.A. Codd, S.M.F.O. Azevedo, S.N. Bagchi, M.D. Burch, W.W. Carmichael, W.R. Harding, K. Kaya and H.C. Utkilen
IHP-VI ⏐Technical Documents in Hydrology ⏐ No. 76 UNESCO, Paris, 2005
Published in 2005 by the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France IHP-VI Technical Document in Hydrology N°76 UNESCO Working Series SC-2005/WS/55 © UNESCO/IHP 2005 The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for education or nonprofit use, without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. As a courtesy the authors should be informed of any use made of their work. No use of this publication may be made for commercial purposes.
Publications in the series of IHP Technical Documents in Hydrology are available from: IHP Secretariat | UNESCO | Division of Water Sciences 1 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France Tel: +33 (0)1 45 68 40 01 | Fax: +33 (0)1 45 68 58 11 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.unesco.org/water/ihp
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CONTENTS
Page number EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 INTRODUCTION 4 AIMS OF CYANONET 7 AFRICA: SITUATION ASSESSMENT 9 WESTERN ASIA: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS AND HEALTH ISSUES 21 ASIA: EASTERN ASIA 33 AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 47 EUROPE: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS, THEIR HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE AND RISK MANAGEMENT 71 NORTH AMERICA: CYANOHABS 94 SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA: TOXIC CYANOBACTERIA 115 SYNTHESIS 127 RECOMMENDATIONS 132 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 135 BIBLIOGRAPHY 136
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Introduction CYANONET is a part of UNESCO’s International Hydrology Programme-VI and was established to address an issue of growing global concern: the annual production of excessive populations of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and their potent toxins (cyanotoxins) in water resources and the risks which these present to health. CYANONET’s aims include short- and long-term actions. The short-term actions include: global situation assessment of the occurrence and impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins and risk management responses, where these are available, for the protection of water resources and health. The short-term aims (Phase I) were to be achieved by establishment of an International Steering Committee, to whom a growing network of National Contacts would report. Phase I would also include establishment of a CYANONET website with public access, and the identification of needs and recommendations to alleviate cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin problems through risk management. The aims of Phase II include: further situation assessment, expansion of the National Contact network, and production of training and educational materials and their dissemination, to assist international capacity-building. Phase I This has been carried out over a 1-year period with the following results:
• An International Steering Committee (ISC) was established to begin to develop global coverage. Regions for the purposes of situation assessment and network building have been defined as (responsible ISC member in parentheses: Africa (W.R. Harding, South Africa); Asia (Western) (S.N. Bagchi, India); Asia (Eastern) (K. Kaya, Japan); Australasia and Oceania (M.D. Burch, Australia); Europe (G.A. Codd, UK and H.C. Utkilen, Norway); North America (W.W. Carmichael, USA); and South and Central America (S.M.F.O. Azevedo, Brazil).
• A network of National Contacts (NC) has been established in each Region. This
has produced an initial global assessment, at national level, of cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin occurrences in water resources, associated incidents (including health) and management measures (where available).
• The survey has shown that toxin-producing mass populations of cyanobacteria,
and specifically the cyanotoxins, occur throughout all Regions and in all countries for which data are available. Examples of adverse effects upon human or animal health are available from all Regions.
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• Although data are available for some affected countries (in which the necessary awareness and expertise exists), information was unavailable for neighbouring countries. The circumstances of shared climate and hydrological characteristics, and water–use practices between such neighbours, indicates that the situation assessment so far, although widescale, under-represents the scale of the problem and of the resulting health and other adverse effects.
• Management actions to monitor cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in water
resources, and to control their negative impacts have been, and continue to be, used and further developed in a limited number of countries. These are countries in which a relatively high level of knowledge in cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin science, and associated technical expertise and its application are available. This knowledge, expertise and risk management capacity to control cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin problems is limited or totally lacking in numerous other countries from which NCs have reported.
• A CYANONET website has been established (www.cyanonet.org), (Website
Manager, T. Jurczak, Poland). Proposed Phase II Assessment by the ISC of the data collected in Phase I has confirmed and strengthened the case for extension and expansion of CYANONET to Phase II, to achieve the long-term aims. The recommendations arising include:
• Further development of the network of National Contacts, to fill in remaining gaps in reporting and strengthen mechanisms for future dissemination and capacity-building activities.
• Continuation of international data collection to permit the updating of the
situation assessment.
• Development of guidance materials and management tools for cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin risk management. To include: (a) a gallery of images of cyanobacteria and scenarios including cyanotoxin occurrences; (b) training course packages for professional groups in water supply, health and environmental protection, including sampling, monitoring and analysis protocols; (c) generic, transferable and adaptable decision-making systems (Alert Level Frameworks) for the risk management of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins.
• Establishment of a CYANONET Database of current international and national
guidelines, regulations and other management materials on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins.
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• Continued development of the CYANONET website. The current sections displaying information on Contact Points, Links, Frequently Asked Questions and News should be augmented by information in sections created for a Database (with public and members’ sub-sections), Gallery of Images, and Implementation Protocols (access to experienced researchers and laboratories, management tools, lists of global guidelines and legislation, education and training resources and events).
• Attainment of the aims of Phase II would be aided by a proposed Second
CYANONET Workshop and close liaison with the relevant Themes in UNESCO’s International Hydrology Programme-VI.
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INTRODUCTION In recent years, the incidence of harmful algal blooms, both marine (sometimes called red tides) and freshwater (sometimes called waterblooms or CyanoHABs) has increased globally in frequency, severity, and duration (Anderson et al., 1993; Chorus and Bartram, 1999). These episodes are not attributable to a single algal class but rather to a variety of morphologically, ecologically and physiologically diverse species. Some have long been recognised as problem species, others have previously been considered harmless, and still others were unknown to science until their initial outbreaks (Table. 1). The causes for this apparent expansion are unknown, but some believe that human alteration of the water quality of the coastal zone and freshwater environments is an important factor. Table 1. Harmful Algae Groups ______________________________________________________________________
• Produce dense blooms leading to oxygen stress. – Dinoflagellates – Cyanobacteria (prokaryotic microbes)
• Produce potent toxins—illness and death via food chain or biomass accumulation.
– Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) – Diarrheal shellfish poisoning (DSP) – Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) – Ciguatera fishfood poisoning (CFP) – Estuary-associated syndrome (EAS) – Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) – Cyanobacteria toxin poisoning (CTP)
________________________________________________________________________ All of the above modes of poisoning are due to dinoflagellates except ASP which is caused by diatoms and CTP which is due to several genera and species of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Economic losses from marine HABs in the United States total millions of dollars per year, and include the cost of toxin monitoring programs, closures of harvestable shellfish resources, mortalities of wild and farmed fish and shellfish, and the value of resources that are not exploited or developed because of the presence or threat of toxic outbreaks. Freshwater HABs, particularly cyanobacteria cause similar economic losses, in addition to the health threats posed to drinking water supplies, but they have not been analysed and documented as closely as marine HABs. A few countries, including Australia, Canada, some European countries and The United States have made partial progress in managing these threats to water resources through state-run toxin monitoring programs (including some for freshwaters) and harvesting restrictions of marine fish and shellfish. Brazil, which suffered human fatalities in 1996
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from cyanotoxins, and several European countries have enacted legislation to regulate the amount of one cyanotoxin group in their drinking water supplies. Overall, national and state agencies have provided relatively minor and often unsustained research support for local or regional studies, and state support has been even smaller and more sporadic. At the same time, a small number of research, water management and health teams have made significant progress in developing methodologies for toxin analysis, in understanding the structure and pharmacology of certain toxins, in investigating the physiology of toxin production in cyanobacteria and depuration from fish and shellfish, and in documenting the abundance and distribution of certain harmful species during blooms. Despite these efforts, however, we remain woefully ignorant of the complex mechanisms underlying the growth and accumulation of individual cyanobacterial species in blooms and other mass accumulations, the transfer and fate of the toxins through food chains, and perhaps most disturbingly, the influence of human activities on these processes. Also lacking are many of the tools needed for efficient management of potentially toxic waterblooms, contaminated fish, shellfish and vegetables. In particular, sensitive, rapid alternative assay methods are needed for lakeside, dockside and market-place testing. The study of freshwater HABs, including cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins lags far behind that of marine HABs and their biotoxins. For marine HABs, Canada, France, Norway, Sweden, China, The United States, the European Union and others have coordinated national and international research programs. These include workshops and meetings to exchange results and search for solutions to common problems, sustained funding in directions identified as being of high priority, and continual re-evaluation of progress and plans for the future. In contrast, most countries have only small, fragmented research programs on freshwater HABs, carried out by individual investigators, with small budgets that are rarely sustained through time. Thus, there is often insufficient communication between international workers and little coordination of activities with respect to national and international priorities. The shortfall in our ability to understand and manage these growing problems is a major part of the reason CYANONET was established. Sound input is urgently needed from scientists, industry, and regulatory officials to keep these new research initiatives focused on high priority, productive endeavors. Thus, the primary goals of CYANONET include the establishment of a website which can act as a clearing house to establish the global situation of Cyanobacteria Harmful Algae Blooms (CyanoHABs). Data from this website will be used to inform nations on the occurrence, distribution and efforts to manage and mitigate the effects of toxic cyanbacteria and their toxins. Countries can also use this information, including a series of recommendations intended to address the major impediments to progress in the management of, and scientific research on, harmful cyanobacteria and associated toxins, to help formulate remedial and preventative action plans, from local to national level. This Report details the results of the First CYANONET Workshop, which was held at the University of Dundee, Scotland on November 27, 2004. That workshop provided an up-to-date, initial global assessment of CyanoHABs and cyanotoxins, their impacts and of
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management actions being used to address these. A website (CYANONET) for presentation of the global assessment, and as a mechanism for all countries to contribute to databases was also established. http://www.cyanonet.org References Anderson, D.M., Galloway, S.B., Joseph, J.D. (1993). Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algae: A National Plan. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Technical Report WHOI-93-02. Chorus, I. and Bartram, J. (eds.) (1999). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to Their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. World Health Organization, E&FN Spon, Routledge, London.
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AIMS OF CYANONET 1. Background The CYANONET project arose out of a UNESCO International Hydrology Programme V Conference (Ecohydrology: “Water Interactions, Systems at Risk and Social Interactions”), held in Venice in September 2001. It has started as part of the UNESCO IHP-VI Action in Ecohydrology. Scattered reports of cyanobacterial mass populations, cyanotoxins and associated human and animal health problems, are available, and continue to emerge, from diverse locations in different continents. These indicate that excessive growths of toxigenic cyanobacteria present health risks, amongst further problems to water resources e.g. loss of amenity and biodiversity, on a global basis. Examples exist of both reactive and proactive management actions to reduce the risks presented by toxigenic cyanobacteria to health and water supplies. Such experience is limited to a small number of countries. However the possibility exists to extend and increase recognition and awareness of the occurrence of cyanobacteria and their toxins, and to more widely provide further management tools to counteract the production and adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass growths and cyanotoxins. Whether benefits to human society and health are likely to be widely generated through an international extension of education, training and technology transfer for the risk management of toxic cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in water resources, requires more information. Thus, Situation Assessment is a major aim of CYANONET. For this to be effective, active participation is necessary by experienced authorities in the field of study, and of colleagues in relevant sectors (e.g. water industry, public health, environmental protection). The present (1-year) CYANONET project is viewed as a launching activity to enable the longer-term aims of CYANONET to be achieved: 2. Aims of CYANONET (Year 1: Launching Activity) These included:
• Establishment of the first global network, IHP CYANONET, for the risk management of cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins in water resources.
• Establishment, maintenance and initial development of a CYANONET Webpage
for one year with public access.
• Global network to consist initially of an International Scientific Steering Committee (ISC), involving high-level experts from throughout the world.
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• ISC activities to include initial Situation Assessment of the global occurrence of
(a) cyanobacterial mass populations; (b) cyanotoxins; (c) associated health incidents [human, animal]; (d) structured investigations into cyanotoxins and health incidents; (e) availability and application of risk management actions to reduce adverse impacts of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins; (f) availability of educational, awareness-raising and training materials and practices.
• Build-up of a wider working party of national/regional representatives and experts
in individual countries or states to report to the ISC.
• Organisation and holding of the First CYANONET Workshop (at the University of Dundee, UK), for contributions from the ISC for Situation Assessment.
• From the Situation Assessment: Identification and Prioritisation of Needs and
Recommendations for future actions to address risk management of cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins in water resources (the longer-term aims of IHP CYANONET).
• Editing and publication of the Proceedings of the First CYANONET Workshop.
3. Aims of CYANONET (longer term) These include:
• Establishment of databases on: (a) toxic cyanobacterial mass populations in water resources in developed and developing countries; (b) types and concentrations of cyanotoxins in water resources; (c) available experts in cyanobacterial toxicology and risk management; (d) case studies of toxic cyanobacterial health incidents where available, the management actions taken and their outcomes; (e) local and traditional knowledge of cyanobacterial bloom occurrences, precautions and responses; (f) established modern risk management structures, e.g. task groups, for cyanobacterial bloom mitigation and cyanotoxin control.
• Produce examples of Alert Level Framework Systems and Action Plans,
including decision trees and contingency plans for cyanobacterial bloom and cyanotoxin risk management.
• Build awareness and social responsibility among the general public and
professional groups and end-user groups, through the CYANONET website, educational activities, leaflets, workshops and training courses.
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AFRICA: SITUATION ASSESSMENT William R. Harding Regional CYANONET Representative for Africa, Somerset West, South Africa [email protected] 1. Approach This report documents the actions taken and the results achieved during the period 10 August – 23 November 2004. The purpose of this phase of the CYANONET initiative was to (a) identify potential providers of information pertaining to cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial toxins in each and every country on the African continent; and (b) request of those identified to provide a summary report in response to specific questions. This process commenced on 12 August 2004 following receipt of permission to utilise the UNESCO logo – and with this permission having being received from Prof GA Codd on 9 August 2004. Accordingly this report encompasses actions undertaken during a short period of 3 months. There are 57 countries in Africa – some of which are small island states (e.g. St Helena), and several are currently in the grip of national unrest and/or civil disturbance (e.g. Sudan). Potential national representatives were identified from existing information, and from requests directed to various South African governmental departments, as well as to colleagues. Despite the existence of various pan-African organisations or the involvement of more developed countries such as South Africa across the rest of the continent, there was a surprising lack of inter-national contact information in the fields of water resource management, agriculture and public health. Ultimately the most successful (as measured by responses received) database was provided by the International Society for Limnology (SIL). Given the absence of any budget for disbursements the initial approach was made in the form of letters forwarded by email to 107 individuals. The use of this electronic means of communication only yielded responses from researchers and others known to the undersigned. A large percentage of the emailed approaches were returned as undeliverable. During October a second phase of approaches was made by letter to a further 42 individuals. This approach was much more successful, despite the time period required for letters to be received and responded to – for example three positive responses were received on the day prior to departing for the UK to attend this workshop. Other responses have advised that the letter of invitation has been referred by the original recipient elsewhere for attention. It is apparent that the call for assistance has had a “knock-on” effect through the further dissemination of the original appeal via the initial recipient to others.
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2. Summary of Established Contacts At the time of writing this report, potential contacts have been identified in 31 countries (54%); detailed reports have been received from 6 (11%) and reports in preparation have been promised from a further 10 (18%), with interim (brief) responses received from 2 of these. Contacts are still being sought in the remaining 10 (17%) countries (see Table 1). Contact details for the respondents having submitted reports are provided in Appendix A. Several of the respondents have indicated that given the time constraint their reports are preliminary and will be augmented in due course. It is estimated that a detailed coverage for Africa will be available by July 2005.
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Table 1: List of African countries for which contacts have been identified, from which reports have been received and for which reports are in progress (as of 23 November 2004):
COUNTRYPOTENTIAL CONTACT
IDENTIFIED
REPORT RECEIVED
REPORT IN PROGRESS COUNTRY
POTENTIAL CONTACT
IDENTIFIED
REPORT RECEIVED
REPORT IN PROGRESS
Algeria Yes Madagascar Yes YesAngola Yes Malawi YesAscension Island Mali Benin Mauritania Botswana Yes Mauritius YesBurkina Faso Yes Yes Morocco Yes YesBurundi Yes Yes Mozambique YesCameroon Yes Namibia Yes YesCape Verde Niger Central African Republic Nigeria Yes YesChad Reunion Comoros Rwanda YesCongo (Brazzaville) Saint Helena Island Congo, Dem Rep Yes Sao Tome and Principe Côte d'Ivoire Yes Yes Senegal Yes YesDjibouti Seychelles Egypt Yes Yes Sierra Leone YesEquitorial Guinea Somalia Eritrea Yes South Africa Yes YesEthiopia Yes Yes Sudan YesGabon Swaziland Gambia, The Tanzania Yes YesGhana Yes Yes Togo Guinea Tunisia Guinea-Bissau Uganda YesKenya Yes Yes Western Sahara Lesotho Yes Zambia Yes YesLiberia Yes Zimbabwe Yes YesLibya 57 31 6 10
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3. General Response to the CYANONET Initiative The overall response to the aims and intentions of the CYANONET initiative has been overwhelmingly positive. The initiative is deemed to be of enormous value, not only as a central database of incident occurrence and information, but also has a node for information and skills dissemination to countries unaware of or commencing to grapple with the problems posed by cyanobacteria in surface water resources, especially in the arid regions of Africa. Access to intellectual, research and management resources range from non-existent to extremely limited in many countries – a characteristic that is by no means limited to the developing nations. A general opinion evidenced to-date is the hope that the CYANONET initiative will be meaningfully sustained beyond the initial investigative phase. 4. Regional Assessment Based on Responses Received As per the project requirements, the information for each country is summarised as follows: A1. Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations A2. Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins) A3. Reported incidents of adverse health effects including case studies A4. Surveys and epidemiological studies investigating associations between
cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health A5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, waterbody
use and ecological status A6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of
cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins A7. Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices and
needs For the purposes of this report the responses have been summarised by query (A1-7) rather than for all 7 query categories by country. As the project proceeds the information will be progressively transferred to a GIS database supported by the relevant metadata. The individual reports received from each of the six countries are provided separately.
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A1 Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations A1 OCCURRENCE OF CYANOBACTERIAL MASS POPULATIONS IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES Ethiopia Information limited to low salinity Rift Valley Lakes. No information
for highland systems or rivers. The most common Cyanophytes belong to the genera Aphanothece (6 spp), Chroococcus (7 spp.), Anabaena (7 spp.) and Microcystis (6 spp.).
Kenya Widespread. 10 hotspot lake and river systems identified during a survey undertaken in 2002. Others considered highly likely. Species reported are Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Botryococcus, Microcystis.
Morocco Widespread. Microcystis aeruginosa f. aeruginosa, M. aeruginosa flos-aquae, M. ichthyoblabe, M. pulverea f. delicatissima and was associated with Oscillatoria, Planktothrix, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Phormidium and other genera. 35 potentially-toxic cyanobacterial taxa identified. Spatial occurrence of Microcystis has been mapped.
Namibia Cyanobacteria present in several water storage impoundments. Three dams monitored routinely for algal occurrence only.
South Africa Widespread and increasing. Highly seasonal in many cases. Dominant species are Microcystis, Anabaena, Oscillatoria and Planktothrix. Recent appearance of Cylindrospermopsis in three separate systems, most notably in the Orange River. Microcystis is the dominant “problem” organism. 27% of dams (n = 71) experience significant to serious cyanobacterial blooms.
Zimbabwe Long history (1960 - present) of association of Microcystis and Anabaena blooms in Lake Chivero (formerly Lk MacIlwaine). Otherwise no information available.
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A2. Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins) A2 OCCURRENCE OF CYANOBACTERIAL TOXINS IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES Ethiopia No information on toxin occurrence. Fish kills associated with oxygen
deprivation. Report of dead zebras and other animals at lakes Chamo and Haiq.
Kenya Microcystins and LPS endotoxins reported for “hotspot” sites. Morocco Poisoning events of fish, aquatic birds and livestock have been
observed in some reservoirs and shallow lakes. In all cases, the reasons for animal mortality reasons have not been confirmed and the toxic cyanobacteria strains that were abundant in these water bodies have been suggested as their cause. Toxicity has been demonstrated for several blooms and strains using both analytical and mouse bioassay. Synechocystis considered a potent neurotoxin and hepatotoxin producer.
Namibia Unknown. Hardap Dam shown to produce 17 variants of microcystin in a single sample collected and analysed by Harding (1998). No capacity for toxin analysis at present.
South Africa Widespread in dams, rivers, impoundments and farm storages. Bulk water storages have been prioritised in terms of their propensity to support problematical blooms of cyanobacteria. Available (mapped) information mainly for nationally-managed bulk water storages. Occurrence of toxins deemed a major threat to human and animal health. Human health issues further exacerbated by the high percentage of individuals already immuno-compromised by HIV-AIDS.
Zimbabwe Demonstrated in Lake Chivero. Algal toxin anatoxin-a detected in Nagoya Reservoir where Cylindrospermopsis curvispora was present.
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A3. Reported incidents of adverse health effects including case studies A3 OCCURRENCE OF INCIDENTS OF ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES Ethiopia No case reports. Kenya Cyanotoxins associated with 100 human mortalities in the Lake Embu
incident (2001). Periodic livestock and bird (flamingo) deaths for various lakes and dams (no confirmatory investigations for cyanotoxin involvement).
Morocco No case reports. Namibia No case reports. South Africa No human reports. Confirmed reports of animal mortalities extending
back over 70 years, including first reported involvement of nodularin as the cause of death in a dog.
Zimbabwe Persistent gastroenteritis problems associated with consumption of water from Lake Chivero, as well as with influenza-like symptoms in individuals using water from the same source. Skin rashes, itching and eye sores reported for workers coming into contact with cyanobacterial blooms at an aquaculture facility (Limited studies done in the ponds revealed Anabaena viguieri, Anabaenopsis tanganyikae, Aphanizomenon tropicale, Cylindrospermopsis africana and C. curvispora in the ponds).
A4. Surveys and epidemiological studies investigating associations between
cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health A4 SURVEYS AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES INVESTIGATING ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN CYANOBACTERIAL POPULATIONS, CYANOTOXINS AND HEALTH IN AFRICAN COUNTRIES Ethiopia None. Kenya None. Morocco None. Namibia None. South Africa None. Zimbabwe Planned for fish pond associated health effects.
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A5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, waterbody use and ecological status
A5 ADVERSE IMPACTS OF CYANOBACTERIAL MASS POPULATIONS ON WATER SUPPLY, WATERBODY USE AND ECOLOGICAL STATUS Ethiopia Eutrophication/cyanobacterial blooms in water reservoirs that serve as
source of water to the capital city, Addis Ababa have been reported. However, there have been no adverse impacts reported.
Kenya No information. Morocco Toxic blooms in waste stabilisation ponds with studied adverse effects
on aquatic biota. Namibia No information. South Africa Animal and stock deaths; taste and odour problems in raw potable
waters. Impact on ecosystems understood to have caused or be causative of major imbalances in foodweb structure.
Zimbabwe Limitations to water supply to Harare from Lake Chivero. A6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of
cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins A6 MANAGEMENT ACTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS TO REDUCE THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CYANOBACTERIAL MASS POPULATIONS AND CYANOTOXINS Ethiopia None. Kenya None. Morocco None. Namibia None. No capacity to analyse for cyanotoxins at any level. South Africa • Guideline levels for microcystins in potable waters
• National (spatial) Audit of Cyanobacterial Problems; • National Eutrophication Monitoring Protocol; • National Eutrophication Assessment Protocol; • Strategic Cyanobacterial Research Plan (2005-2009); • Eutrophication Management Strategy; • Alert Levels Response Framework; • Analytical Methods Manual; • Lake foodweb management initiative; • Cyanobacterial bloom “early warning system”; • “Costs of eutrophication” resource economics investigation; • Active integration in GWRC program; • Collaborative involvement in TOXIC program; • Variety of WRC and DWAF-funded research projects.
Zimbabwe None. Severe funding constraints.
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A7. Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices and needs
A7 AVAILABLE EDUCATIONAL, TRAINING AND AWARENESS-RAISING MATERIALS, PRACTICES AND NEEDS Ethiopia Nothing specific to cyanobacteria/cyanobacterial toxins. Scope exists
for inclusion thereof within existing aquatic sciences courses at universities and research institutes.
Kenya None. Scope exists for inclusion thereof within existing aquatic sciences courses at universities and research institutes.
Morocco None. Scope exists for inclusion thereof within existing aquatic sciences courses at universities and research institutes.
Namibia None. South Africa Development of management and training materials by the SA Water
Research Commission (WRC) and Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Training of operators at water treatment utilities to provide skills in sampling and identification of cyanobacterial blooms. A wide variety of management and applied research tools and information products as per the list under A6.
Zimbabwe None.
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5. Other Information The following information was received from country representatives who were not able to submit reports in time for the November meeting in Dundee: 5.1 Burundi: Research on cyanobacteria in particular and phytoplankton in general
has been conducted in the past on Lake Tanganyika, where visually dramatic blooms of Anabaena flos-aquae occur annually in October and November in the nothern end of the Lake (off Bujumbura). No studies on toxins associated with these blooms have been conducted yet, even though fish kills are observed regularly in the same period. Lake Tanganyika is the main source of water supply for Bujumbura, the capital town of Burundi. No knowledge of health impacts. In smaller lakes in the north of the country, in the Akagera basin (upper Nile system), the phytoplankton is overwelmingly dominated by Microcystis spp.
5.2 Egypt: Attention to cyanobacterial issues in Egypt receiving relatively minor
attention. Occurrence thought to be limited to coastal lakes and lagoons, and with no reported association to anything other than oxygen-related fish kills. No facilities available for cyanobacterial toxin detection and analysis.
6. Overall Summary Based on the information provided to-date the following conclusions can be drawn:
6.1 Incidence of cyanobacteria: With the exception of South Africa, a country with a long history of understanding of cyanobacterial problems, information on the occurrence of cyanobacteria and cyanobacterial blooms is poorly described. There are indications that the problem is however likely to be widespread, as inferred from the Kenya report, and from the 1999 assessment of eutrophication in African lakes undertaken for the UN Committee on Inland Fisheries and Agriculture by Harding and Thornton – i.e the level of occurrence is under-reported.
6.2 Incidence of cyanobacterial toxins. Existence of toxins demonstrated for all
countries with the exception of Ethiopia – where this has been constrained by a lack of analytical capability.
6.3 Association of adverse health effects with cyanobacterial toxins. Reported for
Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Predominant risk to livestock and other animals, but with unconfirmed adverse effects also demonstrated in humans (Kenya and Zimbabwe). The lack of demonstrated associations likely to be a consequence of lack of awareness (association of cyanobacteria with observed conditions), and/or analytical capability.
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6.4 Epidemiological information. None available. A study is planned for Zimbabwe to examine the relationship between symptoms in workers in contact with cyanobacterial blooms in aquaculture ponds.
6.5 Impacts on water supply, recreational use and ecosystem health. Commonly
experienced negative impacts on the supply of raw potable waters (toxin and taste and odour removal). No recreational constraints reported despite these being known to occur. Foodweb impacts have been identified in South Africa and are being assessed in terms of impoundment management options for Hartbeespoort and other dams.
6.6 Management actions and instruments. None available other than for South Africa.
South Africa, through the CYANONET initiative, would appear to be ideally placed as a resource base for information and skills transfer into Africa. There is a lack of essential analytical capability in all countries, including South Africa. There is also a lack of trained personnel capable of recognising blooms and the possible cause and effect relationship between cyanobacterial occurrence and observed health effects.
6.7 Education and training materials. Based on the reports received only South Africa
is actively involved in this area (see 5.6).
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APPENDIX A: Contact Details for Respondants COUNTRY NAME ADDRESS EMAIL Ethiopia Dr Zenebe
Tadesse National Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Center, (EARO), P.O. Box 64, Sebeta, Ethiopia
Kenya Dr Francis Mwaura
Department of Geography, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi
Morocco Dr Abdellatif Maamri
Department of Biology, Med 1er University, and IFCS, Ministry of health, Oujda Morocco
Namibia Mr Honga Ehrenfried
Namwater [email protected]
South Africa Mrs Carin van Ginkel
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry Resource Quality Services Pte Bag X313 PRETORIA 0001
Zimbabwe Ms Nomusa Mhlanga
Department of Environmental Science National University of Science and Technology P. O. Box AC939 Ascot Bulawayo Zimbabwe
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WESTERN ASIA: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS AND HEALTH ISSUES Suvendra N. Bagchi Department of Biological Sciences, Rani Durgavati University, Jabalpur-482001 India [email protected] 1. Introduction Research on toxic cyanobacteria and associated problems was virtually non-existent in this region until the first bloom of Aphanizomenon was observed in Lake Kinneret, Israel in 1994. An increasing population density, especially in the developing countries, has left a tremendous impact on the water quality. Increasing eutrophication is the major concern, leading a voracious expansion of cyanobacterial population. Mass populations of cyanobacteria are recorded in fifteen countries (Table 1). Incidences of cyanotoxin(s) and/or cyanobacteria-related health problems were recorded from Israel, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar and Bhutan. Thick scums, mats, films and blooms of cyanobacteria predominantly of genera Microcystis, Nodularia, Cylindrospermopsis, Aphanizomenon, Planktothrix and Oscillatoria were found in freshwater, marine and brackish water resources. Using standard analytical methods, the presence of microcystins and/or cylindrospermopsin was confirmed in seven countries (Table 2). Various surveys and epidemiological studies have revealed that a large proportion of water blooms caused deaths in fish, livestock and occasionally wild animals, and liver and kidney ailments in humans. The World Health Organisation’s guideline concerning safe limits of cyanotoxins in drinking water is not followed in all the countries, and there are no in-house guidelines either. The management and educational/training practices are generally inadequate because of lack of awareness and poor infrastructure, although a few organisations have taken an interest in the management of high-profile cyanobacterial blooms in recent times. The geographical situation of the region is such that there is a limit on the availability of fresh water for human consumption. The drinking water resources are scarce in Turkey and Israel, and in the Gulf countries desalination of seawater is the only source of drinking water. In Bangladesh and Eastern India, groundwater is contaminated with arsenic and therefore people use the alternative surface water for drinking and recreational purposes. In rural Sri Lanka man-made reservoirs are the sole source of water for human consumption, and in India, people bathe in temple tanks and small ponds. In most cases these water bodies are heavily contaminated with cyanobacteria potentially capable of causing problems in their catchment areas. A number of reports are of interest and require further investigation. Rhinosporidiosis a fungal disease was associated with Microcystis. Cattle, horses and dogs and even humans
21
exposed to heavy blooms developed massive polyps in the mucosal epithelium of the nose and other sites (6). In Bangladesh, many water-borne bacterial diseases were associated with blooms, e.g., Vibrio cholerae was found in a symbiotic association with cyanobacteria (12-14). In Bhutan, very high rates of mortality in yak herd are related to cyanobacterial poisoning (7).
22
2. The Regional information a. Summary of information pertaining to West Asia (Table 1)
Turkey Israel
Saudi
Arabia
Iraq
Iran
Qatar
Kuwait
Pakistan
India
Sri
Lanka
Bangladesh
Nepal
Bhutan
Kazakstan/
Uzbekistan
Cyanobacterial
mass population
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cyanotoxins
Yes Yes Yes No No ? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No ? Yes*
Health
incidences
Yes Yes No No No No ? No Yes Yes Yes No Yes ?
Economic
consequences
Yes Yes ? ? ? ? ? No Yes Yes Yes No Yes ?
Management
actions
Yes Yes Yes No No No ? No Yes Yes No No ? ?
Educational
material
Yes Yes No No No No ? No Yes Yes Yes No No ?
? = Not known; * = Toxic cyanobacteria in Balkash and Aral Lakes and Caspian Sea
23
b. Information on cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and health incidences, and on management agencies in West Asia (Table 2) Country Region Nature of
water resources
Cyanobacterial population Cyanotoxin (amount)
Health incidences Human Animals
Management action (agencies)
Turkey (4,5)
North Western
Lake, Lagoon, Reservoir
Planktothrix rubescens, Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystin (moderate)
Not reported Massive fish deaths after blooms
Istanbul Water Authority, Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture
Israel (8-10)
Northern
Lake,Reservoir
Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, Microcystis sp., Cylindrospermopsis sp.
Microcystin, Cylindro-spermopsin (moderate)
Not reported Not reported Israel Water Commission, Mekorot Water Company, Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research
Saudi Arabia
South Western, Coastal
Farm, Sea, Gulf
Oscillatoria agardhii, Hyella sp. Not specified
Not reported Not reported Meteorology and Environmental Protection Agency
Sri Lanka (11,16,17)
North Central, Western
Lakes, Reservoirs
Spirulina sp., Microcystis sp., Cylindrospermopsis raciboskii
Microcystin (moderate to high)
Liver and kidney ailments
Not reported National Water Supply and Drainage Board
India (1-3, 15)
Central, Eastern, Southern
Lakes, Ponds, Dams etc.
Microcystis sp., Arthrospira sp., Phormidium sp., Oscillatoria sp.
Microcystin (moderate to high)
Rhinosporidiosis, skin lesions
Fish mortality and gastric disorders
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
Bangla-desh (12-14)
Central, South Eastern
Ponds Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena sp., Planktothrix sp.
Microcystin (moderate to high)
Liver, gastric, skin, mouth, eye and ear problems
Fish, duck and goat deaths, Diarrhea
Not known
Pakistan Southerncoast
Sea Channel, Lake
Phormidiumpseudo cuttissimum, Chlorogleopsis, Gloeocapsa, Oscillatoria, Synechocystis etc.
Microcystin (traces)
Not reported Not reported Not known
Bhutan (7) Central Not specified
Not specified Unknown Not reported Yak deaths Initiated by Renewable Natural Resources Research Centre
Kazakstan Coastal Brackish water
Nodularia sp. Nodularin? Toxinaccumulation in Zebra mussels
Not reported Not known
24
c. Selected water resources/locations containing potentially toxic cyanobacteria Israel: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
North of Syrian African rift valley
35o31’ E 32o53’ N
Water volume = 4200 x 106 m3 Surface area (km2) = 170 Average depth = 25 m Mesotrophic, Stratified Temp. = 15-29oC Salinity = 200-250 ppm
Aphanizomenon ovalisporum bloom, Microcystis films and Cylindrospermopsis sp. Biovolume/Cell counts = 1000-2000 filaments; 104 – 105 cells/ml
Chlorophyll a conc. = 40 mg/L
Microcystins (-LR, -RR, -YR) and Cylindrospermopsin (0.1 µg/L) HPLC-DAD
Turkey: Kucukcekmece Lagoon, Lake Sapanca (Adapazari) and Omerli Reservoir (Istanbul) Kucukcekmece Lagoon Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial populations Cyanotoxins 41o00’ N 28o43’ E
Surface area (km2) = 15.22 Average depth = 20 m Eutrophic, Stratified Temp. = 7.5-28oC Salinity = 7400 ppm
Green discoloration, scums, mats Microcystis aeruginosa Biovolume/Cell counts = 0.63-173 mg/L biomass Chlorophyll a conc. = 13.3-277 µg/L
Microcystins (-LR) (24 µg/L) HPLC-PDA
25
Lake Sapanca Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
Adapazari 40o41’ N 40o44’ N, 30o09’ E 30o20’ E
Water volume = 1000 x 106 m3
Surface area (km2) = 48.6 Average depth = 25.6 m Oligo-mesotrophic, Stratified Temp. = 8-29oC Salinity = 200 ppm
Reddish discolouration, rare biofilms Planktothrix rubescens Biovolume/Cell counts = 5000 filaments; 1 mg/L biomass Chlorophyll a conc. = 0.4-22 µg/L
Microcystins (-LR) (6.5 µg/L) HPLC-PDA No bioassays
Omerli Reservoir Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
Istanbul 40o59’ N 41o03’ N, 29o20’ E 29o23’ E
Water volume = 2.2 x 106 m3
Surface area (km2) = 23.5 Average depth = 21 m Meso-eutrophic, Stratified Temp. = 8-27oC Salinity = 100 ppm
Green discoloration, scums, mats Microcystis aeruginosa Biovolume/Cell counts = 100 mg/L biomass Chlorophyll a conc. = 0.6-146 µg/L
Microcystins (-LR) (6 µg/L) and -RR HPLC-PDA No bioassays
26
India: Lake Kundam (Jabalpur), Lake Gangasagar (Nagpur) and several ponds in Central India Lake Kundam Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
Jabalpur 79o57’ E 23o10’ N
Water volume = 368 x 106 m3 Surface area (km2) = 38 Average depth = 10 m Eutrophic, Stratified Temp. = 20-30oC
Scums, occasional mats Microcystis aeruginosa, M. viridis, M. wesenbergii Chlorophyll a conc. = 530 µg/L
Microcystins –LR (38.5 µg/g; 0.28 mg/L) and -RR (105.5 µg/g) HPLC-DAD, MALDI-TOF
Bangladesh: Several unspecified ponds Location Hydrology Cyano-
bacterial populations Cyanotoxins
Mymensingh, Chandpur, Khulna, Dacope 90o55’ N 22o08’ E 89o34’ N 22o45’ E
Surface area (km2) = 0.1-1 Eutrophic Temp. = 25-31oC Salinity = 400-500 ppm
Scums, Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena sp., Planktothrix sp. Biovolume/Cell counts = 31-1315 x 103 cells/ml
Microcystin –LR, also –RR, -YR (0.056-82.3 µg/L), can go up to 1 mg/L ELISA, HPLC
27
Pakistan: Lake Halajee and Manora Channel extension of Karachi harbor Location Cyanobacterial populations Cyanotoxins Karachi, Northern Arabian Sea
67o50’ E 24o30’ N, 66o57’ E 24o48’ N
Blooms, Chlorogleopsis microcystoidis. Chroococcus sp., Gloeocapsa crepidinum, Komvophoron minutum, Merismopedia punctata, Oscillatoria sp., Oscillatoria salina, Pseudoanabaena galeata, Synechocystis aquatilis, Synechocystis pavalekii
Microcystin –LR (traces) in the isolates and blooms of Phormidiumpseudo cuttissimum LC-ESI-MS, PP1, Rat and Brine shrimp lethality assays
Sri Lanka: Lake Colombo, Lake Kandy, Lake Kuda Situlpawwa, Kotmale tank and Randenigala tank Lake Colombo Location Hydrology Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
Colombo
80o00’ E 07o00’ N
Water volume = 1.8 x 106 m3 Surface area (km2) = 0.648 Average depth = 2.8 m Eutrophic, Not stratified Temp. = 30oC
Scums, Spirulina sp., Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystins 0.2-80 mg g-1 dry weight HPLC-PDA
28
Saudi Arabia: Unspecified Farm water Location Cyanobacterial
populations Cyanotoxins
Makkah 39o49’ E 21o26’ N
Blooms, Oscillatoria, Microcystis, Synechocystis, Anabaena
Oscillatoria agardhii Toxins: Not known HPLC LC-Mass Rodent lethality assays
d. Map of the region of Western Asia, which includes the countries for which data was sought and where available have been included in this assessment.
29
3. References
1. Adhikary, S.P. (2000) Autecology of the planktonic cyanobacterium Microcystis
aeruginosa. Indian Hydrobiol. 3: 9-13 2. Adhikary, S.P., Sahu, J.K. (1999) Relation of occurrence of Microcystis bloom with
abiotic factors of temple tanks. Acta Hydrobiol. 41: 199-210 3. Agarwal, M., Bagchi, D., Bagchi, S.N. (2001) Effect of isolated cells and extracts of
Microcystis blooms collected in central India on feeding ability, survival and protease activity in a zooplankton, Moina macrocopa. Hydrobiologia 464: 37-44
4. Albay, M., Akcaalan, R., Aykulu, G., Tufekci, H., Beattie, K.A., Codd, G.A. (2003)
Occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria before and after copper sulphate treatment in a water reservoir, Istanbul, Turkey. Archiv für Hydrobiologie Suppl. Algological Studies 109: 67-78
5. Albay, M., Akcaalan, R., Tufekci, H., Metcalf, J. S., Beattie, K. A., Codd, G.A.
(2003) Depth profiles of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins (microcystins) in three Turkish freshwater lakes. Hydrobiologia 505: 89-95
6. Dhaulakhandi, D.B., Ahluwalia, K.B., Poduval, P., Ravi, A.K. (2004) Comparative
RAPD analysis of causative agent of rhinosporidiosis and Microcystis isolated from pond waters. Curr. Science 86: 386-387
7. Dorji, T., Roder, W., Sijiu, Y. (2003) Disease in the Yak. In: The Yak II Edition,
RAP Publication, Bangkok, Thailand 8. Hadas, O., Pinkas, R., Malinsky-Rushansky, N., Kaplan, A., Carmeli, S., Sukenik, A.
(2000) The Aphanizomenon ovalisporum bloom in lake Kinneret: ecological and physiological aspects. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 27: 1-5
9. Hadas, O., Pinkas, R., Malinsky-Rushansky, N., Sukenik, A., Kaplan, A. (2002)
Cyanobacteria in Lake Kinneret: Physiological and ecological adaptations. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 28: 996-1000
10. Hadas, O., Pinkas, R., Vardi, A., Kaplan, A., Delphin, E., Sukenik, A. (1999)
Limnological aspects of Aphanizomenon ovalisporum bloom in Lake Kinneret, Israel. J. Plankton Research 21: 1439-1453
11. Jayatissa, L.P., Lawton, L.A., Cornish, B.J.P.A. (1998). Toxic cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae) in fresh waters of Sri Lanka, In: Harmful Algae, Eds. Reguera B., Blanco, J., Fernandez, M. L., Wyatt, T. X. G., Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO., pp 32-34
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12. Jewel, M.A.S., Affan, M.A., Akteruzzaman, M., Haque, M. M., Khan, S. (2002) Fish kills and animal death during the heavy bloom of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae in a fish culture pond of Bangladesh. In: Book of abstracts, 10th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Florida, U.S.A. p. 142
13. Jewel, M.A.S., Affan, M.A., Khan, S. (2003) Fish mortality due to cyanobacterial
bloom in an aquaculture pond in Bangladesh. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 6: 1046-1050
14. Khan, S., Affan, M.A., Imokawa, M., Ueno, Y. (2001) Determination of microcystins
in natural and drinking water of Bangladesh by ELISA, In: Book of abstracts, Fifth International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria, Noosa, Australia
15. Sangolkar, L.N., Chaudhari, P.R., Shivaraman, N. (1999) Cyanobacterial toxins in
water environment – A Review. J. Indian Assoc. Environ. Management 26: 18-29 16. Silva, E.I.L. (2003) Emergence of a Microcystis bloom in an urban water body,
Kandy Lake in Sri Lanka. Curr. Science 85: 723-725 17. Silva, E.I.L., Wijeyaratne M.J.S. (1999) The occurrence of cyanobacteria in the
reservoirs of the Mahaweli river basin in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka J. Aquat. Sci. 4: 51-60 4. List of Contact Persons: 1. Adhikary, Siba P., Reader, Department of Biotechnology, Utkal University, Vani
Vihar, Bhubaneswar 751004, India ([email protected]) 2. Ahluwalia, Karvita B., Additional Professor (retired), All India Institute of Medical
Sciences, New Delhi-110029, India ([email protected]) 3. Albay, Meric, Associate Professor Dr. Lecturer and Researcher, Istanbul University,
Faculty of Fisheries, Ordu Cad. No: 200 34470 Laleli, Istanbul, Turkey ([email protected])
4. Al-Layl, Khaled J., Professor of Microbiology, Department of Biology, Faculty of
Applied Science, Umm Al-Qura University, P.O. Box 715, Makkah 21421 Saudi Arabia ([email protected])
5. Hameed, Shaista, Senior Research Fellow, Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology,
University of Karachi, Karachi-75270, Pakistan ([email protected], [email protected])
6. Jayatissa, L. P., Senior lecturer, Department of Botany, University of Ruhuna,
Matara, Sri Lanka ([email protected])
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7. Khan, Saleha, Associate Professor, Department of Fisheries Management,
Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh ([email protected])
8. Kulasooriya, S.A., Senior Professor, Department of Botany, University of Peradeniya,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka ([email protected]) 9. Sangolkar, Lalita N., Scientist Gr. IV, National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nehru Marg, Nagpur – 440 020, India ([email protected]) 10. Silva, E.I.L., Associated Research Professor, Institute of Fundamental Studies,
Kandy, Sri Lanka ([email protected]) 11. Sukenik, Assaf, Senior Scientist, Yigal Allon Kinneret Limnological Laboratory,
Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, P.O. Box 447, Migdal 14, Israel ([email protected])
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ASIA: EASTERN ASIA Kunimitsu Kaya Tohoku University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Aoba 6-6-20, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan. [email protected] 1. Introduction For the purpose of this situation assessment, the Eastern sector of Asia is defined to consist of 17 countries [Brunei (Kingdom of Brunei), Cambodia (Kingdom of Cambodia), China (People’s Republic of China), Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia), Japan, Korea (Republic of Korea), North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea), Laos (Lao People Democratic Republic), Malaysia (Federation of Malaysia), Mongolia (Mongolian People Republic), Myanmar (Union of Myanmar), Philippine (Republic of Philippines), Singapore (Republic of Singapore), Taiwan (Republic of China), Thailand (Kingdom of Thailand), Vietnam (Socialist Republic of Viet Nam)]. This region is located within both tropical and temperate zones. Major climates in this region are steppe, monsoon and tropical rainforest. 2. Outline of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in Asia (Eastern) In the steppe zone, many small natural lakes occur in grasslands. These lakes are utilised as reservoirs for domestic animals such as sheep, cows and camels in pastureland, and are eutrophicated by excreta of the animals. In the dry season, toxic waterblooms of Anabaena and/or Microcystis occur in the lakes, and cause death in domestic animals. Microcystin has been identified from toxic strains of Microcystis aeruginosa in the lakes. An unknown neurotoxin was found from Anabaena sp. isolated from Dalai Lake, Inner Mongolia, P.R. China. The monsoon zone is densely populated, and includes many lakes and reservoirs. Residents in this zone utilise the lakes and reservoirs for drinking, agriculture and aquaculture. They raise freshwater fish, which they use as a protein source. The natural lakes are usually eutrophic because of fish-raising. Some reservoirs are also eutrophicated by waste water from cities, industries and agriculture. Toxic cyanobacterial waterblooms occur in spring, summer and autumn. The main genera of toxic cyanobacteria are Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Microcystis, Nostoc, Planktothrix (Oscillatoria), and Synechococcus. Detected cyanotoxins are anatoxin-a, saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin, microcystins and thionsulfolipid (1). Recently, cylindrospermopsin (2) was detected in Tokyo and Ibaraki prefecture, Japan. Thionsulfolipid has been detected from Synechococcus sp. isolated from Lake Biwa, Japan.
33
The subtropical zone is also densely populated, and contains many natural lakes, reservoirs, and fish-ponds. The utilisation of the freshwaters is almost the same as in the monsoon zone. The lakes are usually meso-eutrophic, eutrophic or hypereutrophic state. Toxic cyanobacterial waterblooms occur in all seasons. The dominant genus changes depending on water temperature. Generally, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Microcystis Cylindrospermopsis and Planktothrix (Oscillatoria) are found in eutrophicated lakes in this zone. Detected cyanotoxins are cylindrospermopsin, microcystin (3) and saxitoxin. In the tropical rainforest zone, natural lakes and reservoirs are mesotrophic, eutrophic or hypertrophic. The lakes and reservoirs are used for drinking, agriculture and fish-raising. Many fish-ponds are distributed in the suburbs of cities. The ponds are usually eutrophic. Toxic waterblooms generally occur in the dry season and not in the rainy season. The dominant genus is Anabaena, Cylindrospermopsis or Microcystis. Detected cyanotoxins are cylindrospermopsin and microcystins (4). Sometimes, unknown cyanotoxins have been associated with benthic cyanobacteria. 3. Reports from eastern Asian Countries Detailed reports on cyanobacteria were submitted from Prof. L.R. Song (Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Science, PR. China), Dr. Ir. Sulastri (Research Center for Limnology, LIPI, Indonesia), Prof. J.A. Lee (Inje University, Republic of Korea), Ms. S. Bounphanny (National University of Laos, Lao People Democratic Republic), Dr. A. Mahakhant (Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research, Thailand) and Dr. T. Sano (National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan). Comments on cyanobacteria were received from Dr. C.W. Loy (University of Malaya, Federation of Malaysia), Prof. T. Darjaa (National University of Mongolia, Mongolian People republic) and Prof. C.N. Ong (National University of Singapore, Republic of Singapore). We could not contact with researchers or national government officers of Cambodia, Myanmar, North Korea, Vietnam, Philippine, and Taiwan, although efforts are continuing. Peoples Republic of China (Prof. L.R. Song) Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Name Dianch Taihu Caohu Dianshanhu Waterbody type Lake Lake Lake Lake
Surface Km2 292 2428 775 62
Tropic state Hypereutrophic Eutrophic Eutrophic Eutrophic Dominant cyanobacteria
Microcystis, Aphanizomenon
Microcystis, Merismopedia
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis,
34
Reported incidents of adverse health effects, including case studies Wildlife Domestic animals Humans Mortalities Fish Sheep, cows in
Dalai lake, Inner Mongolia
Sublethal effects Fish, Birds Sheep, Dog, Cows Liver cancer
Exposure media Water Water Water
Exposure routes Drinking Drinking Drinking Cyanotoxin analysis Microcystin,
Anatoxin Microcystin Microcystin
4. Surveys and epidemiological studies, investigating associations between cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health 4.1 Retrospective Survey 1: From 1992 to 2000, the relationship between cancer mortality and the microcystin (MC) content in different types of drinking water in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province was investigated. Microcystin (MC) in drinking water was positively correlated with male overall cancer mortality and male stomach cancer mortality, and was negatively correlated with male intestinal cancer mortality (p<0.05). Survey 2: A total of 248 eligible students were randomly clustered and investigated. Blood samples were collected and tested for serum 1-hydroxyethylidene-1,1-bis phosphonic acid (HEBP) and for serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity by colorimetry. MCs were detected in source and drinking water samples in the research areas. No HBV infectious status difference was found among the groups (p>0.05). Within normal limits, the ALT, GGT and AP activities were significantly different among the three groups (p>0.05), and a linear trend could be found between MC exposure rank and liver enzyme activity. Longterm exposure to MC in drinking water may have had adverse effects on liver function.
Survey 3: Eight townships were randomly selected as study sites in Haining City of Zhejiang Province. Four hundred and eight colon and rectum carcinoma cases diagnosed from 1977 to 1996 were identified from the cancer registry in the study sites. A retrospective survey of types of drinking water of all 408 cases was conducted using population data and drinking water sources data provided by local household registration and local health institutions. Water samples from different sources (well, tap-water, river
35
and pond) were collected and MC concentrations were measured by an indirect competitive ELISA method. The incidence rates of colorectal cancer were significantly higher among people drinking river or pond water than those who drank well water or tap-water in both males and females. And comparing with other sources to well water, the relative risks were much higher for people using river water (7.94) and pond water (7.70). The positive detection rates (>50pg/mL) of MC in well, tap-water, river and pond water were 0.00%, 0.00%, 36.23% and 17.14% respectively. The highest concentrations of MCs were 1083.43pg/mL (river) and 1937.94pg/mL (pond) in the positive samples. MC concentrations in river and pond water were significantly higher than the concentrations in well and tap water (p<0.01). Spearman Rank correlation analysis showed that in the study sites, the MC concentrations of river and pond water were positively correlated with the incidence of colorectal cancer (r = 0.8811, p<0.01).
4.2 Prospective
According to the investigation of 121 typical lakes in 1991, 51% tended towards eutrophication, while in 1996, the rate increased to 86%, with the extent of eutrophication becoming increasingly serious. It is of concern that the dominant species of the waterblooom in the Chinese lakes has been Microcystis aeruginosa, which can produce MCs. Therefore, the long-term impact of MCs to the aquatic ecosystem and public health cannot be overlooked. Routine monitoring of MCs concentration in lakes is very necessary. 5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, water use and ecological status 5.1 Drinking water supply The increasing incidence of cyanobacterial mass populations has caused some adverse impacts on water supply. For example, some tap water supply utilities have been encountering problems in removing cyanobacterial mass and cyanotoxins, especially in summer seasons. This was particularly the case with water from Lakes Caohu, Taihu and Dianchi.
5.2 Water for aquaculture There are few studies on the effect of cyanotoxins on aquaculture in China. However, it has been shown experimentally that MCs can enter the food chain and finally end up in human food.
5.3 Water for agriculture No reported adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass on agriculture.
36
5.4 Recreation, amenity and tourism The presence of cyanobacteria in waterbodies used for recreation is receiving increasing attention. Because of exposure to cyanobacterial blooms, water clarity is reduced, with many scums floating on the water surface, which seriously affects landscape and tourism. Furthermore, people cannot swim in the lakes with cyanobacteria blooms, because it is not safe for human health. 5.5 Economic assessments of adverse effects
Economic losses caused by cyanobacterial blooms have been serious and immeasurable. For instance, in 1987, a water treatment plant factory was stopped for one month because of a cyanobacterial bloom in Chaohu, which suffered heavy industrial output losses of over one hundred million RMB Yuan.
5.6 Effects on waterbody ecological status e.g. biodiversity With the increasing occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms, the biodiversity of the lakes has been constantly influenced. In Dianchi Lake during 1982 to 1983, the phytoplankton included 8 Phyla, 21 Divisions, 39 Families, 81 Genera and 205 Species or variants. However, during 2001 and 2002, the biodiversity of phytoplankton was reduced to 6 Phyla, 16 Divisions, 19 Families, 52 Genera and 107 Species or variants, organisms belonging to the Xanthophyta and Chrysophyta being no longer detected. In addition, cyanobacterial species sharply decreased from 45 in 1982 to 19 in 2002, and green algae from 90 in 1982 to 50 in 2002. 6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins 6.1 Is the World Health Organization Guideline Value for microcystin-LR in drinking water used in your country ? Yes.
6.2 Are the WHO guideline levels for cyanobacterial cells in recreational waters used in your country ? No. 6.3 Are there any national policies, guidelines or legislation for the management of cyanobacterial or cyanotoxin problems in your country ? If so what are they? - for drinking waters ? The same as the World Health Organization Guideline value,
that is 1µg MC-LR/L. - for recreational waters? No. - for waters for other uses ? No. 6.4 Are their any local/regional policies, guidelines or legislation ? No.
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7. Available national/local educational, training and awareness-raising practices and needs. 7.1 What information materials are available in your country at national and local level? At national level, the Environmental Agency announces a monthly survey report on water quality in major lakes including Caohu, Dianchi and Taihu. However, the report, among others, contains chlorophyll a data but no information on cyanotoxins or cyanobacterial cell number.
At local level, the local environmental monitoring organisations usually make monthly surveys of water quality. Hoever, little information is available for cyanotoxins and cyanobacteria in such routine investigations.
7.2 Are training courses available in your country on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for the water industry and related professional groups? Yes. Several research units are able to offer the training course such as the Institute of Hydrobiology, for example.
7.3 Are there any needs for awareness-raising, educational and training material and courses on the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems in your country? Yes. There is a need for wider awareness regarding the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems.
7.4 Are there any perceived needs for guidelines or regulations regarding cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins in your country? Yes. Japan (Dr. T. Sano) Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Name Kasumigaura Biwa Sagami Abashiri Waterbody type Lake Lake Reservoir Lake
Surface km2 220 674 26 32
Tropic state Eutrophic Meso-eutrophic Eutrophic Eutrophic Dominant cyanobacteria
Microcystis, Planktothrix
Microcystis, Anabaena Planktothrix, Synechococcus
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis, Anabaena
38
Reported incidents of adverse health effects, including case studies Wildlife Domestic animals Humans Mortalities Fish Farmed fish
Sublethal effects Fish, Birds
Exposure media Water Water
Exposure routes Cyanotoxin ..analysis
Microcystin, ..thiosulfolipid
Microcystin, ..Anatoxin
4. Surveys and epidemiological studies, investigating associations between cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health 4.1 Retrospective There have been reports on the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms from 1930’s in Japan. The incidence of cyanobacterial water blooms has increased as lakes have been more eutrophicated after the 1970’s. The development of analytical methods for cyanotoxins has promoted the monitoring of cyanotoxins by universities and local governments since the 1990’s. 4.2 Prospective From 2005, MCs in drinking water and environmental water will be monitored nationwide. 5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, water use and ecological status 5.1 Drinking water supply Cyanobacterial mass populations have caused some adverse impacts on tap water supply. In order to reduce offensive odours, cyanobacterial cells and cyanotoxins, drinking water treatment costs have increased.
5.2 Water for aquaculture Farmed fish have sometimes died during the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms.
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5.3 Water for agriculture No reported adverse effects of cyanobacterial biomass on agriculture. 5.4 Recreation, amenity and tourism The presence of cyanobacteria in water used for recreation is receiving increasing attention. Water transparency is reduced due to cyanobacterial blooms, with many scums, which seriously affect amenities and tourism. Swimming in lakes with cyanobacteria blooms is curtailed, because it is not safe for human health. 5.5 Economic assessments of adverse effects No economic assessments of reported adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations are available. 5.6 Effects on waterbody ecological status e.g. biodiversity Waterbody ecological status has been changed at eutrophicated lakes, but it has not been determined whether the cause is the cyanobacteria and/or eutrophication itself. 6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins 6.1 Is the World Health Organization Guideline Value for MC-LR in drinking water used in your country ? Yes.
6.2 Are the WHO guideline levels for cyanobacterial cells in recreational waters used in your country ? Not yet.
6.3 Are there any national policies, guidelines or legislation for the management of cyanobacterial or cyanotoxin problems in your country ? If so what are they ? - for drinking waters ?
An adaptation of the WHO Guideline Value, i.e. 1µg total MC-LR/L. (not only MC-LR).
- for recreational waters ? No. - for waters for other uses ? No. 6.4 Are their any local/regional policies, guidelines or legislation ? No.
6.5 If the answers to any of 6.1 to 6.4 are “yes”, what caused these guidelines or regulations to be adopted ? WHO set a Guideline Value for microcystins.
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6.7 What is the national and local experience regarding the implementation of your guidelines and/or regulations ?
Some regulations about toxic cyanobacteria have been assessed by the Water Resources Environment Technology Center (WRETC).
7. Available national/local educational, training and awareness-raising practices and needs. 7.1 What information materials are available in your country at national and local level?
The national Government collects all Prefectural data on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. The data are available to the public via CDs and websites of the Japan Water Agency and WRETC.
7.2 Are training courses available in your country on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for the water industry and related professional groups ? Yes, several institutions are able to offer training courses such as the National Institute for Environmental Studies and Tohoku University.
7.3 Are there any needs for awareness-raising, educational and training material and courses on the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems in your country ? Yes. We need reference materials of cyanotoxins for quantitative analysis.
7.4 Are there any perceived needs for guidelines or regulations regarding cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins in your country ? Yes.
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Korea (Prof. Lee, J. A.) Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Name Soyangho Paldangho Hapcheon Sonaktong Waterbody type Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir River
Surface Km2 70 38 14 8
Tropic state Mesotrophic Mesotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic Dominant cyanobacteria
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis, Anabaena Aphanizomenon
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis, Anabaena
6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins 6.1 Is the World Health Organization Guideline Value for MC-LR in drinking water used in your country ?:Yes 6.2 Are the WHO guideline levels for cyanobacterial cells in recreational waters used in your country ? : No 6.3 Are there any national policies, guidelines or legislation for the management of cyanobacterial or cyanotoxin problems in your country ?: Yes. If so what are they ? : an Algae Alarm System for drinking waters.
- for recreational waters ?: Not available - for waters for other uses ? : Not available 6.4 Are their any local/regional policies, guidelines or legislation ? : Same as national. 6.5 If the answers to any of 6.1 to 6.4 are “yes”, what caused these guidelines or regulations to be adopted ?: Public health concerns. 7. Available national/local educational, training and awareness-raising practices and needs. 7.1 What information materials are available in your country at national and local level
- for the information of professional groups (water managers, engineers, medical and veterinary community, environmental agencies)? : National guidelines of the National Institute of Environmental Research; real-time internet information.
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- for water-user groups ?: National guidelines of the National Institute of Environmental Research; real-time internet information. - for the general public ? : National guidelines of the National Institute of Environmental Research; real-time internet information.
7.2 Are training courses available in your country on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for the water industry and related professional groups ? Yes 7.3 Are there any needs for awareness-raising, educational and training material and courses on the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems in your country ? Yes 7.4 Are there any perceived needs for guidelines or regulations regarding cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins in your country ? Yes Thailand (Dr. Mahakhant, A.) Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Name W1
(Chaing Mai) W2 (Phayao)
W3 (Nakhon Ratchasima)
W5 (Phetchaburi)
Waterbody type Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir
Surface Km2 12 18 20
Tropic state Meso-eutrophic Meso-eutrophic Meso-eutrophic Meso-eutrophic Dominant cyanobacteria
Microcystis
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis
Microcystis
4. Surveys and epidemiological studies, investigating associations between cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health 4.1 Retrospective; Have not been done. 4.2 Prospective: Have not been done.
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5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, water use and ecological status 5.1 Drinking water supply: Discolouration and offensive odours of tap water have occurred from time to time. 5.2 Water for aquaculture: Most cyanobacterial blooms have occurred in fish cultivation ponds, especially in Gunther’s walking catfish ponds. 5.4 Recreation, amenity and tourism: Complaints from tourism of offensive water colour. 6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins 6.1 Is the World Health Organization Guideline Value for microcystin-LR in drinking water used in your country ? No. 6.2 Are the WHO guideline levels for cyanobacterial cells in recreational waters used in your country ? No. 7. Available national/local educational, training and awareness-raising practices and needs. 7.1 What information materials are available in your country at national and local level ? Only academic research reports are available and some are confidential. 7.2 Are training courses available in your country on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for the water industry and related professional groups ?
Yes, three training courses were held by Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research and Chiang Mai University.
7.3 Are there any needs for awareness-raising, educational and training material and courses on the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems in your country ? Yes, especially for governmental officials. 7.4 Are there any perceived needs for guidelines or regulations regarding cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins in your country ?
Yes, but the academic institutes which do research concerning these problems are not authorised to issue the guidelines or regulations.
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Indonesia (Dr. Sulastri, Ir.) and Laos (Ms. Bounphanny, S.) Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Country Indonesia Laos Maninjau Sutami Nam Leuk That Luang Waterbody type Lake Reservoir Reservoir Lake
Surface km2 97 15
Tropic state Eutrophic Hypereutrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic Dominant cyanobacteria
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis, Anabaena
Microcystis, Planktothrix
Microcystis, Planktothrix
From Indonesia; 7. Available national/local educational, training and awareness-raising practices and needs. 7.1 What information materials are available in your country at national and local level?
Regulations published by the government include some water quality parameters including colour, smell, bacteria, some physical and chemical parameters including temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrite, ammonia, metals, organics and bacterial pathogens. No specific guidelines on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins.
7.2 Are training courses available in your country on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for the water industry and related professional groups? There are no available training courses on cyanobacteria or cyanotoxins. 7.3 Are there any needs for awareness-raising, educational and training material and courses on the recognition and control of cyanobacterial problems in your country ? Yes, because few people in Indonesia understand the negative impact of
cyanotoxins to the water, biodiversity and human health. 7.4 Are there any perceived needs for guidelines or regulations regarding cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins in your country ? Yes, they are needed to control the high levels of pollution from industry, housing
and agriculture which enter waterbodies and cause cyanobacterial blooms.
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Summary The eutrophication of waterbodies, with consequent cyanobacterial and algal bloom development, is common in eastern Asia. Eutrophication is closely associated with fish culture. Cyanobacterial blooms are not thought to be toxic in many traditional communities but are regarded as useful food sources for zooplankton and fish. Except for a small number of countries, information on cyanotoxins is not available.
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AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT Michael Burch and Jenny House Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment PMB 3 Salisbury Post Office, Salisbury, SA, 5108, Australia [email protected] Introduction This report forms part of the CYANONET’s global situation assessment of the occurrence of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), their toxins (cyanotoxins), and on materials and methods to reduce the risks which they present to health and water resources. The CYANONET project is part of UNESCO’s International Hydrology Program (IHP). Its aim is to provide a global situation assessment on the following topics related to cyanobacteria: 1. Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations. 2. Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins). 3. Reported incidents of adverse health effects including case studies. 4. Surveys and epidemiological studies investigating associations between cyanobacterial populations, cyanontoxins and health. 5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, waterbody use
and ecological status. 6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial
mass populations and cyanotoxins. 7. Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices and needs. The information presented in this section is for the fifteen selected countries of Australasia and parts of Oceania (Fig 1). The information was gathered by the International Steering Committee member for the region during September-December, 2004. The region includes Australia, New Zealand and a selected range of island countries in the North Pacific Ocean within the geographic regions of Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Within this region the countries of Australia and New Zealand have a recent history of active research and management for cyanobacterial problems in water and have extensive published materials, which allowed rapid establishment of National Contacts to source these materials. For other smaller island states, where awareness is still developing, the National Contacts were established with assistance from the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, who provided guidance into appropriate government agencies within the Oceania region. The report presents extensive information principally from Australia and New Zealand, as no information was received from 11 countries, while two countries, Samoa and Kiribati indicated that
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no information on the topic area was either currently being collected and recorded or planned for investigation, while expressing interest in the outcomes of the project. A summary of the countries included in Oceania and the relevant data available within the defined assessment categories is provided in Table 1. The report is presented in the format which presents information from each assessment category collated to date. As indicated, because of the absence of information, the detailed assessment relates only to Australia and New Zealand. Background Australia Cyanobacteria have become recognised as a serious water quality problem in surface waters in Australia over the last 20 years. Australia is the driest continent excluding Antarctica and very little of the rain that does fall, finds its way into flowing rivers. Geographically, the Australian continent is made up of 12 drainage divisions with 245 river basins (ABS 1996). Most of the river systems in Australia are comparatively short and coastal or ephemeral (only running in the wet season). The exception is the Murray-Darling river system which drains about one seventh of the Australian landmass. The Murray-Darling Basin is the prime food production region of Australia. Agriculture (including forestry and fishing) is the largest user of water resources in Australia, accounting for about 70% of the water consumed (ABS 2000 & 1996). Major agricultural and urban areas of Australia have a limited supply of water. The deterioration of our water resources through poor land and catchment management, combined with discharges of nutrient-rich effluent has enhanced conditions for blooms of cyanobacteria in both our rivers and lakes. The conditions which favour the growth of cyanobacteria and lead to blooms are those occurring in slow-flowing rivers and thermally stratified lakes. These conditions are often caused by human actions and activities, but can also be equally associated with natural geological and climatic cycles which prevail over the wide geographic area of Australia. The water supply problems associated with cyanobacteria include offensive tastes and odours and the production of toxins. The concern surrounding toxicity and possible effects on human health became a subject of considerable investigation and discussion between water resources and health agencies across Australia principally during the 1990’s. It is recognised in Australia that dealing with the problems posed by cyanobacteria in water supplies requires an integrated approach to health assessment, monitoring and water treatment. The greatest problem of toxic cyanobacterium in relation to water supplies in Australia is the hepatotoxic bloom-forming species Microcystis aeruginosa. This species is common in lakes and reservoirs from the tropics to cold-temperate regions. In addition, there is concern regarding widespread neurotoxic Anabaena circinalis in lakes and rivers, and toxic Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii which is more common in sub-tropical regions of Northern Australia, but is also now being found in the more southern parts of the
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continent. Also rather uniquely, the neurotoxic A. circinalis found in Australia produces a range of saxitoxins only, and anatoxins have not been found in cyanobacteria in that country. New Zealand Cyanobacterial blooms occur throughout New Zealand in fresh, estuarine and coastal waters, including those used for drinking-water supplies, recreation and stock-watering. Eutrophication of water bodies in New Zealand has lead to an increase of their incidence. Cyanobacterial species in New Zealand are known to produce the cyanotoxins microcystins, nodularin, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and saxitoxins. These cyanotoxins have been found in numerous waterways across New Zealand. Microcystins are the most common cyanotoxin. At times these cyanotoxins can reach levels that are hazardous to human and animal health. Each summer in New Zealand health warnings are placed at a number of recreational lakes and there have been several incidences involving cyanotoxins and drinking water supplies. It seems likely that the frequency, intensity, duration and geographic spread of cyanobacterial blooms will continue to increase in New Zealand as both land modification and the resulting eutrophication intensify.
In New Zealand, 73% (in terms of total population) of the drinking water comes from surface water supplies. It is therefore likely that cyanobacterial blooms will have significant economic impacts due to an increase in water supply treatment costs or the need to use an alternative drinking-water source. In addition, there are social impacts from the disruption of recreational use of water bodies.
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Figure 1. Map of the region of Australasia and parts of Oceania, which includes the countries for which data was sought and where available has been included in this assessment. Map reproduced with approval from Graphic Maps and World Atlas.
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Table 1: Countries which are included in Oceania and reports of cyanobacteria corresponding to the assessment questions 1-7.
Information Category Country 1
Occurrence of Blooms
2 Occurrence of Cyanotoxins
3 Adverse Health Effects
4 Surveys orEpidemiological Studies
Adverse Impacts 5 6
Management Actions
7 Education and Training
Australia Refer section 1 in text
Refer section 2 in text
Refer section 3 in text
Refer section 4 in text
Refer section 5 in text
Refer section 6 in text
Refer section 7 in text
New Zealand Refer section 1 in text
Included in sections 1 & 2 in text
Refer section 3 in text
No information No information Refer section 6 in text
Refer section 7 in text
Kiribati None recorded None recorded None recorded None recorded or planned
None recorded No existing & none planned
No existing & none planned
Samoa No information collected
No informationcollected
None known No recorded or planned
None recorded No existing & none planned
No existing & none planned
Fiji Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru Norfolk Island Palau Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
No information was received from these countries
1. Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Cyanobacteria occur in waterbodies throughout the states of Australia and in New Zealand. The occurrences of mass populations have been recorded by state authorities, in technical reports and a range of other publications (see references). This table represents major and mostly confirmed toxic blooms only, numerous (many hundreds) of records for minor toxic blooms and populations with associated toxin analysis are collected routinely by various water management agencies.
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Table 2: Summary of where blooms have been reported by state in Australia. State Location Description Reference
Queensland Various Various Dams containing toxic Microcystis, Cylindrospermopsis, and Aphanizomenon ovalisporum.
Bormans (1999), Shaw et al, (1999)
The Barwon-Darling River
In November and December 1991 the river was dominated by neurotoxic Anabaena circinalis. Cell numbers of > 500,000 cells mL-1 were recorded at some localities at the peak of the bloom. The bloom was also shown to be toxic by mouse bioassay. Several contributing factors were investigated.
Bowling and Baker, (1996)
Chaffey Dam, Carcoar Dams & others.
Chaffey Dam and Windamere Dam, NSW, in 1998 both experienced cyanobacterial blooms.
Bek (1990)
Lake Cargelligo In November 1990 a severe bloom of Anabaena circinalis was recorded with cell numbers exceeding 100 000 cells mL-1 and toxicity tests showing high hepatotoxicity levels. The lake which supplied the town water was closed. The summer and autumn of 1990-1991 also saw blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa, Aphanizomenon issatschenkoi, Oscillatoria mougeotti and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in high cell numbers.
Bowling (1991)
New South Wales
Lake Victoria Toxic Microcystis Ajani et al., (2001) Lake Mokoan Toxic Microcystis, 1990, 1991 Croome (1990) Victoria Gippsland Lakes Toxic Nodularia, 2001-2002 Norman (1988)
Tasmania Orielton Lagoon Nodularia spumigena bloom in 1992-1993. High levels of nodularin were detected by HPLC, with cell counts ranging from 105 to 107 cells mL-1.
Blackburn and Jones (1995)
Lake Alexandrina Toxic Nodularia spumigena, 1990,1991; Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, 2004 Heresztyn and Nicholson (1997)
River Murray Neurotoxic Anabaena circinalis Steffensen et al., (1994) Torrens Lake Toxic Microcystis bloom in an urban lake in 1999 with cell numbers at 422 x 103
cells mL-1 at the peak of the bloom. Ganf et al, (1999)
Yorke Peninsula Phormidium affa formosum in Paskeville Reservoir, toxic, but the identity of toxins are unknown.
Baker et al, (2001)
South Australia
Thorndon Park Res. Toxic Aphanizomenon ovalisporum Baker (pers comm.) Swan River Toxic Microcystis aeruginosa in 2000 with cell counts exceeding 105 cells mL-1. Robson and Hamilton
(2003) Western Australia
Peel-Harvey Inlet The estuarine system experiences massive reoccurring planktonic blooms of Nodularia spumigena
Huber (1984)
Northern Territory
None reported
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Table 3: Summary of information of where major cyanobacterial blooms have been reported in New Zealand. Location Description Reference
North Island Waikato River, near Hamilton
January –October 2003. Saxitoxins found, however the species responsible unsure. Species present Anabaena planktonica (most likely cause with cell numbers 50,000 – 250,000 cells mL-1 at peak of bloom), Oscillatoria sp., M. aeruginosa and C. raciborskii also present. Bloom affected 1.4 M consumers and 13 recreational lakes (12 also used for drinking water), associated waterways and farm dams. No stock watering was allowed and drinking water supplies dosed with PAC. No illnesses reported from the incident.
Kouzminov (2004)
Lake Waitawa (near Wellington)
Cylindrospermopsin identified Stirling and Quilliam (2001)
South Island Lake Forsyth Nodularin isolated in 1988 and toxic blooms continue Wood and Parton (2003) Lake Waahi (Waikato) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii identified Wood and Stirling (2003)
2. Occurrence of cyanotoxins Table 4: Summary of the cyanotoxins found in Australian and New Zealand cyanobacterial taxa. Cyanotoxins identified Cyanobacterial taxa Reference(s) Microcystins (LR, LA, RR, etc.) Microcystis aeruginosa Flett and Nicholson (1991)
Kouzminov (pers comm.) Nodularin Nodularia spumigena Flett and Nicholson (1991)
Kouzminov (pers comm.) Cylindrospermopsin Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Aphanizomenon
ovalisporum, Cylindrospermum Shaw et al., (1999), Stirling and Quilliam (2001) Wood and Stirling (2003)
Saxitoxins (Mainly C-toxins, GTX, STX) Anabaena circinalis Cylindrospermum
Velzeboer et al, (2000), Kouzminov (pers comm.)
Anatoxin a/Homoanatoxin Phormidium Oscillatoria Cylindrospermum
Steffensen et al., (2001) Hamill (2001) Stirling and Quilliam (2001)
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3. Reported incidents of adverse health effects, including case studies Table 5: Reported cases of cyanotoxin poisonings in humans and animals from Australia and New Zealand.
Location Species involved Description Reference Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
Microcystis aeruginosa A study of a population who obtained drinking water from a reservoir containing a heavy bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa and a population with water from a different source. The conclusion was that the toxic algae in the reservoir caused the observed elevation of the levels of hepatic enzymes in the plasma of the consuming population.
Falconer et al. (1983)
Palm Island, Queensland, Australia
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
In 1979, more than 100 children were admitted to hospital after showing symptoms of gastroenteritis, after the major water supply had been copper sulphate dosed to control a dense algal bloom.
Byth, (1980), Bourke, et al. (1983)
Murray River, South Australia.
Species unsure but Anabaena circinalis, Microcystis aeruginosa, Aphanizomenon and Planktothrix were the most common species found during the study
This paper was to investigate whether exposure to River Murray South Australia and allied water sources during a period of raised cyanobacterial cell counts was associated with gastrointestinal and dermatological symptoms.
El Saadi, et al, (1995)
A 3.1 Humans
Northern Australia ? Cylindrospermopsisraciborskii
The disease described a century ago, known as “the Barcoo Spew” was likely to have been caused by cyanobacterial poisoning
Hayman, (1992)
Lake Mokoan, Victoria, Australia
Microcystis aeruginosa Feral carp were collected before and during the presence of cyanobacteria and examined to determine whether microcystins were implicated in any health problems in the fish. Microcystins were present in the livers of the fish during times of microcystin infestation.
Carbis, et al., (1997)
Lake Alexandrina, South Australia
Nodularia spumigena 1878, sheep, horses, dogs, pigs Francis, (1878)
North Queensland, Australia
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Three cows and ten calves were found dead near a farm dam which contained a algal bloom which was identified as Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Thomas, et al., (1998), Saker, et al, (1999)
3.2 Animals
Central New South Wales, Australia
Anabaena circinalis A bloom of A. circinalis containing saxitoxins caused the mortality of 14 sheep.
Negri et al., (1995)
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Western Australia Nodularia spumigena In two separate cases 33 sheep and 52 sheep died and showed haemorrhage and diffuse liver necrosis after drinking water from farms dams found to contain toxic Nodularia spumigena.
Main et al., (1977)
North and South Island, New Zealand
Oscillatoria (benthic). The first time in New Zealand animal (dog) deaths have been linked to toxins from benthic cyanobacteria.
Hamill., (2001)
North and South Island, New Zealand
Many species including Microcystis sp, Anabaena sp, Oscillatoria/Phormidium sp, and Cylindrospermum sp.
A review of the known livestock poisonings from cyanobacteria in New Zealand.
Wood and Parton, (2003)
New South Wales, Australia
Microcystis aeruginosa The specific identity of the cyanobacteria responsible for two cases of stock deaths are described.
McBarron and May, (1966)
New South Wales, Australia
Anabaena circinalis 20 lambs died after ingestion of dam water containing A. circinalis, with follow up toxicity studies done.
McBarron et al., (1975)
Lake Bonney, South Australia.
Species not stated On lakes adjoining the River Murray, stock losses (including sheep, cattle and horses) have occurred as a result of ingestion of cyanobacterial infested waters.
Mulhearn, (1959)
4. Surveys and epidemiological studies, investigating associations between cyanobacterial populations, cyanotoxins and health Table 6. A list of Australian scientific reports and epidemiological studies of cyanobacteria and the relationship to public health.
Reference DescriptionSoong, (1993) A review which covers the history of illness associated with blue-green algae over the 1990-91 summer. Soong, (1992) This study covers the cyanobacterial bloom in the River Murray 1991-1992 from the convening of the Blue-green algal committee,
management issues and the consequent implementation of a management plan. Soong, et al., (1992) Cases of illness relating to recreational exposure to cyanobacteria in two South Australian waters were assessed and documented with
the result of eight cases being identified with symptoms including eye irritations and skin rashes. Williamson andCorbett, (1993)
This paper presents an assessment of options for surveillance of illness related to algal blooms and the feasibility for more detailed epidemiological investigations of the problem following the 1991 blue green algal bloom in the Darling-Barwon river system, Australia.
Pilotto et al, (1997) • The objective of this cross-sectional epidemiological study was to examine the relationship between potential exposure to cyanobacteria via drinking water during pregnancy and birth outcomes.
• Setting: 156 communities in South-eastern Australia. Participants: 32,700 singleton live newborn during the period 1992-1994. Exposure: Cyanobacteria occurrences and their alert levels (alert level 1 = < 2,000 cells/mL; alert level 2 = 2,000 - 15,000
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cells/mL; alert level 3 = > 15,000 cells/mL), • Main Outcome Measures: For exposures in the first and last trimesters and for the whole gestation period, the percent and
adjusted odds ratios for very low birth weight (VLBW), low birth weight (LBW), prematurity and congenital defects. • Results: Overall, the results for this study do not provide a great deal of support for the hypothesis that exposure to cyanobacteria
blooms during pregnancy increased the risk for deleterious pregnancy outcomes. Pilotto et al., (2004) The skin irritant potential of a range of cyanobacterial species was tested on human volunteers. The study concluded that a small
proportion of healthy people may develop skin reactions when in contact with cyanobacteria but the reactions are mild and resolve without treatment.
Pilotto et al., (1997) This study investigated the health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria from recreational water activities. The results suggested that exposure to cyanobacteria during recreational water activities was associated with increased symptom occurrence (diarrhoea, vomiting, flu-like symptoms, skin rashes, mouth ulcers, fevers, and eye or ear irritations).
Orr et al., (2001) This study examined whether microcystins can be found in the milk of dairy cattle which have consumed water contaminated with M. aeruginosa. The study concluded that there was no detectable microcystin in the milk obtained from the treated animals.
Orr et al., (2003) The study determined that human consumption of beef which had drinking water containing toxic M. aeruginosa would not produce levels of microcystin in the liver or blood plasma that would present an unacceptable risk to human health.
Falconer and Choice (1992)
Edible mussels growing in a bloom of toxic Nodularia in Western Australia was investigated and the result was high toxicity resulting in a recommendation that edible mussels should not be collected for human consumption during a toxic cyanobacterial bloom.
Negri and Jones, (1995)
An Australian freshwater mussel accumulated high levels of PSP toxins when fed toxic Anabaena circinalis which may pose a health risk to humans if consumed.
Bourke and Hawes, (1983)
Following from the outbreak of hepato-enteritis on Palm Island in 1979, these papers summarise the epidemiological investigations.
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5. Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, waterbody use and ecological status
Australia Cyanobacterial blooms have been a recurring and well known natural occurrence in Australia since before European settlement in the 18th century, and were even recognised by native aboriginal Australians. Examples of significant blooms that have affected either public drinking water supply or water recreational use were given in Table 2 (1). Since the early 1990’s however, cyanobacteria have become nationally recognised as a serious water quality and water resource management problem in Australia. This awareness was triggered largely by a single bloom event in 1991 referred to as the “Darling Bloom”. This was a major bloom of toxic cyanobacteria which covered a distance of 1000 Km along the Darling River in New South Wales. The bloom is often referred to as the longest continuous riverine bloom recorded worldwide. The bloom occurred at the time of severe drought in eastern Australia and persisted for longer than two months and affected many townships and communities along the River. The bloom was highly neurotoxic and was subsequently shown to be comprised of saxitoxins-containing Anabaena circinalis. At its height the impact of the disruption to water use by the communities was so great that the NSW Government declared a “State of Emergency”. This rather exceptional decision allowed for administrative arrangements for the provision of emergency mobile drinking water treatment in some towns with assistance from the Australian Army; for carting of water; and for assistance to rural land holders by drilling bores to access groundwater. In the aftermath of this event the immediate response was the formation of the NSW Blue-Green Algal Task Force by the government to tackle the perceived complex range of issues to solve the causes of algal blooms and manage them into the future. In 1992, the Task Force made 30 recommendations to the government which were developed into a comprehensive integrated Algal Management Strategy to minimise the occurrence and impact of algal blooms in New South Wales. This is described further in section 6. The economic costs associated with the “Darling Bloom” were estimated by the New South Wales Blue-Green Algae Task Force (NSWBGATF, 1992) to be: $1.26 million for the provision of emergency water supplies; $730,000 for the State Algal Contingency Plan, and $9.4 million due to lost income from tourism and recreation in local regions, ascribed to the occurrence of blooms and to negative media coverage. In addition up to 1600 sheep and 40 cattle deaths were suspected of being caused by the Darling–Barwon algal blooms. There have been many other cases of toxic algal blooms causing adverse impacts on water resource and water supply use in Australia. The impacts upon water supply include costs for sampling and monitoring and significant additional treatment including operating costs (additional chemicals, e.g. activated carbon) and in some cases outlays for capital upgrades to advanced treatment such as ozone/GAC, or PAC dosing.
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There was a comprehensive attempt to determine the national costs for algal blooms as part of the National Eutrophication Management Program (Atech, 2000). This study included surveys and economic analysis to produce an estimate of the total annual cost of between $A180-240 Million ($US 144-224 Million). This was made up of $95M cost to extractive users and $76-136M to non-extractive users. The definition of non-extractive uses that may be adversely affected by algal blooms included the recreational use of waterbodies by local residents and tourists (for swimming, boating and fishing), amenity uses by residents and tourists (water views and riverside walks), commercial fishing, and the so-called ‘non-use’ values. Non-use values include the value the community puts on the continued existence of waterbodies in their natural state and the existence of the flora and fauna that they support. The extractive uses were defined as drinking water, water for commercial and industrial enterprises, and water extracted for aquaculture, stock watering and the irrigation of pastures and crops (Atech, 2000). The impacts of cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins upon ecological status have been less well studied in Australia, although there have been occasional reports of bird and other native animal deaths ascribed to toxic cyanobacteria and studies describing the effect of cyanotoxins upon fish and shellfish are given in Table 7. New Zealand The situation in New Zealand is that the number of blooms & their geographic spread is likely to grow. The principal reasons are considered to be the increasing eutrophication of New Zealand’s freshwaters & environmental warming. Blooms have economic impacts ranging from the significant increase in water supply treatment costs or the need to use an alternative drinking-water source (e.g. Waikato River 2003 incident). There are also social impacts from the disruption of recreational use of water bodies. The best documented case of impact of a cyanobacterial bloom in New Zealand is the “Waikato River incident”. This was a bloom event that lasted over January-October 2003 and affected a total of approximately 1.4 million drinking water consumers from the Waikato River basin in the north island, which includes the Auckland and Waikato District Health Boards. The bloom also affected 13 recreational lakes along 400km of the Waikato River. The Waikato River incident was a saxitoxin event with the Anabaena planktonica predominant algal type. The Waikato incident indicated that some treatment plants are not completely filtering off cyanobacteria. The notional total cost over a 3-month bloom event for a drinking water plant with more than 100,000 consumers was approximately~US$100,000. This was comprised of ($35,000 for emergency monitoring and $65,000 for treatment).
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Table 7: Studies describing the presence and affect of Toxins in Shellfish and Fish in Australia. Location Cyanobacteria Toxin Shellfish
Species Description Reference
Peel Inlet, Western Australia
Nodularia spumigena
Nodularin Mussels collected from contaminated water. Highest toxicity in gut (viscera) – 90 mg dry weight tissue per l kg mice. Non-intestinal tissue non-toxic to mice.
Falconer, (1992)
Queensland Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
Cylidrospermopsin
Redclaw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus)
Aquaculture pond contained a bloom of Cylindrospermopsis. Crayfish were found to have 4.3 µg toxin/g hepatopancreas tissue and 0.9 µg toxin/g freeze dried muscle tissue.
Saker, (1998) ICTC
Gippsland Lakes, Victoria
Nodularia spumigena (bloom)
Nodularin Mussels andPrawns
Mussels and prawns were collected from a bloom. Toxin levels in mussels ranged from 40 – 2,500 µg/kg wet tissue. Toxin levels in prawn flesh ranged from 0.5 – 37.8 µg/kg wet tissue with levels in viscera ranging from 174 – 6400 µg/kg wet tissue.
Department of Human Services Victoria, (2001)
Gippsland Lakes, Victoria
Nodularia spumigena (bloom)
Nodularin Various fishspecies
Various fish species collected from Nodularia bloom. Nodularin levels in fish ranged from 0.2 – 8.75 µg/kg muscle tissue. Toxin levels in liver ranged from 22 – 1400 µg/kg liver tissue.
Department of Human Services, Victoria
Queensland Oscillatoria (bloom)
Panaeus monodon
Blooms of Oscillatoria coincided with prawn deaths. From laboratory studies it was concluded that sub-lethal levels of toxin had weakened the prawns’ immune system and so were prone to secondary infection causing death.
Smith, (1996)
Lake Mokoan, Victoria
Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystin-LR
Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
When microcystin bloom present in lake 66% of carp had liver damage and 37% had gill damage.
Carbis et al., (1997)
Queensland Lyngbya majuscula (bloom)
Crab and Fish Poor crab and fish harvests from coastal waters during Lyngbya majuscula bloom.
O’Neil et al., (2000)
Gippsland lakes, Victoria
Nodularia spumigena (bloom)
Nodularin Fish, prawns,mussels
A health alert level has been derived for toxins in fish, prawns and mussels in Victoria, Australia. The health alert level for microcystins and nodularin toxins in seafood is as follows: fish (250 µg/kg), prawns (1100 µg/kg) and mussels (1,500 µg/kg). These health alert levels are used to place restrictions on commercial and recreational harvesting of seafood in Victoria, Australia, during cyanobacterial blooms.
Van Buynder, et al., (2001)
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6. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins A range of management initiatives have been developed in both Australia and New Zealand to deal with cyanobacterial blooms and toxins. The primary instrument is the development and provision of guidelines for both cyanobacteria and toxins for the range of uses of water likely to be affected by toxins. Additional instruments are nationally coordinated information and research programs, and the establishment of regional contingency planning groups, and reporting and data collection protocols by health and water management authorities to collect information on toxic bloom occurrence and health effects and implications. Specific initiatives are described for each country. Australia Guidelines Drinking Water: The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) have been undergoing a process of rolling revision by National Health & Medical Research Council (NHMRC) since 1998. As part of that process, guidelines for cyanobacteria and their toxins were developed as part of the review in 2000. This has resulted in the production of four "Fact Sheets" for individual classes of toxins: microcystins, nodularin, saxitoxins, and cylindrospermopsin (Fact Sheets 17a-17d). The guidelines are now published as part of the 2004 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (NHMRC/NRMMC, 2004), and are also available at http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/pdf/awg5.pdf Recreational Water: Australia has had guidelines for cyanobacteria in water used for recreation since 1993 (Johnstone, 1993). These guidelines recommended a single level for all cyanobacteria of 20,000 cells/mL, without reference to known toxins. This guideline is still used by some state agencies however others have adopted variations of the WHO Guidelines (WHO, 2003); for example, see http://www.nrm.qld.gov.au/water/blue_green/recreation.html. Currently however, the entire guidelines for water recreation, including for cyanobacteria are under revision by the National Health and Medical Research Council. The NHMRC released a draft document: “Guidelines for Managing Risks in Recreational Water” which include cyanobacteria and algae in both fresh, and coastal and estuarine water for public consultation in May 2004. This document is being reviewed to incorporate comments and prepared for publication during 2005. The approach taken in this revision was to consider recent research and evidence of the health significance of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in recreational water situations, in particular to include reference to WHO (2003). Agriculture - Livestock Water: Australia has also developed Livestock Drinking Water Guidelines for Cyanobacteria. These form part of the Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality (ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000). The guidelines for livestock are referred to as trigger values, and suggest that there is an
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increasing risk to livestock health when particular cell counts of Microcystis and/or concentrations of microcystins are exceeded. The guidelines provide individual derivations of trigger values for cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens and horses which take into account interspecies sensitivity. The full details of the guidelines and their derivation are given at: http://www.deh.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/pubs/volume3-9-3.pdf Management and Contingency Planning National Algal Management Program: In January 1992 the Australian Water Resources Council National Algal Bloom Task Force identified the need for a nationally coordinated research program and as a result engaged a National Project Manager for Algal Bloom Research, for two years from 1992 to 1994. The project was to focus research activities dealing with blue-green algae. The position then became the National Algal Manager in 1994 funded by the Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ) and with approval by the Prime Minister, Premier and Cabinet. The National Algal Manager (NAM) position ran from 1995-2001 with the following specific objectives: • Provide a national focus for algal bloom issues including the identification and
promotion of key issues for research. • Undertake specific project activities – such as development of: Guidelines (Drinking
water and Recreation), Sampling & Monitoring Protocols, and Standardised Analytical Protocols for Toxins, development of an Algicide Manual.
• Facilitate communication and exchange of information and assist State Agencies in developing management strategies by providing latest technical and research information.
Contingency Planning: Many states in Australia have developed regional algal management strategies to provide both reporting protocols, routine and emergency management plans to deal with algal blooms and also to implement longer-term management actions. The best examples of these are in New South Wales. The NSW Algal Management Strategy integrated a large number of measures into five key elements: State Algal Contingency Plan; Management of Blooms; Land and Water Management; Education and Awareness Raising; and Research. The Strategy included Algal Contingency Plans to minimise the effects of blue-green algal blooms and short to medium term measures to control the factors leading to algal bloom development. It also includes short to long term nutrient and water management measures to minimise nutrient inputs to waterways. These measures were strengthened by education, research and by increasing community awareness. The Strategy involves Catchment Management Boards (CMB's), state government agencies, local government, communities, industry, researchers and landholders. Much of the information dissemination by the state and regional committees is done via websites such as the main New South Wales state website: http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/water/bga/management/index.html;
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and also the Regional Algal Coordinating Committees Website: http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/water/bga/index.html Research: Over the past ten years there has been an increase in coordinated research into the causes of blue-green algal blooms in Australian fresh and estuarine waters. State agencies have funded some of this work; the CSIRO had internally funded a priority research program; the CRC for Water Quality and Treatment and the CRC for Freshwater Ecology has supported research; and the Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation and the Murray-Darling Basin Commission jointly initiated the National Eutrophication Management Program from 1996-2000. This research has been both fundamental and also tactical or management-oriented. New Zealand
The New Zealand Ministry of Health has developed national criteria for assessing the risk of toxic cyanobacteria in drinking-water supplies. These criteria are part of an integrated management system for drinking-water.
Management of cyanotoxin risk is addressed in the Drinking-Water Public Health Risk Management Plans (PHRMPs), developed by the Ministry of Health. These cover cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in a drinking-water source. Each drinking-water supplier should include validation of control measures, which are most effective against cyanotoxins in individual water safety plans (PHRMPs). The Ministry of Health has revised the Drinking-Water Standards for New Zealand 2000 (DWSNZ: 2000). In addition, the Ministry of Health has developed a new section ‘Cyanobacteria’ in the amended (revised) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality Management for New Zealand 2005 (Guidelines, 2005). The health alert levels for cyanobacteria and their toxins, including provisional maximum acceptable values (PMAVs) for cyanotoxins are among the topics considered by this review.
The principal emphasis of the health risk management system for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins is to use a comprehensive multi-barrier process control approach to promote quality assurance. This is complemented by a monitoring programme used as a final quality control which provides a trigger for remedial action where this is necessary. The aim of this management system is to provide a high degree of confidence in the safety of the water for all drinking-water supplies, whether they are large or small.
7. Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices and
needs. A comprehensive range of published and web-based materials are available, including guidelines, research program summaries, information for the general public and for management. Examples include:
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Guidelines: Australian Drinking Water Guidelines 2004 (NHMRC/NRMMC, 2004). Fact Sheets for microcystins, nodularin, saxitoxins, and cylindrospermopsin (Fact Sheets 17a-17d). Available at: http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/pdf/awg5.pdf Evaluation of analytical methods for detection and quantification of cyanotoxins in relation to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. (Nicholson, B. C. and Burch, M.D., 2001). National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the Water Services Association of Australia, and the Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment, Canberra. Available at: http://www7.health.gov.au/nhmrc/publications/pdf/eh22.pdf Research Summaries and General Information: Blue-Green Algae. Their Significance and Management within Water Supplies, CRC for Water Quality and Treatment, 2002. Occasional Paper No. 4. Available at: http://www.waterquality.crc.org.au/publications/OccPaper04_info.htm Managing Algal Blooms. Outcomes from CSIRO's Multi-Divisional Blue-Green Algal Program. CSIRO Australia, 1997. J.R. Davis (Ed.), CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra. Health effects of toxic cyanobacteria (blue green algae). (Ressom, R., Soong, F.S., Fitzgerald, J., Turczynowicz, L., Saadi, O.E., Roder, D., Maynard, T., Falconer, I., 1994). National Health and Medical Research Council, Canberra. Available at: http://www7.health.gov.au/nhmrc/rescinded/pdf/eh14pat1.pdf CRC for Water Quality and Treatment, 2002. Blue Green Algae: A Guide. Available at: http://www.waterquality.crc.org.au/DWFacts/DWFact_Algae.pdf Management Guides and Plans: CRC for Water Quality and Treatment, 2002. Using Algicides for the Control of Algae in Australia. Available at: http://www.waterquality.crc.org.au/publications/algicides_crc.pdf Metropolitan / South Coast RACC Algal Contingency Plan Issue: 1 Issue Date: May 2000. This an example of a regional Algal Contingency Plan to assist relevant Government agencies, local Government and community groups that may be affected by, or required to participate in the management and response to algal blooms. http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/../ssc_algal_contplan.pdf Guidelines for the Management Response to Marine and Fresh Water Algal Blooms: This is also an example of a comprehensive plan for application in the Lower North Coast, Hunter Valley and Central Coast, (NSW). July, 2004. http://www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au/care/water/bga/management/racc/hunter/algal_guidelines_2004.pdf
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Table 8. A list of the educational, training and public information materials available on the world-wide web for the states of Australia and in New Zealand. Location Resource New Zealand
http://www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/238fd5fb4fd051844c www.moh.govt.nz/publications or http://www.nrl.moh.govt.nz/drinking water.html
Queensland http://www.nrm.qld.gov.au/factsheets/pdf/water/w03.pdf ACT and New South Wales
http://www.environment.act.gov.au/airandwater/whatarebluegreenalgae.html http://www.murraybluegreenalgae.com/ http://www.deh.gov.au/soe/2001/inland/water02-2b.html
South Australia
http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/council/publications/Brochures/Blue_Green_Algae.pdf
Victoria http://www.health.vic.gov.au/environment/water/bluegreenalgae.htm Western Australia
http://www.wrc.wa.gov.au/public/waterfacts/6_algal_blooms/index.html
Northern Territory
http://kakadu.nt.gov.au/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/DBIRD_PI/ANIMALS/ PUBLICATIONS/ANIMAL_MANAGEMENT/J71.PDF
Tasmania http://www.dpiwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/Attachments/JMUY-4YC84K Conclusions and Recommendations Both Australia and New Zealand have been active in the development of guidelines and management systems to deal with the incidence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in drinking and recreational water. There has also been a significant investment in research related to the control and management of cyanobacteria, particularly in water treatment techniques for cyanotoxin removal. However, there is currently insufficient information to derive guidelines for the use of water contaminated by cyanobacteria for agricultural production, aquaculture and fisheries. The potential for algal toxin, odour or tainting residues in certain produce or commodities is largely unknown for agricultural activities which use contaminated water for irrigation or processing. Aquaculture production of crustaceans and fish in shallow ponds is likely to be susceptible to residues, and these industries needs to be aware of algal blooms and their potential importance. The knowledge gaps in this area pose a business risk for these industries. The probability of and mechanisms for contamination are not understood, and any possible public health risk may be small to negligible, however better research data are required to developing sound risk-based guidelines for this area. Areas for improvement and consolidation of cyanotoxin management in Australia include:
1. Endorsement and adoption of draft National Monitoring Protocol for Cyanobacteria and Toxins. This document has been in development for some time, and contains recommendations for standard monitoring and sampling techniques for cyanobacteria and toxins, and also includes an Alert Levels
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Framework which is cross referenced to guidelines for toxins. The framework which prompts management actions such as monitoring, testing and treatment in relation to the occurrence of toxic species. This protocol should be adopted during 2005.
2. Incorporation of data on cyanotoxins into the Australian State of the Environment
(SoE) reporting system. Currently Australia has a nationally coordinated system for reporting upon the state of the environment. Internationally, state of the environment (SoE) reporting has become a widely accepted process which aids environmental decision-making and enables assessment of progress towards ecological sustainability. The SoE reporting involves monitoring a set of ‘core’ environmental indicators. Currently the incidence of algal blooms is one of the “core indicators” to report on the condition of inland waters. The formulation of an agreed national protocol (see 1. above), which could include agreed quantification of cyanobacterial populations and toxic status of algal blooms would assist in gauging the frequency distribution and spread of hazards associated with cyanotoxins, and greatly enhance the value of this indicator. The value of algal blooms as an indicator is that it allows for the effectiveness of various strategies, such as nutrient control or flow management plans to be gauged.
3. Undertaking work to scoping of the development of guidelines for cyanotoxins in
irrigated agriculture, aquaculture and fisheries. It is likely that there is insufficient information for guideline derivation at present, however a useful first step in this direction would be to undertake a review of the current state of knowledge of the impact of toxins on plant and animal (livestock, fish, crustacean and shellfish) products and production. This could be followed by risk screening (risk assessment) of the potential for cyanotoxins to transfer to particular commodities, including irrigated horticultural crops, meat, milk, shellfish, crustacean and fish tissue (muscle). This process would identify information and research gaps for particular commodities and industry sectors.
Contacts for Australasia and Oceania In addition to the publications and reports that are contained within this report, the contact details for the contributors of this report are as follows: Country Australia Mr. Michael Burch [email protected] Kiribati Eita Metai [email protected] New Zealand Dr Alexander Kouzminov [email protected] Kuinimeri Finau Not known
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Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank a range of people who contributed material to this report. In particular Dr Alexander Kouzminov, of the Ministry of Health, New Zealand provided extensive collated material with interpretation from that country. Caroline Fazekas assisted with establishing country contacts in the Oceania region, and also in collating material. Numerous people within many Australian agencies provided published and unpublished material for development of the report including, Sue Phillips, Human Services; Bianca Huider, Goulburn-Murray Water, Victoria. Dr Lee Bowling, DIPNR, NSW; Geoff Eaglesham, Queensland Health Scientific Services; Was Hosja, Water and Rivers Commission, Western Australia. The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade assisted with a network of contacts for sending requests for material to country contacts within the Oceania region. Andrew Humpage, Peter Hobson, Brenton Nicholson, Justin Brookes and Suzanne Froscio provided bibliographic material for the Australian assessment. The CRC for Water Quality and Treatment provided financial support for aspects of this work. Professor Geoff Codd from the CYANONET steering committee provided on-going guidance, support and encouragement for country contacts to facilitate the entire project. References Ajani, P., G. Hallegraeff, et al., 2001. Historic overview of algal blooms in marine and estuarine waters of New South Wales, Australia. Proc Linn Soc N S W 123: 1-22. (ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000). Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume 3, Primary Industries - Rationale and Background Information (Chapter 9). Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ.), Canberra. Web address: http://www.deh.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/volume3.html Aplin, T. E. H., 1983. The distribution and ecology of toxic cyanophyta in south-western Australia. Toxicon Suppl.3: 17-20. Atech, 2000. Cost of algal blooms. LWRRDC Occasional Paper 26/99, Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Available at: http://www.lwa.gov.au/downloads/publications_pdf/PR990308.pdf ANZECC/ARMCANZ, (2000). Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality, Volume 3, Primary Industries - Rationale and Background Information (Chapter 9). Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) and Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand (ARMCANZ.). Web address: http://www.deh.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/volume3.html Baker, P. D., Steffensen, D.A., Humpage, A.R., Nicholson, B.C., Falconer, I.R., Lanthios, B., Fergusson, K.M., and Saint, C.P., 2001. Preliminary evidence of toxicity associated with the benthic cyanobacterium Phormidium in South Australia. Environmental Toxicology 16(6) Special Issue (SI): 506-511.
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Bek, P., 1990. Chaffey Reservoir. Water quality problems and management options. Blackburn, S. and Jones, G., 1995. A toxic bloom of Nodularia spumigena in Orielton Lagoon, Tasmania, Australia. Poster presentation at the 1st International Congress on toxic cyanobacteria, Ronne, Denmark. Byth, S., 1980. Palm Island Mystery Disease. Medical Journal of Australia 2: 40-42. Bormans, M., 1999. Controlling algal blooms in the Fitzroy River. Rivers for the Future magazine. Issue 10, Spring 1999. Bourke, A. T. C., R. B. Hawes, Neilson, A., and Stallman, N.D., 1983. An outbreak of hepato-enteritis (the Palm Island Mystery Disease) possibly caused by algal intoxication. Toxicon 21 (suppl. 3): 45-48. Bowling, L. C. and Baker, P.D., 1996. Major cyanobacterial bloom in the Barwon-Darling River, Australia, in 1991, and underlying limnological conditions. Marine and Freshwater Research 47(4): 643-657. Bowling, L., 1991. Examination of severe cyanobacterial (blue-green algal) blooms in Lake Cargelligo, November 1990 to April 1991, and possible causes of their occurrence. Water Resources. Carbis, C. R., Rawlin, G.T., Grant, P., Mitchell, G.F., Anderson, J.W., and McCauley, I., 1997. A study of feral carp, Cyprinus carpio L, exposed to Microcystis aeruginosa at Lake Mokoan, Australia, and possible implications for fish health. J Fish Diseases 20: 81-91. Croome, R., 1990. Microcystis aeruginosa blooms in Lake Mokoan, North Eastern Victoria. Water Board Blue-Green Algal Seminars, November 21st and 22nd. El Saadi, O., Esterman, A.J., Cameron, S., Roder, D.M., 1995. Murray River water, raised cyanobacterial cell counts, and gastrointestinal and dermatological symptoms. The Medical Journal of Australia 162: 122-125. Falconer, I. R., Beresford, A.M. and Runnegar, M.T.C., 1983. Evidence of liver damage by toxin from a bloom of the blue-green alga, Microcystis aeruginosa. Med-J-Aust. 1(11): 511-514. Falconer, I.R. and Choice, A., 1992. Toxicity of edible mussels (Mytilus edulis) growing naturally in an estuary during a water bloom of the blue-green alga Nodularia spumigena. Environmental toxicology and water quality: an international journal, 7: 119-123. Flett, D.J. and Nicholson, B.C. (1991). Toxic cyanobacteria in water supplies: analytical techniques, Research report No. 26, Urban Water Research Association of Australia, Melbourne. Francis, G., 1878. Poisonous Australian lake. Nature, 2 May, 11-12. Ganf, G.G., Brookes, J., Hodgson, C., Linden, L. and Burch, M., 1999. The 1999 Torrens Lake Microcystis aeruginosa bloom. Consultancy report to the Torrens Catchment Water Management Board, June 1999.
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Hamill, K.D., 2001. Toxicity in benthic freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae): first observations in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 35: 1057-1059. Hayman, J., 1992. Beyond the Barcoo – probable human tropical cyanobacterial poisoning in outback Australia. The Medical Journal of Australia. 157, December 7/21: 794-796. Heresztyn, T. and Nicholson, B.C., 1997. Nodularin concentrations in Lakes Alexandrina and Albert, South Australia, during a bloom of the cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Nodularia spumigena and degradation of the toxin. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 12(4): 273-282. Huber, A. L., 1984. Nodularia (Cyanobacteriaceae) akinetes in the sediments of the Peel-Harvey Estuary, Western Australia: potential inoculum source for Nodularia blooms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 47: 234-238. Jernakoff, P., Hick, P., Ong, C., Hosja, W., and Grigo, S., 1996. Remote sensing of algal blooms in the Swan River. CSIRO Marine Laboratories report: 226. Johnstone P., 1993. Guidelines for the Recreational Use of Water Potentially Containing Cyanobacteria. ARMCANZ Occasional Paper. Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, Canberra. Kouzminov, A., 2004. New sections on cyanobacteria for the New Zealand drinking – water standards and guidelines for drinking-water quality management for New Zealand – cost effectiveness of monitoring regimes and control of cyanobacterial bloom events. Abstracts 6th International conference on toxic cyanobacteria, Bergen, Norway, 21-27 June 2004. Main, D.C., Berry, P.H., Peet, R.L., Robertson, J.P., 1977. Sheep mortalities associated with the blue green alga Nodularia spumigena. Australian Veterinary Journal. Volume 53, December: 578-581. McBarron, E.J. and May, V., 1966. Poisoning of sheep in New South Wales by the blue-green alga Anacystis cyanea (Kuetz) Dr. and Dail. Australian Veterinary Journal. Volume 42: 449-453. McBarron, E.J., Walker, R.I., Gardner, I., Walker, K.H., 1975. Toxicity to livestock of the blue-green alga Anabaena circinalis. Australian Veterinary Journal. Volume 51: 587-588. Mulhearn, C.J., 1959. Beware algae! They can poison livestock. Journal of Agriculture. April: 406-408. Negri, A., Jones, G.J., Hindmarsh, M., 1995. Sheep mortality associated with paralytic shellfish poisons from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis. Toxicon 33(10): 1321-1329. Negri, A.P. and Jones, G.J., 1995. Bioaccumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins from the cyanobacterium Anabaena circinalis by the freshwater mussel Alathyria condola. Toxicon. 33: 667-678. NHMRC/NRMMC, 2004. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines. National Health and Medical Research Council/Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, Canberra.
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Norman, L. 1988. The 1987/88 Gippsland lakes algal bloom. Gippsland lakes algal bloom seminar, 13th July, 1988. NSWBGATF, 1992. Final Report of the New South Wales Blue-Green Algae Task Force. NSW Department of Water Resources, Parramatta. O'Neil, J. M., Shaw, G.R., William, C., 2000. Blooms of the toxic cyanobacteria Lyngbia majuscula in coastal Queensland waters. Ninth International Conference on Harmful Algal Blooms, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Orr, P. T., Jones, G.J., Hunter, R.A. and Berger, K., 2001. Ingestion of toxic Microcystis aeruginosa by dairy cattle and the implications for microcystin contamination of milk. Toxicon 39(12): 1847-1854. Orr, P. T., et al., 2003. Exposure of beef cattle to sub-clinical doses of Microcystis aeruginosa: toxin bioaccumulation, physiological effects and human health risk assessment. Toxicon: 41(5): 613-620. Pilotto, L.S., Kliewer, E.V., Burch, M.D., Attewell, R.G. and Davies, R.D., 1997. Prematurity, birth weight, congenital anomalies, overall mortality and gastrointestinal cancer mortality in relation to cyanobacterial contamination in drinking water sources. Report to the CRC for Water Quality and Treatment, and Environment Australia. National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, Canberra. Pilotto, L., Hobson, P., Burch, M.D., Ranmuthugala, G., Attewell, R., Weightman, W. 2004. Acute skin irritant effects of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in healthy volunteers. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 28: 220-224. Pilotto, L.S., Douglas, R.M., Burch, M.D., Cameron, S., Beers, M., Rouch, G.J., Robinson, P., Kirk, M., Cowie, C.T., Hardiman, S., Moore, C. and Attewell, R.G., 1997. Health effects of exposure to cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) during recreational water-related activities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 21(6): 562-566. Robson, B.J. and Hamilton, D.P., 2003. Summer flow event induces a cyanobacterial bloom in a seasonal Western Australian estuary. Marine and Freshwater Research. 54: 139-151. Ressom, R., Soong, F.S., Fitzgerald, J., Turczynowicz, L., Saadi, O.E., Roder, D., Maynard, T., Falconer, I., 1994. Health effects of toxic cyanobacteria (blue green algae). National Health and Medical Research Council, Canberra. Saker, M.L., Thomas, A.D. and Norton, J.H., 1999. Cattle mortality attributed to the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in an outback region of North Queensland. Environmental toxicology, 14: 179-182. Shaw, G. R., Sukenik, A., Livne, A., Chiswell, R.K., Smith, M.J., Seawright, A.A., Norris, R.L., Eaglesham, G.K. and Moore, M.R., 1999. Blooms of the cylindrospermopsin containing cyanobacterium, Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Forti), in newly constructed lakes, Queensland, Australia. Environmental Toxicology 14(1): 167-177.
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Smith, P. T., 1996. Toxic effects of blooms of marine species of Oscillatoriales on farmed prawns (Penaeus monodon, Penaeus japonicus) and brine shrimp (Artemia salina). Toxicon 34(8): 857-869. Soong, F. S., 1993. Algal Blooms in the River Murray. Health in the Greenhouse - The Medical and Environmental Health Effects of Global Climate Change. C. E. Ewan, G. D. Calvert, E. A. Bryant and J. A. Garrick. Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. Soong, F. S., 1992. Health aspects of blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in inland waters. Soong, F. S., Maynard, E., Kirke, K., and Luke, C., 1992. Illness associated with blue-green algae.(Letter) Medical Journal of Australia 156: 67. Steffensen, D., A. Humpage, et al. 2001. Toxicity of the benthic cyanobacterium Phormidium in South Australia. Fifth International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria, Noosa, Queensland. Stirling, D.J. and Quilliam, M.A., 2001. First report of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in New Zealand. Toxicon. 39(8): 1219-1222. Thomas, A., Saker, M.L., Norton, J.H., and Olsen, R.D., 1998. Cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii as a probable cause of death in cattle in northern Queensland. Aust Vet J 76(9): 592-594. Van Buynder, P.G., Oughtred, T., Kirby, B., Phillips, S., Eaglesham, G., Thomas, K. and Burch, M., 2001. Nodularin uptake by seafood during a cyanobacterial bloom. Environmental Toxicology. 16: 468-471. Velzeboer, R. M. A., Baker, P., Rositano, J., Heresztyn, T., Codd, G. A. and Raggett, S., 2000. Geographical patterns of occurrence and composition of saxitoxins in the cyanobacterial genus Anabaena (Nostocales, Cyanophyta) in Australia. Phycologia. 39(5), 395-407. WHO, 2003. Guidelines for safe recreational water environments. Volume 1: Coastal and Fresh Waters. World Health Organization, Geneva. Williamson, M. and Corbett, S., 1993. Investigating health risks from riverine blooms of blue-green algae. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin 4(3): 27-29. Wood, S.A., and Stirling, D.J., 2003. First identification of the cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 37: 821-828. Wood, S. and Parton, K., 2003. Livestock poisoning by blue-green algae. VETscript, March. pp 12 & 14.
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EUROPE: CYANOBACTERIA, CYANOTOXINS, THEIR HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE AND RISK MANAGEMENT Geoffrey A. Codd1, Fiona M. Young1 and Hans C. Utkilen2
1, Division of Environmental and Applied Biology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom. 2, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Div. of Environmental Medicine, P.O. Boks 4404 Nydalen, Oslo, Norway. [email protected] 1. Introduction Some of the earliest reports in the scientific literature on mass populations of cyanobacteria and of associated health incidents, involving humans, animals, birds and fish, refer to these events in European waters. The relatively high human population densities and high demands made upon many European water resources may have been factors leading to cultural eutrophication and cyanobacterial bloom formation. The early and continuing development of phycology and limnology in several universities and institutes in Europe has undoubtedly been important in enabling records of cyanobacterial blooms to have built up for over 200 years. However, some of the earliest known publications in Europe on the toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms and scums, and of associated health problems, which appeared in the Nineteenth Century, have been made by professionals in other disciplines which require an enquiring attitude, and acute powers of observation and inference. These included agricultural land survey officials in Denmark and medical doctors in the former provinces of Prussia, now Poland. Each of these professionals clearly had contact with the general human population at lakes with cyanobacterial blooms. It may thus be no coincidence that local folk knowledge and observations of animal deaths and human health effects were referred to in the professionals’ reports. The present situation assessment on the occurrence, toxicity and significance of cyanobacterial populations in European waters, and the development of management measures has also benefitted from inputs from diverse disciplines. To widely varying extents, these have included the pure and applied life sciences, the human and animal health sectors, water engineers, economists and planners. This chapter is based upon a relatively uniform approach which was taken to assess the occurrence and toxicity of cyanobacterial mass populations in European waters, their impacts, and the measures already in use to redress the latter. In addition to consulting the refereed literature and national technical reports, we have secured the co-operation of National Contacts. These were identified and selected on the basis of having an established personal experience of research in cyanobacterial ecology, cyanotoxins or water management and their participation in ongoing relevant research and/or water
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management. The National Contacts were each asked to briefly supply information to 7 questions, namely: 1. Do cyanobacterial mass populations occur in your country? 2. Do cyanotoxins occur in your country? 3. What adverse health incidents associated with cyanobacteria or cyanotoxins have occurred in your country? 4. What surveys or epidemiological studies have been carried out to investigate associations between cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and health in your country? 5. What effects have cyanobacteria had on water supply, waterbody use and/or ecological status in your country? 6. What management actions and instruments have been, or are being used to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins in your country? 7. What educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices are available in your country to reduce the adverse impacts of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins? Information is presented for 29 European countries (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Countries in Europe for which data have been included are shaded in pale grey. Countries for which data are still sought are in white. (Yugo: Serbia and Montenegro; FYRoM, Macedonia).
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2. Occurrence and cyanobacterial populations in European waters Cyanobacteria occur in the waterbodies of all of the 29 European countries for which a National Contact reply or research report was received, or publications were available (Table 1; References section). The positive responses or reports do not merely refer to the presence of “trace” quantities of cyanobacteria, but to mass populations which are readily visible to the naked eye as blooms, scums, or attached/detached mats or biofilms. In some countries, records extend back to the 19th and early 20th Centuries, reflecting the long tradition in limnology in Europe. A marked increase in awareness of the cyanobacterial populations has occurred since the 1970s as the number of structured surveys has increased. In cases of intensive environmental monitoring, cyanobacterial mass populations have been found to occur annually in individual countries. The principal cyanobacterial genera reported include Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Planktothrix (Oscillatoria), Nodularia, Cylindrospermopsis, Phormidium, Anabaenopsis and Gloeotrichia. The range of waterbodies in which cyanobacteria occur in Europe includes fresh waters (natural lakes, rivers, ponds, man-made reservoirs and canals) and brackish waters (the Baltic Sea, estuaries, and lagoons). They include high resource and amenity waters, including drinking water sources, waters used for livestock watering, aquaculture, recreation and tourism, and designated wildlife or conservation reserves. ________________________________________________________________________ Table 1. EXAMPLES OF OCCURRENCE OF CYANOBACTERIAL POPULATIONS IN EUROPEAN WATERS AUSTRIA Pre-1970, widespread in Kärnten. Population reductions after later lake
restorations. 2003- 4, present. BELGIUM 1993-2000, widespread (at least 37 lakes, also reservoirs and ponds). CZECH REPUBLIC 1994, 2001-2004, blooms occurred in 72-84% of investigated waterbodies. DENMARK 1830’s onwards, cyanobacterial scums and blooms, widespread. ESTONIA 1847, presence in coastal waters. 1908-2004, excessive freshwater
cyanobacterial blooms. FRANCE 1991-3, widespread (18 lakes). 1994, widespread (25/29 lakes). 2000,
nationwide occurrence documented. FINLAND 1985 onwards, widespread in freshwater lakes and Baltic coastal waters. GERMANY 1976, 1981, 1995-98, 2001, widespread (at least 98 lakes, reservoirs). GREECE 1987-2000, widespread (31/33 freshwater lakes).
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Table 1 continued HUNGARY 1980s, cyanobacterial blooms in 12/30 lakes. 1984, 1992, 1994, large blooms of
Cylindrospermopsis. ICELAND 2000, present (cyanobacterial mats). IRELAND Widespread (at least 55 lakes in at least 8 Counties). ITALY 2003, widespread (at least 185 lakes, reservoirs). LATVIA Cyanobacterial blooms present in coastal and freshwaters. LUXEMBOURG 1997, 1999, 2000-1, present (3/3 lakes). NETHERLANDS 1992, 2001-2004, widespread. NORWAY 1978-1998, blooms in at least 49 lakes. POLAND 1884 onwards, cyanobacterial blooms recorded. Cyanobacteria dominant in all eutrophic freshwaters with Microcystis being most prevalent. PORTUGAL 1930’s (species recorded). 1980’s onwards, widespread (lakes, dammed rivers,
reservoirs). ROMANIA 2003 present (flood-pulsed lakes of River Danube). RUSSIA 1965-1986, blooms recorded, widespread. SERBIA and MONTENEGRO 1980 onwards: cyanbacterial blooms widespread. Present almost annually
in 32/49 reservoirs surveyed. Vojvodina Province: cyanobacterial mass populations present in all natural lakes and 12 river/canal sites. Central Serbia: cyanobacterial populations in 9/12 drinking water reservoirs.
SLOVAKIA 1926 onwards, presence recorded in previous States. 2000- 2003, present. SLOVENIA 1994-2001, widespread (at least 35 lakes). SPAIN 1972 onwards, widespread (at least 87 reservoirs). SWEDEN 1984-1990, blooms in 54 of 94 lakes examined. SWITZERLAND Widespread (blooms and mats) in major lakes, alpine ponds. UKRAINE 1975-2001, present (River Dnieper, reservoirs). UNITED KINGDOM ca. 1930 onwards, plankton records. 1998-2004, Scotland at least 143 lakes, 2
canals, 1 river. 1989-2004, England and Wales (annual monitoring, 219 to 686 waterbodies per year; cyanobacteria present in 57 to ca. 90 % of waterbodies).
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3. Occurrence of cyanotoxins in European waters Cyanotoxin production is a common feature of bloom-, scum- and mat/biofilm-forming cyanobacteria, but it does not occur invariably (Carmichael, 1997; Codd, 2000). It cannot therefore be assumed that the occurrence of the cyanotoxins is as widespread or frequent as that of cyanobacteria. Nevertheless, where toxicity testing by bioassays, or analyses for particular cyanotoxins have been carried out, a high incidence of positives has occurred (Table 2). Toxicity testing of environmental samples and derived laboratory cultures of cyanobacteria (initially mainly by intraperitoneal mouse bioassay, but more recently by using invertebrates) has revealed cyanobacterial blooms and scums to be toxic in at least 16 European countries. Hepatotoxicity has been detected more often than neurotoxicity. Several examples of toxicity via bioassay have occurred where accompanying analyses for the known cyanotoxins have been negative, indicating the presence of uncharacterised toxic factors in cyanobacterial mass populations in addition to the known cyanotoxins. Analyses for cyanotoxins by specific physicochemical, enzyme-based or antibody-based methods have revealed the following in European waters: microcystins, nodularins, anatoxin-a, homoanatoxin-a, saxitoxins, anatoxin-a(s) and cylindrospermopsin. This survey does not extend to detailed compilation of cyanotoxin sub-types (e.g. microcystin variants and individual saxitoxins). Examples of these and their concentrations are available in the References section. ________________________________________________________________________ Table 2. EXAMPLES OF OCCURRENCE OF CYANOTOXINS IN EUROPEAN WATERS AUSTRIA 2003, MC-positive colonies of Microcystis found. BELGIUM Pre 1993, 10/17 blooms toxic (bioassay). 1995 and 1997-2001, 17/28 blooms
contained MC. CZECH REPUBLIC 1994-2004, 87% of sampled blooms contained MCs (up to 6 mg per g dry wt). DENMARK 1993-1995, 109/122 waterbodies contained cyanotoxins, 8/11 waterbodies
contained STXs; 3/11 positive for ANTX-A(S). ESTONIA 2002-2003, MCs present in Microcystis and Anabaena blooms. No information
on neurotoxins. FRANCE 1991-3, 6/18 blooms toxic (bioassay). 1994, 35/52 blooms contained MC. 1997
and 1999-2001, 2/3 blooms contained MC, toxic Cylindrospermopsis (not CYN).
FINLAND 1985-1987, 62 samples hepatotoxic, 35 samples neurotoxic (included ANTX-
A). Over 40 MC variants found. 1989 onwards, regular occurrence of NODN in Baltic Sea. 2005, STX in freshwater lakes.
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Table 2 continued GERMANY 1964, 1976, blooms toxic (bioassay). 1992-97, e.g. 64/124 blooms positive MC,
20/78 positive for ANTX-A, 10/29 positive for STX. CYN produced by German Cylindrospermopsis lab cultures.
GREECE 1987-2000, 7/33 blooms positive for MC, 1987 blooms toxic (bioassay). HUNGARY Ca. 66% of bloom samples toxic (bioassay), mainly MCs. Unknown toxin (not
CYN) in Cylindrospermopsis. ICELAND 2000, cyanobacterial mats contained MCs. IRELAND 1990s, ANTX-A, HomoANTX-A and STX in freshwater lakes. 1998 onwards,
67/94 blooms positive for MCs. ITALY 1992, 2002-3, blooms positive for MCs. 1994 and 2004, blooms positive for
ANTX-A. 1997, blooms positive for STX. 2004, blooms positive for CYN. LATVIA MCs present in majority of blooms examined. LUXEMBOURG 1997 and 1999-2001, blooms positive for MC. NETHERLANDS 1992, 14/29 blooms toxic (bioassay). Post-2000, increasing detection of MC as
methods are applied. NORWAY 1978-1998, hepatotoxins in 40 lakes, neurotoxins in 8 lakes. Microcystis,
Anabaena and Planktothrix toxic. In recent years most blooms have been dominated by Anabaena.
POLAND 1994-2004, blooms toxic (bioassays). MCs widely present in surveys. ANTX-A
present. NODN in brackish waters. PORTUGAL 1989-98, MC detected in at least 9 reservoirs, 3 lakes, 2 rivers. 2000, STX
detected in 1 reservoir, 1 river. Toxic Cylindrospermopsis present, CYN not detected.
ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA 1965 onwards, blooms toxic (bioassays). 5 MCs characterised. SERBIA and MONTENEGRO MC present, during and after blooms, in the only reservoir examined (Celije Reservoir). SLOVAKIA 1996 onwards, bloom toxic (bioassay) and MC recorded. SLOVENIA 1994-5, 8/9 blooms toxic (bioassays). 1996 onwards, MC increasingly detected
as methods are applied. 2004, possible ANTX-A detected. SPAIN 1996-2002, MC detected in reservoirs and lagoons, e.g. in 35-40 % of
reservoirs. 2004: anatoxin-a present, 1 reservoir. SWEDEN Neurotoxins in 22 lakes, hepatotoxins in 18 lakes, unidentified toxins in 14
lakes. About 50% of examined blooms contained toxins. SWITZERLAND 1992, cyanobacterial mats toxic (bioassays) . 1995, MC detected in mats.
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Table 2 continued UKRAINE 1980, toxic Microcystis and Aphanizomenon, 5 MC variants described. UNITED KINGDOM 1981-93: 105/163 blooms toxic (bioassays). 1983 MC detected. 1989-2004, MC
detected annually in 25 to 92 % of blooms also in mats. 1992 onwards, ANTX-A, ANTX-A(S), STXs and NODN detected.
MC, microcystin; STX, saxitoxin; NODN, nodularin; ANTX-A, anatoxin-a; homoANTX-A, homoanatoxin-a; ANTX-A(S), anatoxin-a(s); CYN, cylindrospermopsin. 4. Reported health incidents involving cyanotoxins Information was sought on health incidents involving humans and animals. Human incidents are reported from 8 European countries (the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Sweden and the United Kingdom; Table 3).These include skin and mucosal membrane irritation, fever, gastrointestinal illness, respiratory distress and pulmonary consolidation. Incidents involving skin irritation and gastrointestinal upset have been the most often reported, although the strengths of association between exposure to cyanotoxins and the illnesses described are uncertain. The atypical pulmonary consolidation (in the UK) was accompanied by evidence of liver malfunction after the ingestion of microcystin-containing cyanobacterial scum. A possible association between an elevated incidence of human primary liver cancer (in Serbia) and ingestion of microcystins via drinking water has recently been raised and is undergoing further investigation (see Section 5.). Water has been the exposure medium in all cases of the reported actual and possible associations between cyanobacteria and/or cyanotoxins and human health effects in Europe. Human exposure routes have included oral, dermal and possibly, inhalation. Exposure to cyanobacterial cells and/or cyanotoxins has been via drinking water, and during recreational activities (bathing, swimming, paddling, sailboarding and canoeing). Some cases of skin irritation have occurred in fishermen coming into contact with cyanobacterial scum on lines and nets. No human deaths associated with, or attributed to exposure to cyanotoxins are known in Europe. More examples are available in Europe of animal illnesses and deaths associated with cyanobacterial populations and cyanotoxins, with reports from at least 17 countries (Table 3). Wild and domestic animals have been affected, including multiple species of fish and birds, young and adult cattle, sheep, horses and dogs. The animal intoxications have almost invariably included deaths and multiple cases per incident. Multiple episodes involving cattle, dogs and sheep have occurred, sometimes within the same country. Single episodes involving Greater Flamingo chicks, deer and muskrats have been described.
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________________________________________________________________________ Table 3. EXAMPLES OF REPORTED HEALTH INCIDENTS ASSOCIATED WITH CYANOBACTERIA AND/OR CYANOTOXINS IN EUROPEAN WATERS AUSTRIA None reported by Kärnten Province. BELGIUM 1995, bird-kill associated with hepatotoxic Microcystis. CZECH REPUBLIC Associations between toxigenic cyanobacterial populations and human dermal
irritation and sickness. DENMARK 1939-1996, frequent associations of deaths of fish, birds and dogs with
cyanobacterial blooms. Cattle illnesses. 1997, dog- and bird-kills, ANTX-A(S) in stomachs of latter.
ESTONIA 1984, suspected links between human eye irritation and calf deaths and coastal
mats containing Nodularia. 1994, 8 calf deaths after drinking and and human fever and skin irritation after swimming in coastal water containing Aphanizomenon, Nodularia, Anabaena, Microcystis and Planktothrix.
FRANCE Unknown FINLAND Possible association with STX to be reported. GERMANY 1964 and 1976, bird kills associated with toxic Nodularia and Oscillatoria. GREECE Unknown HUNGARY 1988, skin and eye irritation in many children after exposure to large
Microcystis bloom. IRELAND Swan deaths (STX); dog deaths (ANTX-A); sheep deaths, fish kills associated
with MCs. ICELAND Unknown ITALY Fish deaths (Lakes Spino, Canterno, Masaciuccoli) and several small reservoirs
in Regional parks. LATVIA Unknown LUXEMBOURG Unknown NETHERLANDS Bird and fish kills NORWAY, 1979, cattle deaths attributed to hepatotoxic Microcystis. POLAND 1884, deaths of birds, fish, farm animals, and human skin irritations associated
with contact with cyanobacterial scums.
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Table 3 continued PORTUGAL 1991 onwards, human gastrointestinal disorders, fish kill associated with
Aphanizomenon bloom. Suspected role of cyanobacterial bloom in haemodialysis clinic deaths (aluminium principally responsible); skin irritations via recreational water.
ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA Unknown SERBIA and MONTENEGRO Fish deaths, skin problems in humans during and after cyanobacterial blooms. SLOVAKIA Unknown SLOVENIA 1990, deer kill and fish kill associated with toxic Microcystis. 1993 onwards,
fish kills, duck kill associated with toxic blooms. SPAIN 2001, deaths of over 500 Greater Flamingo chicks attributed to MC. SWEDEN 1982, 9 dog deaths, attributed to NODN. 1994, gastrointestinal illness in 121
people after drinking water accidentally contaminated with raw water containing MCs. Liver damage in cattle after drinking water containing microcystins.
SWITZERLAND 1970 -1992, cattle deaths, attributed (1992) to cyanotoxins. UKRAINE Unknown UNITED KINGDOM 1955-76 associations of cattle, bird and fish deaths with hepatotoxic
cyanobacteria. 1989-2004 attribution of human respiratory illness, skin irritation, liver malfunction, gastrointestinal upsets to MCs, deaths of dogs, sheep, cattle, fish and birds to MCs; dog deaths attributed to ANTX-A and NODN.
_____________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Surveys and epidemiological studies of associations between cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and health Structured surveys and epidemiological studies to investigate associations between cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and health are largely lacking in Europe (Table 4). Some early attempts were constrained by bad weather hampering field sample collection (Hungary) and by relatively small responses (120 persons) to questionnaires (UK). Investigations into the incidence of human primary liver cancer and exposure to cyanobacteria and microcystins in Serbia are expected to receive examination. A Finnish study is in progress and others have recently started (Czech Republic, Slovenia, Spain).
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________________________________________________________________________ Table 4. SURVEYS OR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON CYANOTOXINS AND HEALTH IN EUROPE AUSTRIA None BELGIUM None CZECH REPUBLIC 1960s, study of human allergenic potential of cyanobacterial populations. 2004
onwards, case study into allergenic reaction to cyanobacterial blooms started. DENMARK None ESTONIA None FRANCE Unknown FINLAND 2003-2005, study in progress on cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and relations to
reported health effects. GERMANY Unknown GREECE None HUNGARY 2000, epidemiological survey at large recreational lake, but observations
confounded by bad weather. ICELAND Unknown IRELAND None ITALY None LATVIA None LUXEMBOURG None NETHERLANDS None NORWAY None POLAND Unknown PORTUGAL Two studies cited : to be confirmed. ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA Unknown SERBIA and MONTENEGRO Enquiries into incidence of human of human primary liver cancer for
the periods 1980-1995 and 2000 indicate highest incidence in regions affected by heavy cyanobacterial blooms.
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Table 4 continued SLOVAKIA Unknown SLOVENIA 2004, investigation started. SPAIN 2004, investigation started. SWEDEN 1987, boarding school children sick through drinking water, Aphanizomenon
suspected as the cause. SWITZERLAND 1990s, survey of incidence of cattle deaths associated with benthic
cyanobacteria at high alpine lakes. UKRAINE Unknown UNITED KINGDOM 1989-2004, Local Health Authority recreational water study. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Effects of cyanobacteria on water supply, waterbody use and ecological status Adverse effects of cyanobacteria on water supply, waterbody use and/or ecological status are reported from at least 13 of the 29 European countries covered in this survey (Table 5). The effects of eutrophication (Codd, 2000) frequently include excessive growth of cyanobacteria, their domination of the plankton and benthos, and losses in ecosystem biodiversity. These deleterious effects of cyanobacteria on ecological status appear to be common in European waterbodies, e.g. in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Russia and the UK), as elsewhere in the world. Adverse effects of cyanobacteria experienced by the European drinking water industry, include filter blockage during water treatment and colour, and taste and odour compounds in treated drinking water. Cyanobacterial blooms, scums and cyanotoxins have substantial economic impacts on the European water industry due to increased demands for, and upon, water abstraction and treatment, capital equipment, and increases in the need for water treatment consumables and raw and treated water analysis. The supply of drinking water has been restricted or alternate sources required, due to cyanobacteria or cyanotoxins in some countries (e.g. Czech Republic, Italy, Norway, Portugal). Adverse effects on the recreational and amenity use of European waterbodies have been experienced in several countries (e.g. Germany, Hungary, Norway, UK). Restrictions or closure of waterbodies for recreation have occurred after animal intoxications, human health problems or, more recently, after the exceedence of cyanobacterial cell or cyanotoxin concentration guidelines. The economic impact of such restrictions on waterbody visitor-use and tourism can be substantial. Economic losses have also occurred (e.g. Ireland, UK) due to cyanobacteria/cyanotoxin-associated fish kills, both to the aquaculture industry and to sport fisheries.
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________________________________________________________________________ Table 5. EXAMPLES OF EFFECTS OF CYANOBACTERIA AND/OR CYANOTOXINS ON WATER SUPPLY, WATERBODY USE AND/OR ECOLOGICAL STATUS IN EUROPE AUSTRIA No negative impacts reported by Kärnten due to low numbers of cyanobacteria. BELGIUM None documented CZECH REPUBLIC 1999, restriction of drinking water supply via 3 treatment plants throughout all
bloom season due to high MC concentrations in treated water. 2000, restriction of one treatment plant for whole season and temporary restriction of 4 others. All restrictions based on public health recommendations. Major reductions in aquatic biodiversity associated with cyanobacterial blooms.
DENMARK 1993-1994, bird kills during June. 1994, mass fish mortality during bloom of
Planktothrix agardhii and death of a cow. 1996, one dog died and another showed convulsions after drinking water from a lake with neurotoxic Oscillatoria.
ESTONIA 1959 onwards, summer fish kills associated with large blooms. 2002, increased
risks of MC exposure via 2 municipal drinking water supplies. FINLAND 1980s onwards, research on cyanobacterial cell and cyanotoxin removal during
water treatment. Numerous observations of adverse responses of fish, birds and zooplankton to toxic cyanobacteria in freshwaters and the Baltic Sea.
FRANCE Unknown GERMANY Unknown GREECE Unknown HUNGARY 1990s, hypereutrophic and eutrophic characteristics in recreational waterbody. ICELAND Unknown IRELAND Economic losses to aquaculture due to fish-kills (Counties Monahan, Cavan)
associated with blooms (deoxygenation principally suspected; cyanotoxins role not clarified).
ITALY Water supply forbidden in several Regions (Marche, Sardinia, Umbria).
Waterbody use forbidden in areas of Marche, Sardinia, Umbria, Lazio, Tuscany. Sediment anoxia, odour problems and fish kills after decline of blooms.
LATVIA Mortalities of zooplankton, mollusc and fish larvae. LUXEMBOURG None NETHERLANDS Unknown
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Table 5 continued NORWAY 1980 onwards, warning signs with restrictions on access, at recreational waters.
2005, closure of drinking water treatment plant due to annual cyanobacterial blooms.
POLAND Eutrophication effects. Hazards to drinking water treatment plants due to
cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. Change of reservoir water abstraction from surface to underground source due to toxic blooms.
PORTUGAL Restrictions on drinking water supply and the provision of alternative supplies
have occurred. ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA 1984, 1993, effects of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins on fish and biodiversity. SERBIA and MONTENEGRO MC found in drinking water. SLOVAKIA Unknown SLOVENIA 2004, assessment project started. SPAIN Unknown SWEDEN 1994 outbreak of gastroenteritis, 121 persons fell ill. The illness coincided with
a contamination of the municipal water with untreated water containing Planktothrix agardhii (Gom).
SWITZERLAND None UKRAINE 1987, effects on water quality in Dnieper Reservoir. UNITED KINGDOM 1989-2004: temporary restrictions on water-based activities and use, including
recreation and drinking water supply when cyanobacterial bloom or cyanotoxin guidelines are exceeded, or associated health incidents have occurred. Some economic cost estimations available.
______________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins Management actions of various types, to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins are in progress in at least 19 European countries (Table 6). However, wide variations in the scope of the actions occur and substantial gaps exist. The actions include: (a) development of monitoring, analysis and reporting systems. (b) establishment of national Working Groups or Task Forces to produce national plans/policies.
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(c) some implementation of catchment and in-lake management methods, water abstraction and drinking water treatment methods to reduce cyanobacterial production and enhance cyanotoxin removal or destruction. (d) establishment of recreational water guidelines and restrictions. (e) formulation and use of guidelines, equivalent to WHO guidelines, for health protection against cyanotoxins (e.g. France, Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia, Czech Republic, UK, Denmark [proposed]). (f) national legislation for maximum admissible concentrations of microcystin(s) in drinking water (e.g. Poland, Spain, Czech Republic, Italy). (g) policies for protection of farm animals from cyanotoxins. ________________________________________________________________________ Table 6. EXAMPLES OF MANAGEMENT ACTIONS TO REDUCE THE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF CYANOBACTERIA AND/OR CYANOTOXINS IN EUROPE AUSTRIA Kärnten: monitoring programmes in progress for lakes, running water, ground
water. BELGIUM National working group. CZECH REPUBLIC 2003, national acceptance of WHO Guideline Levels for cyanobacterial cells in
recreational waters. 2004, implementation of national legislation for MC-LR concentrations in drinking water 1 µg/litre; WHO Guideline Value. 2004-2010, establishment of pilot localities for model projects on prevention of cyanobacterial blooms. Establishment of Centre for Cyanobacteria and Toxins, University of Brno and Czech Academy of Sciences.
DENMARK 1987, National Action Plan on the Aquatic Environment (including nutrient and
cyanobacterial bloom reduction). Subsequent proposal for acceptance of WHO guidelines for cyanobacteria in bathing waters. Implementation of monitoring and reporting systems for blooms by local municipalities/counties.
ESTONIA Cyanobacterial population monitoring for municipal supply by water company,
with MC analysis. Seasonal monitoring for cyanobacterial growth in recreational waters carried out by contract for National Health Inspectorate and local authorities.
FRANCE 2003, drinking water guideline: 1µg/litre MC-LR. AFSSA: national situation
assessment and policy development by Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins Working Group.
FINLAND Annual summer cyanobacterial monitoring of public beaches by health
authorities, with provisional closure plans. Weekly monitoring throughout summer of 350 sites for blooms, with internet and press reporting. Monitoring of Baltic Sea blooms on commercial ferry routes by FIMR, with website reporting (Algiline).
GERMANY 1995-97, national situation assessment. UBA and drinking water utilities:
development of water monitoring, analytical methods, risk assessment.
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Table 6 continued GREECE No specific actions or regulations for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. HUNGARY Mechanical scum removal from recreational lake during bloom periods. ICELAND Unknown IRELAND Co. Cork: water abstraction policy and water treatment procedures adapted, in
response to cyanobacterial monitoring results, to ensure satisfactory drinking water supply.
ITALY 1998, national limit for total MC of 0.84 µg/litre and 5000 cyanobacterial
cells/ml for bathing water, extended to drinking water as management aid. Bathing water restrictions if cyanobacterial cell / cyanotoxin thresholds are exceeded.
LATVIA Data collection, reporting and analysis by university laboratory. LUXEMBOURG Unknown NETHERLANDS Committee on Integrated Water Management, policy development and
implementation. Guidelines for recreational waters. Bathing water restrictions if cyanobacterial cell / cyanotoxin thresholds are exceeded. 2004, centre for reporting cyanobacteria-suspected/related health complaints established.
NORWAY Use of WHO Guideline Value for MC-LR in drinking water, in water quality
management. POLAND 2002, national legislation (Polish Ministry of Health) for guideline value of 1
µg/l MC-LR in drinking water. Also 2002, requirements for bathing water quality with reference to cyanobacteria and bloom monitoring by colour, turbidity and/or odour (Polish Ministry of Health).
PORTUGAL General Directorate of Health: requirement implemented for monitoring and
cyanotoxin analysis of recreational waters. Drinking water treatment processes being evaluated and optimised. Two national reference laboratories (Lisbon, Porto).
ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA Unknown SERBIA and MONTENEGRO None SLOVAKIA 2002: national guidelines on cyanobacteria introduced. Participation of national
Public Health Authority, Slovak Academy of Science and Water Research Institute.
SLOVENIA Unknown SPAIN 2004: national legislation, maximum 1 µg MC/litre drinking water.
Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin monitoring by bigger water utilities. SWEDEN Unknown
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Table 6 continued SWITZERLAND Cyanotoxins included on veterinary drugs and poisons database. Cattle not to be
pastured at lakes with cyanobacterial mass populations. UKRAINE Unknown UNITED KINGDOM 1989 onwards, rolling action plan development and implementation by national
environmental and public health agencies and national working groups. Some cyanobacterial cell monitoring programmes with WHO-compatible, threshold-triggered cyanotoxin analysis and recreational water policies. Some in-lake and catchment-based management. Water industry: cyanobacteria/cyanotoxins monitoring, upgrading of water treatment trains for cyanotoxin removal.
______________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials and practices Examples of educational, training and awareness-raising material and practices from at least 18 European countries are compiled in Table 7. However, as with (other) management actions (Section 7), both wide differences and gaps appear to exist across Europe in the availability and use of these materials and measures: (a) the traditional media and communication methods most widely used to inform and warn the general public and water-user groups, include leaflets, cards, posters, warning notices and press releases (to varying degrees in at least 9 countries). (b) public awareness days and roadshows have been used in the UK in areas affected by cyanobacterial blooms. (b) some materials have been produced for professional groups (medical, public health, veterinary, water industry) as review articles and handbooks. (c) lectures for professional groups and training workshops (including cyanobacterial identification and counting) have been given in some countries (e.g. Belgium, Ireland, Slovenia, Finland, Portugal, Poland, UK). (d) a start has been made on provision of educational and training material on CD for professional groups (e.g. Belgium, Hungary, UK) and digital video (Belgium), with work in progress to produce a film for children (Czech Republic) and TV programme (Portugal). (e) websites are beginning to be developed, or linked to increase relevant access and awareness (e.g. Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Poland).
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________________________________________________________________________ Table 7. EXAMPLES OF TRAINING AND AWARENESS-RAISING, EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS AND PRACTICES AUSTRIA No information available. BELGIUM National projects (MANSCAPE, B-BLOOMS) including workshops for water
and environment professionals, public awareness-raising in French, English, Dutch. CD and digital video produced.
CZECH REPUBLIC 2000, cyanobacteria website. 2001, leaflets on cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and
their control. 2004 onward, film for school children on cyanobacteria and water quality, production of postcards, CD of cyanobacterial images as identification aid, in progress.
DENMARK Danish Environmental Protection Agency and individual Counties: awareness-
raising information sheets, folders, summer posters at lakes and beaches. Information and advice for bathers via website and non-specialist report by Danish National Environmental Research Institute.
ESTONIA Distribution of warning notices for recreational waters, via all main Estonian
press channels. Links to websites for general and specialist readers, by National Health Protection Inspectorate and Estonian Environmental Monitoring Program.
FINLAND 1985 onwards, extensive information available for general public and
professional groups in health and veterinary sectors, including via posters, lectures and website.
FRANCE AFSSA: production of handbook on occurrence and health significance of
cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins for professional groups, in progress. GERMANY Book on occurrence, causes and consequences of cyanotoxins. GREECE No information available. HUNGARY Education and training of water treatment plant personnel (contingency
measure), including WHO-based material on CD, and provided at multiple locations prone to surface bloom development.
ICELAND Unknown IRELAND Annual training course (Cork Institute of Technology) on identification and
counting of cyanobacteria in water for professional groups. ITALY None LATVIA None LUXEMBOURG None NETHERLANDS None
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Table 7 continued NORWAY 1970 onwards, Norwegian Institute for Water Research booklets, reports for
professional groups and authorities, press releases. 2005, Norwegian institute for Public Health, leaflet for general public.
POLAND Some provision of educational material, courses, practical classes by academic
institutions for professional groups (Universities of Lodz and Gdansk); web-based demonstration project (University of Lodz).
PORTUGAL 1994, booklet produced and sent to local health and environment centres,
municipal authorities, schools. 2005, new edition. TV programme planned. 1994-2000, 12 training courses for professionals. University courses.
ROMANIA Unknown RUSSIA Unknown SERBIA and MONTENEGRO Cyanobacteria in recreational waters, handbook, University of Novi Sad. SLOVAKIA 1998 onwards, production of books and postcards on cyanobacteria. 2000,
leaflet. SLOVENIA University lectures and course, presentations at national and international
meetings. SPAIN None SWEDEN Toxic blooms warning notices. SWITZERLAND No information available. UKRAINE No information available. UNITED KINGDOM 1989-2004, e.g. Environment Agency, Scottish Executive, other public bodies:
public warning notices (lakeside, newspapers), posters and leaflets. Reviews, reports and handbooks for professional groups. Harmful Algal Bloom Awareness Days, roadshows. National / regional workshops and training courses (Universities of Durham and Dundee, Natural History Museum, London). CD for cyanobacterial identification.
______________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Summary and Conclusions An initial situation assessment has been carried out on the occurrence of cyanobacterial populations and cyanotoxins in Europe. Information from 29 countries is included, based on available publications, reports and the responses from designated National Contacts throughout the continent. Although gaps in the survey exist, results indicate that: (a) mass populations of bloom-, scum-, mat- and biofilm-forming cyanobacteria, with cyanotoxin-producing potential, are widespread in European waters.
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(b) cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins occur widely in water resources used for human drinking water supply, livestock watering, aquaculture, recreation and tourism. (c) adverse health effects on humans, associated with exposure to cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, are reported for humans [8 countries] and animals [15 countries]. Cyanotoxins can be assigned as proximate causes in several cases of animal intoxications in Europe, with a strong likelihood of their contribution to human cases, though variable strengths of association and gaps in investigations exist. (d) very few structured surveys (retro- or pro-spective) on cyanotoxins and health are available in Europe, although new studies are in progress. (e) further consequences of cyanobacterial and cyanotoxin production in European waterbodies include loss of biodiversity, losses to aquaculture, impairment and increased costs of drinking water supply, and amenity and economic losses to recreation and tourism. (f) a wide range of management actions is being used in efforts to reduce the production and impacts of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. However, much of this work is at an early stage. Assessment of success will be required and no, or little, management action appears to be occurring in several European countries with water resources containing cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxins. (g) education, training and awareness-raising are important contributors to overall risk management of cyanobacterial bloom and cyanotoxin problems in water resources, as experienced in some European countries for several years. A range of resources to inform and gain the support of the general public, and to educate and train professional groups is being used in about half of the countries included in the survey. Modern communications media are being used alongside traditional methods. Monitoring of the relative success of these approaches will be needed in the future, to enable best practices to be identified and transferred to assist in numerous parts of Europe where such developments do not appear to be underway. 10. National Contacts for Europe In addition to publications and reports, a network of National Contacts for Europe is being established. These have contributed information for the following countries: Country Austria Dr. Rainer Kurmayer [email protected] Belgium Dr. Annick Wilmotte [email protected] Czech Republic Dr. Blahoslav Marsálek marsalek@ brno.cas.cz Denmark Dr. Peter Henriksen [email protected] Estonia Dr. Risto Tanner [email protected]
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Finland Prof. Kaarina Sivonen [email protected] France Dr. Mathilde Harvey [email protected] Germany Dr. Ingrid Chorus [email protected] Greece Prof. Thomas Lanaras [email protected] Hungary Dr. Andrea Torokne [email protected] Ireland Dr. Ambrose Furey [email protected] Italy Dr. Milena Bruno [email protected] Latvia Dr. Maija Balode [email protected] Luxembourg Dr. Lucien Hoffmann [email protected] Netherlands Dr. Petra Visser [email protected] Norway Dr. Hans Utkilen [email protected] Poland Dr. Tomasz Jurczak [email protected] Portugal Prof. Vitor Vasconcelos [email protected] and Montenegro Prof. Z. Svircev [email protected] Dr. M. Horecka [email protected] Slovenia Dr. Bojan Sedmak [email protected] Spain Prof. Antonio Quesada [email protected] Dr. Ulla Bechman Sundh [email protected] Switzerland Dr. Judith Blom [email protected] United Kingdom Prof. Geoffrey Codd [email protected] Further links are being established with National Contacts in the following countries: Albania, Belarus, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Iceland, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Russia and Ukraine. 11. Acknowledgements We thank our colleagues listed in Section 10, as National Contacts for CYANONET throughout Europe, for their helpful and continuing contributions of data and insight. GAC also thanks Dr. Jan Krokowski and Jane Jamieson, respectively of the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency and Environment Agency of England and Wales, for their input on UK data and policy and Dr. James S. Metcalf, Dr. Jaime Lindsay, Louise Morrison, Marianne Reilly and Deborah Barnaby for valuable environmental and laboratory analyses. 12. References One recent reference is included, to provide an introduction to the literature for each country reviewed. Annadotter, H., Cronberg, G., Lawton, L., Hansson, H.B., Göthe, U., Skulberg, O.M. (2001). An extensive outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii (Oscillatoriales, cyanophyceae) in Scania, south Sweden. In:
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Cyanotoxins – Occurrence, Causes, Consequences. I. Chorus, I, ed., Berlin, Springer: 200-208. Bruno, M., Barbini, D.A., Pierdominici, E., Serse, A.P. and Ioppolo, A. (1994). Anatoxin-a and a previously unknown toxin in Anabaena planctonica from blooms found in Lake Mulargia (Italy). Toxicon 32: 369-373. Cado, S., Miletic, A. and Djurkovic, A. (2004). Phytoplankton, physico-chemical characteristics, trophic status and saprobiological characteristics of Bovan Reservoir. Balwois: 25-29. (Serbia). Carmichael, W.W. (1997) The cyanotoxins. Advances in Botanical Research 27: 211-256. Codd, G.A. (2000) Cyanobacterial toxins, the perception of water quality and the prioritisation of eutrophication control. Ecological Engineering 16: 51-60. Carmichael, W.W., Sirenko, L.A., Klochenko, P.D. and Shevchenko, T.F. (2001). A comparative assessment of the toxicity of algae and cyanobacteria in water bodies of Ukraine. Phycologia 40 (Suppl.):15. Christoffersen, K., and Olrik, K. (1996). Giftige alger I Esrum Sø og Å. vand & jord 3:21 – 24 (in Danish). Cook, C.M., Vardaka, E. and Lanaras, T. (2004). Toxic cyanobacteria in Greek freshwaters, 1987-2000: occurrence, toxicity, and impacts in the Mediterranean region. Acta Hydrochimica et Hydrobiologia. 32: 107-124. Covaliov, S., van Geest, G., Hanganu, J., Hulea, O., Torok, L. and Coops, H. (2003). Seasonality of macrophyte dominance in flood-pulsed lakes of the Danube Delta. Hydrobiologia 506: 651-656. (Romania). Edler, L., Willén, E., Willé, T. and Ahlgren, G. (1995) Skadliga alger I sjöar och hav. Naturvårdsverket rapport 4447. (in Swedish). Einarsson,A., Stefansdottir, G., Johanneson, H., Olafsson, J.S., Gislason, G.M., Wakana, I., Gudbergsson, G. and Gardarsson, A. (2004). The ecology of lake Myvatn and the river Laxa: Variation in space and time. Aquatic Ecology 38:317-348. (Iceland). Gromov, B.V., Vepritsky, A.A., Mamkaeva, K.A. and Voloshko, L.N. (1996). A survey of toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Ladoga and adjacent water bodies. Hydrobiologia 322: 149-151. (Russia). Gulati, R.D. and van Donk, E. (2002). Lakes in the Netherlands, their origin, eutrophication and restoration: state-of-the-art review. Hydrobiologia 478: 73-106.
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Henriksen, P. (1996). Microcystin profiles in Danish natural populations of cyanobacteria/blue-green algae as determined by HPLC. Phycologia 35 (suppl.): 102 -110. Henriksen, P. (2001). Toxic freshwater cyanobacteria in Denmark. In: Cyanotoxins – Occurrence, Causes, Consequences. I. Chorus, ed., Berlin, Springer: 49-56. Jurczak, T.,Tarczynska, M., Karlsson, K. and Meriluoto, J. (2004). Charaterization and diversity of cyanobacterial hepatotoxins (microcystins) in blooms from Polish freshwaters identified by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Chromatographia 59: 571-578. Kangur, M., Mols, T., Milius, A. and Laugaste, R. (2003). Phytoplankton response to changed nutrient levels in Lake Peipsi (Estonia) in 1992-2001. Hydrobiologia 506-509: 265-272. Krokowski, J., and Jamieson, J. (2002). A decade of monitoring and management of freshwater algae, in particular cyanobacteria, in England and Wales. Freshwater Forum 18: 3-12. Kurmayer, R., Christiansen, G., Fastner, J. and Börner, T. (2004). Abundance of active and inactive microcystin genotypes in populations of the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix spp. Environmental Microbiology 6: 831-841. (Austria) Marsalek, B., Blaha, L. and Hindak, F. (2000). Review of toxicity of cyanobacteria in Slovakia. Biologia 57: 415-422. Marsalek, B. and Blaha, L. (2001). Dissolved microcystins in raw and treated drinking water in the Czech Republic. In: Cyanotoxins – Occurrence, Causes, Consequences. I. Chorus, ed., Berlin, Springer: 212-217. Metcalf, J.S. and Codd, G.A. (2000). Microwave oven and boiling water bath extraction of hepatotoxins from cyanobacterial cells. FEMS Microbiology Letters 184: 241-246. Mez, K., Beattie, K. A., Codd, G.A., Hanselmann, K., Hauser, B., Naegeli, H. and Preisig, H.R. (1997). Identification of a microcystin in benthic cyanobacteria linked to cattle deaths on alpine pastures in Switzerland. European Journal of Phycology 32:111-117. Quesada, A., Sanchis, D. and Carrasco, D. 2004). Cyanobacteria in Spanish reservoirs. How frequent are they toxic? Limnetica 23: 109-118. Reynolds, C.S. and Petersen, A.C. (2000). The distribution of planktonic cyanobacteria in Irish lakes in relation to their trophic states. Hydrobiologia 424: 91-99.
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Salvia-Castellvi, M., Dohet. A., Vander Borght, P. and Hoffmann, L (2001). Control of the eutrophication of the reservoir of Esch-sur-Sure (Luxembourg): evaluation of the phosphorous removal by predams. Hydrobiologia 459: 61-71. Sedmak, B. and Kosi, G. (2002). Harmful cyanobacterial blooms in Slovenia – bloom types and microcystin producers. Acta Biologica Slovenica 45: 17-30. Tenson, J., (1995). Phytoplankton of the Pärnu Bay. In: Ecosystem of the Gulf of Riga, between 1920 and 1990. E. Ojaveer, ed., Tallinn, Estonian Academy Publishers: 105-126. (Latvia). Törökne, A.K., László, E., Chorus, I., Sivonen, K. and Barbosa F.A.R. (2000).Cyanobacterial toxins detected by thamnotoxkit (a double blind experiment). Environmental Toxicology 15:549-553. (Hungary). Utkilen, H., Skulberg, O., M., Skulberg. R.,Gjölme, N. and Underdal, B. (2001).Toxic cyanobacteria blooms of inlands waters in southern Norway 1978-1998. In: Cyanotoxins – Occurrence, Causes, Consequences . I. Chorus, ed., Berlin, Springer: 46-49. Vaitomaa, J., Rantala, A., Halinen, K., Rouhiainen, L., Tallberg, P., Mokelke, L. and Sivonen, K. (2003). Quantitative real-time PCR for determination of microcystin synthetase E copy numbers for Microcystis and Anabaena lakes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69: 7289-7297. (Finland). Vasconcelos, V.M. (1999). Cyanobacteria toxins in Portugal: effects on aquatic animals and risk for human health. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 32: 249-254. Vezie, C., Brient, L., Sivonen, K., Bertru, G., Lefeuvre, J.-C. and Salkinoja-Salonen, M. (1997). Occurrence of microcystin-containing cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater of Brittany (France). Archives of Hydrobiology 139: 401-413. Weidner, C., Chorus, I. and Fastner, J .(2001). The waterbodies surveyed for cyanotoxins in Germany, In: Cyanotoxins – Occurrence, Causes, Consequences . I. Chorus, ed., Berlin, Springer: 212-217. Willen, E. (2001). Four decades of research on the Swedish large lakes Maleren, Hjalmaren, Vattern and Vanern: The significance of monitoring and remedial measures for a sustainable society. AMBIO 30: 458– 466. Wirsing, B., Hoffmann, L., Heinze, R., Klein, D., Daloze, D., Braekman, J.C. and Weckesser, J. (1998). First report on the identification of microcystin in a water bloom collected in Belgium. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 21: 23-27.
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NORTH AMERICA: CYANOHABS
Wayne W. Carmichael and Mary Stukenberg Department of Biological Sciences Wright State University Dayton, Ohio [email protected] History of Published North American CyanoHAB Outbreaks The North American record of toxic cyanobacterial outbreaks was first characterised thus, “long before the term “algae bloom” became a part of the vocabulary of the scientist, primitive man, in looking out over the expanse of blue-green water which constituted his favorite fishing haunt, was probably aware of the fact that notable alterations in the color and clarity of this body of water would occur as the seasons changed. He was conscious of the visual changes, but did not comprehend that they represented an extremely complex interaction between the physical environment and a multitude of free-floating microscopic plants. Even today the exact nature of this relationship is not perfectly understood.” (Olson, 1960). This phenomenon was only slightly better understood by time the first U.S. recorded algal bloom livestock deaths were described in a local South Dakota paper as, “…losses every year unless we keep our stock and poultry away from the lake during the time when the scum is on.” (Wilmot Enterprise, 1925). The purpose of the following synopsis is to trace the history of the growing incidence in the United States of what have come to be called the cyanobacteria, through a chronology of the published articles on individual U.S. outbreaks found in CyanoHAB Search© (Carmichael, 2004). The earliest documented investigation in the United States into the poisonous potential of blue-green algae was recorded in The Bulletin of the Minnesota Academy of Science (Arthur, 1883), though the first written description of an actual outbreak did not come until 1925 when a farmer lost 127 hogs and 4 cows after they drank from Big Stone Lake in South Dakota. He had the lake water analysed and the livestock deaths were attributed to algae poisoning according to the Wilmot Enterprise (1925) of September 24th and October 1st. A few years later, Cornell Veterinarian published a description of five Minnesota cases of algal poisoning (Fitch, Bishop and Boyd, 1934). The first described instance of human illness due to algal toxins occurred in Charleston, West Virginia, and was published in The American Journal of Public Health (Tisdale, 1931). A massive Microcystis bloom in the Ohio and Potomac Rivers caused intestinal illness in an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 people. According to the article, though the drinking water taken from these rivers was treated by precipitation, filtration and chlorination, these treatments were not sufficient to remove the toxins. Very few actual algal outbreaks were reported in the next two decades: in the 1930s, only three articles were published on specific algal studies in the United States, and in the
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1940s, there were likewise only four articles published, among them a sheep poisoning case in Montana (Quin, 1943) and a case of livestock deaths in North Dakota (Brandenburg & Shigley, 1947), each described in a separate issue of The Journal of the American Veterinary Medicine Association. The 1950s showed a marked increase in the number of reported blue-green algae studies in the United States, publishing a total of nine articles including one outbreak case (Scott, 1955) concerning some domestic animal deaths from algal poisoning in Illinois. (Case History Report from the Illinois State Department of Public Health). From the 1960s through the 1980s there were fewer U.S. cases published, five in the 1960s, eight in the 1970s and twelve in the 1980s; however, published accounts of algal outbreaks jumped to 19 in the 1990s. It should be acknowledged that there is a potential reporting artifact in these statistics, as reporting such events in the United States has always been voluntary. Since 1971, however, in a USEPA and CDC cooperative effort, surveillance data from waterborne outbreaks have been more consistently compiled and more conclusively upheld as cyanobacteria-related. On August 25th, 1975, for example, a gastrointestinal outbreak occurred in Sewickley, Pennsylvania (Lippy & Erb, 1976). Though the CDC’s epidemiological study (Journal of the American Water Works Association) ruled out blue-green algae as the contaminant at the time, a subsequent analysis posited Schizothrix and Calcicola as causative agents. In the Journal of the American Water Works Association survey of “Outbreaks of Waterborne Disease in the United States: 1989-90” (Herwaldt, et al., 1992) one CLB (Cyanobacteria-Like Bodies) outbreak was reported out of 26 total outbreaks due to ingestion of water intended for drinking, a total of 21 affected people from CLB out of 4,288 people reportedly afflicted through drinking water incidents during that year. In the 1990s, 19 individual studies were published on U.S. cyanobacterial cases, in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma, Vermont, Washington and Wisconsin. Clearly, through not only increased occurrence, but also through a combination of increased awareness, vigilance and reporting, more and more incidents of cyanobacterial outbreaks have come to be published. More than fifteen times as many articles on individual United States cyanobacterial outbreaks were published in the 1900s as in the 1800s; as many in the 1990s as in the 2 decades that preceded it combined; and already fifteen articles on individual outbreaks of cyanobacteria in the United States have been published since 2000. Since the number of articles in the entire CyanoHAB Search© database has increased more than 3 fold in the last ten years, it is likely that the subset of individual outbreak incidents reported will increase proportionally over the next ten years, not only in the United States, but worldwide.
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Chronology of Published Outbreaks 1883-2003 Chronology of U.S. Articles on Cyanobacterial Outbreaks (See Bibliography for complete reference) Date Article Title* 1883 "Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous." 1887 "Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous." 1887 “Second report on some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous” 1887 Investigation of supposed poisonous vegetation in the waters of some of the lakes of Minnesota. 1903 “Observations upon some algae which cause "water bloom"(Fergus Falls, Minnesota). 1925 “Farmer tells some news (on stock poisoning in Big Stone Lake)” (South Dakota). 1925 One hundred twenty seven hogs, 4 cows die after drinking water from (Big Stone) lake, stock stricken, last Saturday, all die in short time, lake water sent in for analysis (South Dakota). 1927 “Plants of Michigan poisonous to livestock.” 1931 “Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston, W. Va., occurring simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions.” 1934 “Waterbloom” as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals”(Minnesota). 1939 "Toxic algae in Colorado." 1940 "Toxic algae in Colorado." 1943 “Sheep poisoning by algae”(Montana). 1947 "Waterbloom as a cause of poisoning in livestock in North Dakota." 1948 “A heavy mortality of fishes resulting from the decomposition of algae in the Yahara River, Wisconsin.” 1952 Illustrations of fresh water algae toxic to animals. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1953 "Toxic algae in Iowa lakes." 1953 Rice fields study report: blue-green algae—a possible anti-mosquito measure for rice fields (California). 1954 "Blue-green algae control at Storm Lake." (Iowa). 1955 Further studies during 1954 on blue-green algae—a possible anti-mosquito measure for rice fields (California). 1955 Domestic animal deaths attributed to algal toxins. (Illinois). 1956 Present knowledge concerning the relationship of blue-green algae and mosquitoes in California rice fields. 1959 "A dermatitis-producing alga in Hawaii." 1959 "Dermatitis escharotica caused by a marine alga."(Hawaii). 1960 "Water poisoning — a study of poisonous algae blooms in Minnesota." 1960 “Algae and other interference organisms in the waters of the South-Central United States.” 1961 Klamath Lake, an instance of natural enrichment. (Oregon). 1964 Blue-greens. Waterfowl Tomorrow. (Minnesota). 1966 "Toxicity of a Microcystis waterbloom from an Ohio pond."
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Date Article Title*
1971 "Dermatitis-producing alga Lyngbya majuscula Gomont in Hawaii. I.” Isolation and chemical characterisation of the toxic factor." 1971 "Dermatitis-producing alga Lyngbya majuscula Gomont in Hawaii. II. Biological properties of the toxic factor." 1975 "Pyrogenic reactions during hemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin." (Washington, D.C.) 1976 "Gastrointestinal illness at Sewickley, Pa." 1977 "Toxic blooms of blue-green algae." (New Hampshire). 1977 “Are algae toxic to honey bees? (Arizona). 1978 “Dermatitis from purified sea algae toxin (debromoaplysiatoxin)” (Hawaii). 1979 "Lytic organisms and photooxodative effects: influence on blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin." 1980 “Blue-green algae and selection in rotifer populations” (Florida). 1981 A toxic bloom of Anabaena flos-aquae in Hebgen Reservoir Montana in 1977. 1981 Studies on aphantoxin from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae in New Hampshire. 1981 Water-associated human illness in northeast Pennsylvania and its suspected association with blue-green algae blooms. 1982 "Seaweed itch on Windward Oahu." 1984 1984
Toxic algae. Montana Water Quality. “Antineoplastic evaluation of marine algal extracts” (Hawaii).
1986 "Toxicity of a clonal isolate of the cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Microcystis aeruginosa from Lake Erie." (Ohio). 1987 “Blue green algae (Microcystis aeruginosa) hepatotoxicosis in cattle” (Illinois). 1988 "Modeling blue green algal blooms in the lower Neuse River."(North Carolina). 1988 “Anticholinesterase poisonings in dogs from a cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) bloom dominated by Anabaena flos-aquae” (South Dakota). 1989 “Consistent inhibition of peripheral cholinesterases by neurotoxins from the freshwater cyanobacterium Anabaena flos-aquae: studies of ducks, swine, mice and a steer” ( EPA Region 5). 1990 "Isolation, characterization and detection of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) toxins from freshwater supplies."(Ohio). 1990 "Blue-green algae toxicosis in Oklahoma." 1992 "Identification of 12 hepatotoxins from a Homer Lake bloom of the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa, Microcystis viridis, and Microcystis wesenbergii: nine new microcystins."(Illinois). 1992 1992
Neurotoxic Lyngbya wollei in Guntersville Reservoir, Alabama. “Outbreaks of waterborne disease in the United States: 1989-90.”
1993 "Chemical study of the hepatotoxins from Microcystis aeruginosa collected
97
Date Article Title* in California." 1993 "Toxicosis due to microcystin hepatotoxins in three Holstein heifers." (Michigan). 1994 "Algal toxins in drinking water? Research in Wisconsin." 1995 "Cascading disturbances in Florida Bay, USA: cyanobacteria blooms, sponge mortality and implications for juvenile spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus." 1995 "Seven more microcystins from Homer Lake cells: application of the general method for structure assignment of peptides containing a-b- dehydroamino acid unit(s)." (Illinois). 1996 “Assessment of blue-green algal toxins in Kansas.” 1996 "Aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin as the causative agents of a red alga: Gracilaria coronopifolia poisoning in Hawaii." 1997 1997
Mechanisms of ecosystem change: the role of zebra mussels in Saginaw Bay.(Michigan). "Evidence for paralytic shellfish poisons in the freshwater cyanobacterium
Lyngbya wollei (Farlow ex Gomont) comb. nov."(Alabama). 1997 "Recent appearance of Cylindrospermopsis (cyanobacteria) in five hypereutrophic Florida lakes." 1997 "Occurrence of the black band disease cyanobacterium on healthy coral of the Florida Keys." 1998 "Blue-green algae toxicosis in cattle." (Colorado). 1999 "Effect of surface water on desert Bighorn sheep in the Cabeza-Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, Southwestern Arizona." 1999 Spread of toxic algae linked to zebra mussels. (Ohio). 2000 "New malyngamides from the Hawaiian cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula." 2000 "Harvesting of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Ralfs ex. Born. and Flah. var. flos-aquae (cyanobacteria) from Klamath Lake for human dietary use." (Oregon). 2000 "Desert Bighorn sheep mortality due to presumptive type-C botulism in California." 2001 "Microcystin algal toxins in source and finished drinking water." (Wisconsin). 2001 “Confirmation of catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) mortality from Microcystis toxins” (South Central U.S.). 2001 2001
Assessment of Blue-Green Algal Toxins in Raw and Finished Drinking Water. Denver, Colorado. “Zebra mussel (Driessena polymorpha) selective filtration promoted toxic
Microcystis blooms in Saginaw Bay (Lake Huron) and Lake Erie.” 2002 "Possible importance of algal toxins in the Salton Sea, California." 2002 "Clinical and necropsy findings associated with increased mortality among American alligators of Lake Griffin, Florida."
98
Date Article Title* 2002 Removal of pathogens, surrogates, indicators and toxins using riverbank filtration (California). 2002 "Dreissenid mussels increase exposure of benthic and pelagic organisms to toxic microcystins." (Michigan). 2003 Natural algacides for the control of cyanobacterial-related off-flavor in catfish aquaquaculture” (South Central U.S).
2003 “A synoptic survey of musty/muddy odor metabolites and microcystin toxin occurrence and concentration in southeastern USA channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque) production ponds.” 2003 “Variants of microcystin in south-eastern USA channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque) production ponds” 2003 “Cyanobacterial toxicity and migration in a mesotrophic lake in western Washington, USA.” Reference Bibliography of U.S. Outbreaks by EPA Region
EPA Region 1 (2)
Sasner Jr., J. J., M. Ikawa, et al. (1981). Studies on aphantoxin from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae in New Hampshire. The Water Environment: Algal Toxins and Health. W. W. Carmichael. New York, Plenum Press: 389-403.
Sawyer, P. J., J. J. Sasner Jr., et al. (1977). "Toxic blooms of blue-green algae." Water Res. Action 1(10): 10. EPA Region 3 (4) Billings, W. H. (1981). Water-associated human illness in northeast Pennsylvania and its suspected association with blue-green algae blooms. The Water Environment: Algal Toxins and Health. W. W. Carmichael. New York, Plenum Press: 243-255.
Hindman, S. H., M. S. Favero, et al. (1975). "Pyrogenic reactions during hemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin." Lancet 2: 732-734.
Lippy, E. C. and J. Erb (1976). "Gastrointestinal illness at Sewickley, Pa." J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 68: 606-610.
Tisdale, E. S. (1931). "Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston, W. Va., occurring simultaneously with unprecedented water supply conditions." Am. J. Pub. Health 21: 198-200.
99
EPA Region 4 (9)
Butler IV, M. J., J. H. Hunt, et al. (1995). "Cascading disturbances in Florida Bay, USA: cyanobacteria blooms, sponge mortality and implications for juvenile spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus." Mar. Ecol.–Prog. Ser. 129(1-3): 119-125.
Carmichael, W. W. and W. R. Evans (1992). Neurotoxic Lyngbya wollei in Guntersville Reservoir, Alabama. North American Lake Management Society 12th Annual International Symposium.
Carmichael, W. W., W. R. Evans, et al. (1997). "Evidence for paralytic shellfish poisons in the freshwater cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei (Farlow ex Gomont) comb. nov." Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(8): 3104-3110.
Chapman, A. D. and C. L. Schelske (1997). "Recent appearance of Cylindrospermopsis (cyanobacteria) in five hypereutrophic Florida lakes." J. Phycol. 33(2): 191-195. Lung, W. S. and H. W. Paerl (1988). "Modeling blue green algal blooms in the lower Neuse River." Water Res. 22(7): 895-905.
Richardson, L. L. (1997). "Occurrence of the black band disease cyanobacterium on ealthy coral of the Florida Keys." Bull. Mar. Sci. 61(2): 485-490.
Schoeb, T. R., T. G. Heaton-Jones, et al. (2002). "Clinical and necropsy findings associated with increased mortality among American alligators of Lake Griffin, Florida." J. Wildlife Dis. 38(2): 320-337. Snell, T. W. (1980). "Blue-green algae and selection in rotifer populations." Oecologia (Berl.) 46: 343-346.
Walker, H. L. (2003). Microbial algicides: potential for management of cyanobacteria that cause off-flavor in aquaculture. Off-Flavors in Aquaculture. A. M. Rimando and K. K. Schrader. Washingon, DC, American Chemical Society/Oxford Univ. Press. 848: 147-165. EPA Region 5 (30)
Arthur, J. C. (1883). "Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous." Bull. Minn. Acad. Sci. 2: 1-12.
Arthur, J. C. (1887). Second report on some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous. Univ. Minnesota, Pioneer Press Co.
Arthur, J. C. (1887). Some algae of Minnesota supposed to be poisonous. Univ. Minnesota, Pioneer Press Co.
100
Babcock-Jackson, L., W. W. Carmichael, et al. (2002). "Dreissenid mussels increase exposure of benthic and pelagic organisms to toxic microcystins." Internat. Verein. Limnol. Vol 28 (Pt 2): 1082-1085.
Carmichael, W. W. (1990). "Isolation, characterization and detection of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) toxins from freshwater supplies." Ohio J. Sci. 90(2): 29.
Carmichael, W. W., M. H. Pinotti, et al. (1986). "Toxicity of a clonal isolate of the cyanobacterium (blue-green alga) Microcystis aeruginosa from Lake Erie." Ohio J. Sci. 86(2): 53.
Chu, F. S. and R. Wedepohl (1994). "Algal toxins in drinking water? Research in Wisconsin." LakeLine April: 41-42.
Cook, W. O., V. R. Beasley, et al. (1989). "Consistent inhibition of peripheral cholinesterases by neurotoxins from the freshwater cyanobacterium Anabaena flosaquae: studies of ducks, swine, mice and a steer." Environ. Toxicol. Chem 8(10): 915-922.
Fallon, R. D. and T. D. Brock (1979). "Lytic organisms and photooxodative effects: influence on blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin." Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38(3): 499-505.
Fitch, C. P., L. M. Bishop, et al. (1934). ""Water bloom" as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals." Cornell Vet. 24(1): 30-39.
Fitzgerald, S. D. and R. H. Poppenga (1993). "Toxicosis due to microcystin hepatotoxins in three Holstein heifers." J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 5(4): 651-653.
Galey, F. D., V. R. Beasley, et al. (1986). "Blue green algae (Microcystis aeruginosa) hepatotoxicosis in cattle." J. Toxicol. - Toxin Rev. 5(2): 256.
Galey, F. D., V. R. Beasley, et al. (1987). "Blue-green algae (Microcystis aeruginosa) hepatotoxicosis in dairy cows." Am. J. Vet. Res. 48(9): 1415-1420.
Herwaldt, B. L., G. F. Craun, et al. (1992). "Outbreaks of waterborne disease in the United States: 1989-90." J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 84(4): 129-135.
Ingram, W. M. and G. W. Prescott (1952). Illustrations of fresh water algae toxic to animals. Cincinnati, Ohio, Public Health Service, Federal Security Agency, Division of Water Pollution Control, Ohio-Tennessee Drainage Basins Office.
Karner, D. A., J. H. Standridge, et al. (2001). "Microcystin algal toxins in source and finished drinking water." J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 93(8): 72-81.
Lafferty, M. (1999). Spread of toxic algae linked to zebra mussels. Columbus Dispatch. Columbus, Ohio: 1C-2C.
101
Mackenthun, K. M., E. F. Herman, et al. (1948). "A heavy mortality of fishes resulting from the decomposition of algae in the Yahara River, Wisconsin." Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 75: 175-180.
Maloney, T. E. and R. A. Carnes (1966). "Toxicity of a Microcystis waterbloom from an Ohio pond." Ohio J. Sci. 66(5): 514-517.
McDermott, C. M., R. Feola, et al. (1995). "Detection of cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) in waters of northeastern Wisconsin by a new immunoassay technique." Toxicon 33(11): 1433-1442.
Namikoshi, M., K. L. Rinehart, et al. (1992). "Identification of 12 hepatotoxins from a Homer Lake bloom of the cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa, Microcystis viridis, and Microcystis wesenbergii: nine new microcystins." J. Org. Chem. 57(3): 866-872.
Namikoshi, M., F. R. Sun, et al. (1995). "Seven more microcystins from Homer Lake cells: application of the general method for structure assignment of peptides containing a-b-dehydroamino acid unit(s)." J. Org. Chem. 60(12): 3671-3679.
Nelson, N. P. B. (1903). "Observations upon some algae which cause "water bloom". Minn. Botan. Ser. IV 3: 51-56.
Olson, T. A. (1960). "Water poisoning — a study of poisonous algae blooms in Minnesota." Am. J. Pub. Health 50: 883-884.
Olson, T. A. (1964). Blue-greens. Waterfowl Tomorrow. J. P. Linkurska. Washington, U.S. Dept. Int. Fish. Wildlife Serv. (U.S. Gov. Printing Office): 349-356.
Porter, E. D. (1887). Investigation of supposed poisonous vegetation in the waters of some of the lakes of Minnesota. Univ. Minnesota, Pioneer Press Co.
Repavich, W. M., W. C. Sonzogni, et al. (1990). "Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in Wisconsin waters: acute and chronic toxicity." Water Res. 24(2): 225-231.
Scott, R. M. (1955). Domestic animal deaths attributed to algal toxins. Case History Report from Illinois State Department of Public Health, Illinois State Department of Public Health.
Vanderploeg, H. A., T. H. Johengen, et al. (1997). Mechanisms of ecosystem change: the role of zebra mussels in Saginaw Bay. 40th Conference of the International Association for Great Lakes Research, Buffalo, New York.
Woodcock, E. F. (1927). "Plants of Michigan poisonous to livestock." J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 25: 475.
102
EPA Region 6 (8)
Palmer, C. M. (1960). "Algae and other interference organisms in the waters of the South-Central United States." J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 52(7): 897-914.
Schrader, K. K. (2003). Natural algicides for the control of cyanobacterial-related off-flavor in catfish aquaculture. Off-Flavors in Aquaculture. A. M. Rimando and K. K. Schrader. Washingon, DC, American Chemical Society/Oxford Univ. Press. 848: 195-208.
Short, S. B. and W. C. Edwards (1990). "Blue-green algae toxicosis in Oklahoma." Vet. Human Toxicol. 32(6): 558-560. Smith, T. A. and J. P. Hoover (1995). "Investigating a case of suspected cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) intoxication in a dog [Correction for 1995, 90(11):1028]." Vet. Med. 90(12): 1130.
Zimba, P. V. and C. C. Grimm (2003). "A synoptic survey of musty/muddy odor metabolites and microcystin toxin occurrence and concentration in southeastern USA channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque) production ponds." Aquaculture 218(1-4): 81-87.
Zimba, P. V., S. Boue, et al. (2003). "Variants of microcystin in south-eastern USA channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Rafinesque) production ponds." Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 28(Pt 3): 1163-1166.
Zimba, P. V., L. Khoo, et al. (2000). "Confirmation of catfish mortalities resulting from microcystin produced during Microcystis blooms." J. Phycol. 36(3 Suppl.): 72-73.
Zimba, P. V., L. Khoo, et al. (2001). "Confirmation of catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) mortality from Microcystis toxins." J. Fish Dis. 24(1): 41-47. EPA Region 7 (3) Dodds, W. K. (1996). Assessment of blue-green algal toxins in Kansas. Kansas, Kansas Water Resources Research Institute. Rose, E. T. (1953). "Toxic algae in Iowa lakes." Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 60: 738-745. Rose, E. T. (1954). "Blue-green algae control at Storm Lake." Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 61: 604-614.
103
EPA Region 8 (10) Brandenburg, T. O. and F. M. Shigley (1947). "Waterbloom as a cause of poisoning in livestock in North Dakota." J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 110: 384. Deem, A. W. and F. Thorp (1939). "Toxic algae in Colorado." J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 95: 542-544.
Division, W. Q. B. E. S. (1984). Toxic algae. Montana Water Quality; The 1984 Montana 305 (b) Report: 55-59.
Durrell, L. W. and A. W. Deem (1940). "Toxic algae in Colorado." J. Colo. Wyo. Acad. Sci. 2(6): 18.
Juday, R. E., E. J. Keller, et al. (1981). A toxic bloom of Anabaena flos-aquae in Hebgen Reservoir Montana in 1977. The Water Environment: Algal Toxins and Health. W. W. Carmichael. New York, Plenum Press: 103-112. Mahmood, N. A., W. W. Carmichael, et al. (1988). "Anticholinesterase poisonings in dogs from a cyanobacterial (blue-green algae) bloom dominated by Anabaena flos-aquae." Am. J. Vet. Res. 49(4): 500-503.
Puschner, B., F. D. Galey, et al. (1998). "Blue-green algae toxicosis in cattle." J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 213(11): 1605-1607.
Quin, A. H. (1943). "Sheep poisoning by algae." J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 102: 299.
Wilmot Enterprise (1925). Farmer tells some news (on stock poisoning in Big Stone Lake). Wilmot Enterprise. Wilmot, South Dakota.
Wilmot Enterprise (1925). One hundred twenty seven hogs, 4 cows die after drinking water from (Big Stone) lake, stock stricken, last Saturday, all die in short time, lake water sent in for analysis. Wilmot Enterprise. Wilmot, South Dakota.
EPA Region 9 (19)
Anonymous. (1991). Toxicity of Blue-Green Algae in Clear Lake, California. Berkeley, California, Office of Drinking Water & Special Epidemiologic Studies Program.
Banner, A. H. (1959). "A dermatitis-producing alga in Hawaii." Hawaii Med. J. 19: 35-36. Barker, R. J. (1977). "Are algae toxic to honey bees?" Arizona Acad. Sci. 12(2): 84-85.
104
Broyles, B. and T. L. Cutler (1999). "Effect of surface water on desert Bighorn sheep in the Cabeza-Prieta National Wildlife Refuge, Southwestern Arizona." Wildlife Soc. Bull. 27(4): 1082-1088.
DeVries, S. E., M. Namikoshi, et al. (1993). "Chemical study of the hepatotoxins from Microcystis aeruginosa collected in California." J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 5(3): 409-412.
Gerhardt, R. W. (1953). Rice fields study report; blue-green algae—a possible anti-mosquito measure for rice fields. Proceedings & Papers of the 22nd Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association, Department of Agriculture.
Gerhardt, R. W. (1955). Further studies during 1954 on blue-green algae—a possible anti-mosquito measure for rice fields. Proceedings & Papers of the 23rd Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association, Los Angeles, California, Department of Agriculture.
Gerhardt, R. W. (1956). Present knowledge concerning the relationship of blue-green algae and mosquitoes in California rice fields. Proceedings & Papers of the 24th Annual Conference of the California Mosquito Control Association, Stockton, California, Department of Agriculture.
Grauer, F. H. (1959). "Dermatitis escharotica caused by a marine alga." Hawaii Med. J. 19: 32-36. Kan, Y., B. Sakamoto, et al. (2000). "New malyngamides from the Hawaiian cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula." J. Natural Products 63(12): 1599-1602.
Moikeha, S. N. and G. W. Chu (1971). "Dermatitis-producing alga Lyngbya majuscula Gomont in Hawaii. II. Biological properties of the toxic factor." J. Phycol. 7: 8-13.
Moikeha, S. N., G. W. Chu, et al. (1971). "Dermatitis-producing alga Lyngbya majuscula Gomont in Hawaii. I. Isolation and chemical characterization of the toxic factor." J. Phycol. 7: 4-8.
Nagai, H., T. Yasumoto, et al. (1996). "Aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin as the causative agents of a red alga: Gracilaria coronopifolia poisoning in Hawaii." Toxicon 37(7): 753-761.
Patterson, G. M. L., T. R. Norton, et al. (1984). "Antineoplastic evaluation of marine algal extracts." Botanica Marina 27: 485-488.
Reifel, K. M., M. P. McCoy, et al. (2002). "Possible importance of algal toxins in the Salton Sea, California." Hydrobiologia 473(1-3): 275-292.
Schijven, J., P. Berger, et al. (2002). Removal of pathogens, surrogates, indicators, and toxins using riverbank filtration. Riverbank Filtration: Improving Source-Water Quality.
105
C. Ray, G. Melin and R. B. Linsky. Fountain Valley, California. In collaboration with National Water Research Institute, Dordrecht: Boston & Kluwer Acad. Publishers. 43: 73-116, Ch. 6. Serdula, M., G. Bartolini, et al. (1982). "Seaweed itch on Windward Oahu." Hawaii Med. J. 41(7): 200-201.
Solomon, A. E. and R. B. Stoughton (1978). "Dermatitis from purified sea algae toxin (debromoaplysiatoxin)." Arch. Dermatol. 114: 1333-1335.
Swift, P. K., J. D. Wehausen, et al. (2000). "Desert Bighorn sheep mortality due to presumptive type-C botulism in California." J. Wildlife Dis. 36(1): 184-189.
EPA Region 10 (3)
Carmichael, W. W., C. Drapeau, et al. (2000). "Harvesting of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Ralfs ex. Born. and Flah. var. flos-aquae (cyanobacteria) from Klamath Lake for human dietary use." J. Appl. Phycol. 12: 585-595.
Johnston, B. R. and J. M. Jacoby (2003). "Cyanobacterial toxicity and migration in a mesotrophic lake in western Washington, USA." Hydrobiologia 495(1-3): 79-91.
Phinney, H. K. and C. A. Peek (1961). Klamath Lake, an instance of natural enrichment. Algae and Metropolitan Wastes. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. Dept. Health, Education and Welfare: 22-27.
United States (5)
Carmichael, W. W. (2001). Assessment of Blue-Green Algal Toxins in Raw and Finished Drinking Water. Denver, Colorado, AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Assoc.
Carmichael, W.W. (2004). CyanoHAB Search: A List of Toxic Cyanobacteria References, USEPAWebsite: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/standard/ucmr/main.ht ml#m eet
Carmichael, W. W. and L. D. Schwartz (1984). Preventing livestock deaths from blue- green algae poisoning. Washington, D.C., U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Schwimmer, M. and D. Schwimmer (1968). Medical aspects of phycology. Algae, Man and the Environment. D. F. Jackson. New York, Syracuse University Press: 279-358.
Yoo, R.S., Carmichael, W.W., et al. (1995) Cyanobacterial (Blue-Green Algal) Toxins: A
106
Resource Guide. Denver, Colorado. AWWA Research Foundation and AWWA Association. Criteria for Including References in NACyanoHAB
Papers cited in CyanoNet United States annotated bibliography were chosen based upon their applicability to seven criteria: Key: 1. 1. Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations 2. 2. Occurrence of cyanotoxins 3. 3. Reported health incidents 4. 4. Surveys/epidemiological studies on cyanotoxins and health 5. 5. Effects on water supply, waterbody use and ecological status 6. 6. Management actions 7. 7. Training and awareness-raising, educational materials, practices and needs The following table lists the bibliography references and whether they include information in these seven criteria areas. USCyanoHab Occurrrence References and their content based upon the 7 criteria EPA Region
First Author
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Sasner X X X X 1 Sawyer X X X X X X X 3 Billings X X X X X X X 3 Hindman X X X X 3 Lippy X X X X 3 Tisdale X X X X X X X 4 Butler X X X 4 Carmichael
(1992) X X X
4 Carmichael (1997)
X X X X
4 Chapman X X X X X X X 4 Lung X X X X 4 Richardson X X X 4 Schoeb X X X 4 Snell X X X 4 Walker X X X X X X X 5 Arthur
(1883) X X X
107
5 Arthur “Second…”
X X X
5 Arthur “Some…”
X X X
5 Babcock-Jackson
X X X
5 Carmichael (1990)
X X X X X X X
5 Carmichael (1986)
X X X
5 Chu X X X X X 5 Cook X X X EPA Region
First Author 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 Fallon X X 5 Fitch X X X X 5 Fitzgerald X X X 5 Galey (1986) X X
5 Galey (1987) X X
5 Herwalt X X X X 5 Ingram X X X X X X 5 Karner X X X 5 Lafferty X X X 5 Mackenthun X X X 5 Maloney X X X 5 McDermott X X X 5 Namikoshi
(1992) X X X
5 Namikoshi (1995)
X X X
5 Nelson X X 5 Olson (1960) X X X
5 Olson (1964) X X X
5 Porter X X X X 5 Repavich X X X X 5 Scott X X X 5 Vanderploeg X X X 5 Woodcock X X
108
6 Palmer X X X X 6 Schrader X X X X 6 Short X X X 6 Smith X X X 6 Zimba “A
synoptic…” X X
6 Zimba “Variants…”
X X
6 Zimba (2001) X X X
6 Zimba (2000) X X X X X
EPA Region
First Author 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 Dodds X X X X 7 Rose (1953) X X X X
7 Rose (1954) X X X
8 Brandenburg X X 8 Deem X X X 8 Division
WQBES X X X X
8 Durrell X X X 8 Wilmot
Enterprise “Farmer…”
X X
8 Wilmot Enterprise “One …”
X X
8 Juday X X X 8 Mahmood X X X 8 Puschner X X X 8 Quin X X 9 Anonymous X X X X X X X 9 Banner X X X 9 Barker X X 9 Broyles X X X X 9 DeVries X X 9 Gerhardt
(1953) X X X
9 Gerhardt (1955)
X X X X X X
109
9 Gerhardt (1956)
X X X X X X
9 Grauer X X X 9 Kan X X 9 Moikeha (Part
I) X X
9 Moikeha (Part II)
X X
9 Nagai X X X 9 Patterson X X EPA Region
First Author 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 Reifel X X X 9 Schijven X X X X 9 Serdula X X X 9 Solomon X X X 9 Swift X X X X 10 Carmichael X X X X X 10 Johnston X X X X X X 10 Finney X X X United States
Carmichael (2001)
X X X X X X X
United States
Carmichael (1984)
X X X X X X X
United States
Schwimmer X X X X
United States
Yoo X X X X X X X
Reference Bibliography of Canada Outbreaks by Province
Alberta (7)
Gorham, P. R., S. McNicholas, et al. (1982). "Problems encountered in searching for new strains of toxic planktonic cyanobacteria." S. Afr. J. Sci. 28: 357-362.
Kotak, B. G. (Nov. 1-2 1991). Occurrence and health significance of algal toxins in Alberta surface waters. Managing Alberta's Lakes for the 21st Century. Proceedings of the Alberta Lake Management Society, Camrose Senior Centre, Camrose, Alberta.
110
Kotak, B. G., S. E. Hrudey, et al. (1992 1993). Toxicity of cyanobacterial blooms in Alberta lakes. Proceed. of the 19th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop, Edmonton, Alberta.
Kotak, B. G., S. L. Kenefick, et al. (1993). "Occurrence and toxicological evaluation of cyanobacterial toxins in Alberta lakes and farm dugouts." Water Res. 27(3): 495-506.
O'Donoghue, J. G. and G. S. Wilton (1951). "Algal poisoning in Alberta." Can. J. Comp. Med. 15(8): 193-198.
Schanz, F., E. D. Allen, et al. (1980). "Bioassay of the seasonal ability of water from a eutrophic Alberta lake to promote selective growth of strains of Anabaena flos-aquae and other blue-green algae." Can. J. Bot. 57(21): 2443-2451.
Vezie, C., J. Rapala, et al. (2002). "Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth of toxic and nontoxic Microcystis strains and on intracellular microcystin concentrations." Microbial Ecol. 43(4): 443-454.
British Columbia (3)
Andersen, R. J., H. A. Luu, et al. (1993). "Chemical and biological evidence links microcystins to salmon 'netpen liver disease'." Toxicon 31(10): 1315-1323.
Davies, J. M. and A. Mazumder (2003). "Health and environmental policy issues in Canada: the role of watershed management in sustaining clean drinking water quality at surface sources." J. Environ. Manage. 68(3): 273-286.
Stephen, C., M. L. Kent, et al. (1993). "Hepatic megalocytosis in wild and farmed chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha in British Columbia, Canada." Dis. Aquat. Org. 16(1): 35-39. Manitoba (2)
Bossenmaier, E. F., T. A. Olson, et al. (March 8-10 1954). Some field and laboratory aspects of duck sickness at Whitewater Lake, Manitoba. Trans. 19th North American Wildlife Conference, Wildlife Management Inst., Washington, D.C. McLeod, J. A. and G. F. Bondar (1952). "A case of suspected algal poisoning in Manitoba." Can. J. Pub. Health 43: 347.
111
Ontario (2)
Barnum, D. A., J. A. Henderson, et al. (1950). "Algae poisoning in Ontario." Milk Producer 25: 312.
Stewart, A. G., D. A. Barnum, et al. (1950). "Algal poisoning in Ontario." Can. J. Comp. Med. 14(6): 197-202.
Prince Edward Island (1)
Pravda, M., M. P. Kreuzer, et al. (2002). "Analysis of important freshwater and marine toxins." Analyt. Lett. 35(1): 1-15.
Saskatchewan (4)
Dillenberg, H. O. and M. K. Dehnel (1960). "Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan, 1959." Can. Med. Assoc. J. 83: 1151.
Hammer, U. T. (1964). "The succession of bloom species of blue-green and some causal factors." Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 15: 829-836.
Hammer, U. T. (1968). "Toxic blue-green algae in Saskatchewan." Can. Vet. J. 9: 221-229.
Senior, V. E. (1960). "Algal poisoning in Saskatchewan." Can. J. Comp. Med. 24(1): 26-31.
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CYANONET Global Network for the Hazard Management of Cyanobacterial Blooms and Toxins in Water Resources.
National Contacts for the USA
Lorraine C. Backer, Phd, MPH CDC-Health Studies Branch National Center for Environmental Health 4770 Buford Highway NE MS F-46 Chamblee, Georgia 30341 [email protected] Tel: 770-488-3426 Fax: 770-488-3450
Andrew Reich, MS, MSPH Coordinator Aquatic Toxins Program Division of Environmental Health Florida Department of Health 4052 Bald Cypress Way, Bin A08 Tallahassee, Fl. 32399-1712 [email protected] Tel: 850-245-4444 ext. 2295 Fax: 850-487-0864
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Peter Tango, Maryland Department of Natural ResourcesTawes State Office Building D-2580 Taylor AvenueAnnapolis, MD 21401 410-260-8651 FAX: 410-260-8640 [email protected]
National Contact(s) for Canada
Thea Rawn Health Canada Food Research Division Ottawa, Ontario 613-941-8462 [email protected]
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SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA: TOXIC CYANOBACTERIA Azevedo*, S. M. F. O Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics Institute – Federal University of Rio de Janeiro [email protected]
Introduction
To focus on the causes and consequences of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in South and Central America and the Caribbean it is necessary first to consider the anthropogenic impacts on aquatic ecosystems and their relationship with water quality and public health.
As has been observed in other continents, in South and Central America human activities lead to the multiple use of water resources such as the supply for public provisioning, irrigation, industrial use, navigation, recreation and aquaculture. Although these activities vary according to the occupation and use of the drainage basin and with local economic and social organisation, they often generate impacts that cause deterioration in water quality and interfere with its availability. As a consequence of these impacts, it is common to observe the accelerated artificial eutrophication of coastal water bodies through anthropogenic nutrient and pollutant enrichment. Eutrophication has become widespread, mainly in regions where the growth of the agro industry and urbanisation has undergone a rapid rate of increase without a corresponding improvement in wastewater treatment. This situation is found in all South and Central American regions since only 13.7% of wastewater receives any kind of treatment.
This artificial eutrophication has produced changes in water quality including a reduction of dissolved oxygen and aquatic biodiversity, loss of scenic qualities, extensive fish mortality and an increased incidence of microalgae and cyanobacterial blooms. These effects lead to an increase in the cost of water treatment and to serious consequences for public health.
In South and Central America this problem is particularly relevant, because according to Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) data presented in 2004, there are 77 million people living without any source of potable water in Latin America. Besides this, there are 105 million people living without any system for wastewater discharge (37 million in urban areas and 68 million in rural areas).
Based on this data it is clear that public health in South and Central America is at a high risk from the degradation of aquatic ecosystems due to the contamination of water resources and drinking water supplies. However, the relationship between water resources and public health is complex. In these two continents, the most well recognised relationship is the transmission of waterborne diseases (cholera, hepatitis A, giardiasis, etc) through the consumption of water.
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Although eutrophication has been recognised globally as a growing concern since the 1950s, it is in the last three decades that the proliferation of toxic cyanobacterial blooms has become recognised as a human health problem (Chorus & Bartram, 1999).
Planktonic cyanobacteria are a natural component of phytoplankton in most surface waters of the world. However, high cyanobacterial biomass (water-blooms) contributes to aesthetic problems, impairs recreational use and has been implicated in the development of obnoxious taste and odour in water supplies. In addition to these deleterious effects, the freshwater cyanobacteria have received increasing attention due to their ability to produce toxins-called cyanotoxins. (Chorus & Bartram, 1999; Falconer, 1998).
Several bloom forming cyanobacterial species can produce cyanotoxins, which present harmful effects for not only aquatic biota but also for human health. However, the importance of such toxins relative to other water–health problems is practically unknown in South and Central America. As a result of the survey done for the CYANONET project, information has been obtained regarding South and Central American cyanobacterial waterblooms and their toxins: Occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations Regarding cyanobacterial bloom occurrence, it is clear that the phenomenon is well known in several countries but there are very few official reports and/or published data for the majority of countries in South and Central America. Argentina: In Argentina the occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms has been observed since 1947 according to Ringuellet et al. (1955). They described massive fish mortality in a lagoon caused by Anabaena inaequalis, Anabaena circinalis and Polycystis flos-aquae.
Since the 1980’s, several blooms have been observed in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, coastal lagoons and estuaries from North to South Argentina (25o - 55oS). The most common genera are Microcystis and Anabaena. The references document that increasing bloom occurrences are related to the eutrophication of these environments. (Pizzolon et al., 1999). Brazil: Records about cyanobacterial blooms come from the 1980’s in Brazil. A review in the Brazilian literature on phytoplankton ecology considered studies with at least a one year database, showed that aquatic environments located in areas with an anthropogenic influence present a high percentage of cyanobacterial dominance and bloom occurrence. On average, almost 50% of these environments are already presenting cyanobacterial dominance. Part of this occurrence can be attributed to natural causes, but an increase in the number of environments showing cyanobacteria as the dominant class in the phytoplankton community has been observed.
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The occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms has already been registered in 11 of the 26 Brazilian states, from the North to South region. These blooms occur mainly in reservoirs but there are records of occurrence in several coastal lagoons, natural lakes, rivers and estuaries.
According to a review by Sant’Anna and Azevedo (2000), the most common genera are Microcystis and Anabaena, but an increase in Cylindrospermopsis dominance has been detected in the last decade (Bouvy, et al., 1999; Huszar et al., 2000).
Furthermore, the isolation of toxic nanoplanktonic cyanobacteria (Synechocystis aquatilis) from coastal areas and toxic picoplanktonic cyanobacterial strains from reservoirs in the Brazilian Northeast region (Domingos et al., 1999; Komárek, et al., 2001) define a new challenge for public health and water treatment authorities. Due to the very small size of these cells their identification requires special care and the removal by traditional methods of water treatment can be more difficult. Therefore, the potential toxicity of these species needs to be considered and the risk from picoplanktonic cyanobacteria in water supplies needs to be monitored in order to minimise the hazards of cyanotoxins. Colombia: The few reports about blooms of cyanobacteria in Colombia are mainly related to aquaculture activities in coastal lagoons, floodplain lakes and estuaries (Mancera & Vidal, 1994). There are also some reports about cyanobacterial blooms in recently filled reservoirs. The main genera described are Microcystis and Cylindrospermopsis. This information comes from data published during the last decade and earlier reports are not available. Nevertheless, there are many personal reports documenting cyanobacterial blooms as a well-known event in several places. Chile: In Chile, the first report about cyanobacterial blooms occurred in 1995. It happened in a natural lake in the Concepción region where another event was registered in 1998. The main genus was Microcystis in both lakes (Campos, et al. 1999; Neumann, et al.; 2000). Uruguay: In Uruguay, the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms has been observed in rivers, reservoirs, lakes, coastal lagoons and estuaries (Perez, et al.; 1999; Kruk & De Leon, 2002). These events are related to increased eutrophication and changes in river hydrodynamics due to the construction of reservoirs in cascade, which interferes with water retention time, favouring bloom formation. The most common genera are Microcystis, Nodularia and Anabaena. Venezuela: There is little data on the occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms in Venezuela and what is published relates to reservoirs and lakes. Those reports come from 1978. However, these data show the important impact of these events, since they have occurred in big lakes and reservoirs used as water supplies for big cities including Caracas and Valencia. The main genera reported are Microcystis, Anabaena, Cylindrospermopsis and Synechocystis (Gonzalez, et al. 2004).
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From a literature review, it was possible to find data about cyanobacterial issues in only four countries of Central America: Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Puerto Rico. Information about cyanobacterial bloom occurrence was found only for Costa Rica and Guatemala. Both events are related to anthropogenic impacts and artificial eutrophication. Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins)
In general, there is little information about cyanotoxin analyses or toxicity tests done with cyanobacterial bloom material. The most common cyanotoxins detected are the peptide liver toxins called microcystins. These hepatotoxic heptapeptides were already confirmed in samples from Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. (Rubial, 2003; Azevedo, et al., 1984; Campos, et al. 1999; De Leon & Yunes, 2001). In all these countries, there are reports about microcystins in drinking water supplies and even in treated water from Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. The majority of analyses were done by HPLC or ELISA, but there are references about the use of LC-MS in Argentina, Brazil and Chile. The most common toxicity test still used is the acute mouse bioassay, as reported by researchers in Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela.
The confirmed occurrence of another group of cyanotoxins in continental waters has been reported only in Brazil. The production of saxitoxins by Cylindrospermopsis (Lagos et al., 1999; Molica et al., 2002) was reported for at least 5 different Brazilian states. In addition the production of anatoxin-a(s) by Anabaena was confirmed by two independent authors (Monserrat et al., 2001; Molica et al., in press) in cyanobacterial samples from two different states. Moreover, the presence of cylindrospermopsin was already confirmed in filters from a dialysis clinic at Caruaru city (Pernambuco State, Brazil). However, the identification of the cyanobacterial organism responsible for cylindrospermopsin production was not possible (Carmichael et al., 2001). Reported incidents of adverse health effects including case studies The more frequently reported incidents involving toxic cyanobacterial blooms are the bad taste and odour in drinking water or water supplies and massive fish mortality, mainly in shallow coastal lagoons. There are references to these cases in several Argentinean and Brazilian reports. However, adverse human health effects including skin irritation, digestive and respiratory disorders were reported only for Argentina and Brazil. These effects were related to recreational activities or oral consumption involving water bodies presenting heavy cyanobacterial blooms. The maximum expression of the noxious effects of cyanotoxins can be illustrated by the “Caruaru Event”, the first confirmed case of human deaths caused by cyanotoxins. In early 1996, 130 patients were affected during haemodialysis sessions in a clinic locted in the city of Caruaru (state of Pernambuco, Brazil), and 70 died (Jochimsen et al. 1998). The analysis confirmed the presence of microcystin and cylindrospermopsin in the
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activated carbon used in the water purification system of the clinic, and also detected microcystins in samples of blood and liver tissue of the affected patients (Jochimsen et al., 1998; Carmichael et al., 2001; Azevedo et al. 2002). Adverse impacts of cyanobacterial mass populations on water supply, waterbody use and ecological status The adverse impacts on water supplies due to cyanobacterial blooms are usually underestimated. The reports about these impacts are mainly related to the massive fish mortality frequently caused by the reduction in the dissolved oxygen concentration of the water. The loss of scenic quality, and consequent reduction of recreational activities with economic loss for the tourism business, is also described in some regions in Argentina and Brazil. However, the ecological impacts, such as effects on aquatic biodiversity or bioaccumulation of cyanotoxins through the food chain, has been analysed, estimated and described in only a few scientific papers (Magalhães, et al., 2001, Panosso, et al., 2003; Ferrão Filho, et al., 2002 a,b). Moreover, this knowledge is still restricted to academic circles and consequently is used neither by workers on aquaculture activities nor by authorities involved with water quality or food quality control.
An important aspect of this situation is that since the consequences of toxic cyanobacterial bloom occurrence are underestimated or undiscovered by the different authorities responsible for the environment and water quality control, the management actions or implementation of preventive plans and remedial measures are only taken into account when a serious event occurs. Besides, it is common to observe that these actions are restricted to a few weeks surrounding the event, depending on the “media attention” for the case.
Management actions and instruments to reduce the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins
The most common management action implemented is a phytoplankton-monitoring program on water bodies presenting a frequent occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms. This is well described in reports from Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela. It has been done by researchers working on limnology issues and also by technicians from water companies. Further, some isolated actions such as the prohibition of fishing and bathing, releasing reports to water treatment plants and the use of powder activated carbon are described for some areas in Argentina and Brazil, mainly in the big city regions of Buenos Aires, São Paulo, Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte.
Important limitations for effective management and remedial measures are laboratory capacity and staff training. Even where the theoretical knowledge about the local toxic cyanobacteria issues is good enough, the efficiency of a monitoring program for cyanotoxins is often limited by the demands on analytical resources. On the other hand,
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in some countries the main limitation is staff training, which is needed to improve their background understanding of the issue.
Nevertheless, some important actions have already been taken. Since 2000, new Brazilian legislation for water quality control included the requirement for cyanobacterial population monitoring in drinking water supplies, and microcystin analysis in raw and treated water. The biomass of cyanobacteria in raw water needs to be monitored monthly by cell counting up to 10,000 cells/ml (1mm3 /L of biovolume). From 10,000 to 20,000 cells/ml of cyanobacteria the monitoring needs to be done weekly, and over this threshold level the toxicity (measured by mouse bioassay) and quantitative cyanotoxin analysis in drinking water are necessary. The guideline value of 1µg/L for microcystins was adopted as mandatory and guideline values of 3µg/L for the equivalents of saxitoxins and 15µg/L for cylindrospermopsin were included as recommended guidelines. In addition, the use of algicides in the water supply or any other chemical compound, during the water treatment process, which is able to promote the lysis of cyanobacterial cells (and therefore release of the cyanotoxins) is forbidden.
An Argentinean guideline for water quality is under revision and a there is a strong movement by researchers and some governmental authorities to include cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins as a new parameter to be considered.
Available educational, training and awareness-raising materials, practices and needs
Educational programs are being reported for Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay and Venezuela. In the last three countries listed, these activities are restricted to academic courses at universities. In Argentina there is an awareness-raising poster, distributed by the Argentina Naval prefecture, and some workshops have been organised in the last few years, with the participation of workers from water companies, environmental and public health authorities and academic researchers.
In Brazil, the main educational activities are the short training courses promoted by the Health Ministry that have occurred in different Brazilian regions. Technicians from state secretaries of health and from water companies are encouraged to participate. In addition, the Health Ministry has published a manual about cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins including information about remedial measures and water treatment. It is being distributed throughout the country. Some state water companies are also involved with the production of educational material, but this is an isolated action restricted to a few states.
Based on the available knowledge and assuming that the quality of the water is a limiting factor for economical and social development, it becomes clear that several gaps need to
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be filled in South and Central America in order to improve control of water quality. Some of these important gaps are a:
• Need for an integrated approach to the main problems caused by toxic cyanobacterial
blooms and their socio-economic consequences. The cost-effective management of these aquatic ecosystems depends on an understanding of the complex mechanisms that govern those systems. Therefore, the integration of studies on those problems must be encouraged.
• Need to train technicians to understand and identify, in a clear way, the main factors
and processes involved in the quality of raw and/or treated water, in order to facilitate a faster decision-making process. The integration of research with management actions is, therefore, an important issue. This integrated work should have a strong research component in addition to the training of personnel involved with the multiple water uses.
• Need to survey, integrate and analyse the available data (historical data) for the
freshwater and coastal ecosystems and their respective drainage basins, under an ecological, geo-morphological, hydraulic and sanitary engineering, and epidemiological point of view. This data would support the elaboration of scenarios that include all aspects of the problem and may therefore result in the proposal of feasible mitigating measures.
• Need to encourage technical and scientific knowledge transference to the agencies
responsible for public water. The implementation of partnerships between public and private sectors, with strong participation of universities and/or research institutes, would produce the necessary conceptual structure to stimulate ideas and creative projects for the solutions to these problems.
• Need for the development and/or application of innovative methodologies that allow
the attainment and analysis of data in a faster and more precise way. New and affordable technologies are needed for the remediation of these ecosystems as well as for the improvement of the water treatment conditions.
Acknowledgements: I am thankful to people that kindly agree to function as National Contact: Argentina: Ricardo O. Echenique and Ana Laura Ruibal, Chile: Monica Vasquez; Colombia: Alex Ricardo Baez Polo; Venezuela: Ernesto J. González Rivas and Uruguay: Lyzet De Leon. I also would like to thank Luiz Otavio de Azevedo from Brazil who works hard doing all email contacts and organised data presented on this report.
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Table 1: Summary of data from six South America countries:
Country
Occurrence of Blooms (*)
Most common genera Cyanotoxins
Methods for cyanotoxin analysis
Report incidents
Epidemiological studies Adverse effects Management
actions
Available educational actions and material
Argentina 1,2,3,4,5 Microcystis Anabaena
Microcystins; Neurotoxins not identified
Mouse bioassay HPLC, LC-MS, ELISA
Bad taste and odour; Fish and birds death; Skin irritation; Digestive and respiratory disorders
Bad tastes and odours in drinking water; reduction of tourism; activities; fish death, dog death, skin irritation and respiratory disorders
Phytoplankton monitoring program; Sewage treatment plants; Drinking water guidelines under revision
Raising poster distribution; Workshops; Training courses
Brazil 1,2,3,4,5
Microcystis Cylindrospermopsis Anabaena
Microcystins; Saxitoxins Anatoxin-a(s) Cylindrospermopsin
Mouse bioassay HPLC, LC-MS, ELISA.
Bad taste and odour; Fish and birds death; Human death;Digestive disorders
Epidemiological study with hemodialysis patients
Bad taste and odours in drinking water; Bioaccumulation of microcystins by fish and zooplankton Fish mortality
Phytoplankton monitoring program;
Folders and technical literature distribution; Training courses; Workshops Guidelines
Chile 3 Microcystis Microcystins
HPLC ELISA MALDI-TOF-MS
Phytoplankton monitoring program
Colombia 2,4,5 Microcystis Cylindrospermopsis
- Massive fish death
Phytoplankton monitoring program
Training course and workshop
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Uruguay 1,2,3,4,5 Microcystis Anabaena Nodularia
Microcystins ELISA Digestive disorders
Phytoplankton monitoring program; Advise against recreational activities near blooms; Drinking water guidelines under revision
Training courses; Workshops
Venezuela 2 , 3
Microcystis Anabaena Cylindrospermopsis
- Mouse bioassay Bad taste and
odour Workshops
(*) 1 - rivers, 2 - reservoirs, 3 - lakes, 4 - coastal lagoons-4, 5 - estuari
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YUNES, J.S.; SALOMON, P.S.; MATTHIENSEN, A.; BEATTIE, K.A.; RAGGETT, S.L.; CODD, G.A. (1996). Toxic blooms of cyanobacteria in the Patos Lagoon estuary, southern Brazil. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Health. 5: 223-229.
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SYNTHESIS The output from this first phase of CYANONET provides the first truly global synthesis of the ‘state of the planet’ insofar as cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins are concerned. Cyanobacterial aggregations (blooms, scums and mats), are among the most common and best known symptoms and consequences of anthropogenic eutrophication. They form a common characteristic of surface waters, worldwide. An awareness of cyanobacterial mass populations, and their associated toxicity among limited scientific and other professional groups has existed over at least the past 150 years, and may be discerned in the wider community even earlier according to non-scientific/non-technical literature and popular culture. Such awareness has increased and declined with time, as associated poisoning incidents have occurred and their immediate impacts have passed. Recognition of cyanobacterial blooms and their health significance has increased over the last 15 years, although as indicated in this exercise, this awareness is very patchy, and apparently lacking in many parts of the world. It is only quite recently that the threat to inland and coastal surface waters posed by nutrient enrichment has been catapulted to the forefront of water resource management on all continents – this especially during the past 50 years. The eutrophication of lakes, impoundments and other surface waters stems from a global commonality - an anthopogenic deterioration in surface water quality that became particularly apparent during the 1950s. This led to, typically, an order of magnitude increase in the availability of nutrients, particularly in lakes, reservoirs, rivers and estuaries, and a resultant increase in observed cyanobacterial and algal development incidence from the 1960s onwards. While eutrophication remains a cosmopolitan threat, its geographic extent is, with the exception of some countries, poorly known. There have been successes in reducing eutrophication at individual waterbodies in certain countries, notably in areas of Europe where stringent and mandatory regulations on effluent composition and discharge have been in effect for many years. Elsewhere, especially in the arid regions of the southern hemisphere, the problem is burgeoning in developing countries where access to potable water and wastewater disposal servicing are unavailable to many millions of people. The findings of this CYANONET situation assessment support the inference that eutrophication is both widely spread and under-recognised across the World’s freshwater environments. Phase 1 of the CYANONET Project obtained reports from at least 65 countries, throughout Africa, the Americas, Europe, Asia and Australasia, of occurrences of cyanobacterial mass populations. From this it is clear that all reporting countries have experienced or routinely experience cyanobacterial presence in a range of surface waters – and in many cases to a problematical extent. The availability of information is, however, highly variable. With the exception of South America, Africa and parts of Asia, access to scientific and management information and reports are relatively readily available for North America, some parts of Europe, Australia, New Zealand and highly developed parts of Asia. They are far less available in much of Africa and for parts of Latin America and Asia. A minority of countries per continent are relatively well-resourced in terms of cyanobacterial monitoring and awareness. Awareness of the threats
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posed by eutrophication, and its consequences for health and water supply, is limited or non-existent in many developing countries. For example, language, cultural and conflict barriers render communication and information exchange difficult on the African continent. Nonetheless, it may be reliably predicted that most of the, as yet non-reported countries, will confirm the widespread occurrence of cyanobacterial mass population development and associated problems. The presence of cyanotoxins is common to all reporting countries included in this survey. The microcystins are the most commonly reported family of cyanotoxins in all countries. In cases where comprehensive analyses for multiple classes of cyanotoxins have been performed (e.g. in Scandinavia), this may be due to the dominance of these hepatotoxins among the cyanotoxins in the waterbodies of a particular country. The less frequent reporting of cyanobacterial neurotoxins may be due to their lower occurrence in intensively investigated countries. However, it is also likely to be due to limitations in the ability to detect, identify and quantify cyanobacterial neurotoxins. Occurrences of the more recently recognised cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin are reported from countries on all continents. Reported producers of cylindrospermopsin, including some, but not all populations of Cylindrospermopsis and several other cyanobacterial genera, are also available from all continents. This is a developing knowledge field to which CYANONET may be able to contribute in the future via its expanding network. For most countries reporting the detection of cyanotoxins, HPLC forms the mainstay of analytical competence, increasingly augmented by immunoassays (ELISA). More sophisticated methods are also practiced, although only at a limited number of centres of excellence. Globally the availability of monitoring and analytical facilities, appropriately trained personnel and indeed even facilities capable of undertaking reliable cyanobacterial identification and enumeration, is severely under-resourced. The non-reporting of cyanotoxins, unless specifically not found, may in most cases be due to the non-availability of the necessary facilities and skills. Inter-laboratory comparability and validation practices are almost non-existent - this being rendered extremely problematical by the limited availability of laboratory facilities, necessary expertise in cyanobacteriology and cyanotoxin analysis and especially of cyanotoxin standards and reference materials. Reported health impacts caused by cyanotoxins involve humans, animals, birds and fish. Most reports involve domestic and wild animals, with mortalities being extremely common. A considerable number of both lethal and non-lethal effects on animals may go unreported due to a lack of awareness or a commonality in symptomology with better known causes, e.g. tick-induced biliary. The role of cyanotoxins in the mass mortalities of Lesser Flamingos in Africa provides an example of the hazards of the toxins to an endangered wildlife species. Allelopathic effects and impacts occurring at the primary and secondary production levels within aquatic ecosystems are known, but as yet poorly understood. With respect to humans, reports of external (skin, ear and eye) problems, e.g. blistering and dermal irritation, are commonly associated with cyanobacterial blooms in most reporting countries, as are gastroenteric symptoms. Elevated incidences of
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primary liver cancer (PLC) associated with untreated drinking water containing microcystins were reported from China some years ago. The present survey has been informed of a further suspected association between increased elevated PLC and microcystin-exposure in a European country (Serbia). The strength of this association requires further investigation. The only known confirmed case of human mortalities clearly attributable to cyanotoxins has been that reported by Brazil (the 1996 Caruaru incident). However, an unconfirmed report from Kenya documents 100 human deaths at Lake Embu attributed to cyanotoxins. The latter report provides a timely example of the need for the establishment of a communication and support network such as that being envisaged for CYANONET. Reports from Asia, Africa, South America and Australia have documented problems posed by cyanotoxin accumulation in marine and estuarine filter-feeders. Other countries where aquaculture is a major industry have concerns regarding cyanotoxin accumulation in invertebrates and fish tissue, as well as for the associated accumulation of taste and odour compounds (e.g. geosmin) – which renders the marketable product unpalatable. The determination of the precise extent of adverse impacts on human health is limited by the lack of epidemiological investigations across all reporting countries, with a small number of exceptions (principally China and Australia). It is commonly recognised that conducting such investigations on human study groups is constrained by a large number of factors, not least public panic in cases where sustained cyanobacterial blooms are common in drinking water supplies. In other instances, notably from South Africa, confusion is generated by the presence of very high and potentially lethal concentrations of cyanotoxins in unprotected water sources, yet with no recognised evidence of chronic or acute effects in humans and animals consuming the affected water. Negative impacts of cyanobacteria, and in many cases cyanotoxins, on water treatment and supply are common to all reporting countries. Increased costs of raw potable water treatment are incurred by increased levels of process blockages, tastes and odours, and the presence of cyanotoxins. In a minority of countries, this is addressed by additional tertiary treatments (e.g. activated carbon or ozone). Financial costs preclude such retro-management in poorer countries or communities. The majority of affected water resources are partly safeguarded by rudimentary or primary treatment processes with little to no protection against cyanotoxins entering the reticulated supply system. Countries in Africa and South America, where many millions of inhabitants do not have access to safe drinking water are particularly at risk. This problem is exacerbated in the drier regions. On a single country assessment, China experiences a very high degree of water resource impairment. The large-scale use of algicides, including the ecosystem-damaging copper sulphate, continues to be implemented in both some developed and developing countries, whereas such chemicals are legally banned in others. The occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms significantly and increasingly constrains the recreational use and potential of many waterbodies in countries on all continents. In countries such as South Africa, which has an absolute requirement on dams for water supply, eutrophication from polluted return flows has severely limited the overall
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usability of several major storages. The Netherlands and Norway, for example, experience increasing loss of use of recreational waters during the summer months. Temporary closures of waterbodies to recreational activities, with consequent losses to amenity and local economies occur in some countries e.g. in Europe and Australia, where cyanobacterial populations and cyanotoxins are monitored and recreational safety guidelines are applied. A minority of countries have well researched and developed recreational guidelines for cyanobacteria. The availability of management tools and guidelines to reduce cyanotoxin health risks is limited, in the global context, to the information and advice provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and a minority of national policies. Several countries have produced various guidelines and management protocols, but these are variable in validity, content and scope. Some of these are straightforward adoptions of the guidelines derived by the WHO. A minority of countries, e.g. Brazil, have gone further and recently invoked national legislation to limit microcystin concentrations in drinking water. These national regulations are variants of the WHO drinking water (lifetime exposure) guideline value of 1 µg microcystin-LR per litre. In some cases, the legal instruments apply only to the single microcystin variant ‘microcystin-LR’, whereas others apply potentially to the wider range of microcystins. Several express the guideline as encompassing all variants expressed as ‘microcystin-LR equivalents’. Yet other countries, with a relatively high level of expertise in the risk management of cyanotoxins, have not introduced legislation to control their concentration in potable water, but prefer to abide by a guideline-based system. Which of these approaches are the most appropriate in terms of health protection and practicability may become apparent with in the coming years as research on cyanotoxins continues and further practical experience is developed and shared. This assessment has shown that wide differences exist throughout the world in the necessary levels of recognition, knowledge and preparedness to address the problems which cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins present to water availability, amenity, safety and health. There are also major geographical and institutional differences with respect to the availability of required skills, information, experience and technology for transfer. However, there is a high potential for sharing such resources through awareness promotion, education, training, with adaptation to accommodate regional and local characteristics and needs. This approach is distinctly lacking at present and is the central justifying aim for CYANONET. The problems posed by eutrophication and its symptoms are cosmopolitan, and their reduction would clearly be well-served by the development and dissemination of appropriate and internationally-relevant control policies and information resources. At local (country) level there is an identified need for tertiary level specialist training and human resource capacity building. Much of the global knowledge resource on cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin control and risk management is localised within a very small group of individuals, mostly located at universities and research institutes associated with the water industry. This experienced group does not appear to be well-placed for the sustained transfer of knowledge and technology through the attraction of young specialists and scientists - possibly as a consequence of the low level of attention
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devoted to this aspect of water quality management by many governments. This in itself is surprising given the complete dependence of humanity on water supplies for survival.
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RECOMMENDATIONS The CYANONET project on cyanobacteria, cyanotoxins and their impacts has demonstrated so far that there is a wide spectrum of awareness that ranges from countries with a relatively well-developed recognition, through to others with poor or non-existent knowledge and capacity. As can often be the case, those with the greatest need for protection of public health can have the least access to appropriate knowledge, guidance and tools. Within water quality issues, cyanobacterial blooms are often the most obvious manifestation and symptom of eutrophication, which in turn is a result of the relentless and increasing pressure of human population growth. Human expansion and development results in effluent discharge from urban centres, intensive agricultural activity, and industrialisation. The responses from CYANONET participants indicated that they acknowledge that this is an urgent issue for water resource management and public health. There are clear indications that these problems will grow in importance in all continents and states as human development and economic growth continue. It was emphasised that there is an important need to increase awareness and the capacity to manage cyanbacterial and cyanotoxin problems. This can be aided via increased education, training and best practice-sharing, to protect our water resources and to begin to manage the increasing issues of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins more effectively. The CYANONET project provides a vehicle to extend and increase recognition and awareness of the occurrence of cyanobacteria and their toxins, and to make key management tools more widely available to counteract the adverse effects of cyanobacterial mass growths and cyanotoxins. CYANONET has facilitated the establishment of a wider Working Party of National Contacts (NC) reporting to the International Steering Committee (ISC). These communication channels can be extended and used to foster information transfer and uptake. Phase I of the CYANONET Project, the Global Situation Assessment exercise, with input from the NCs and the CYANONET Workshop, have enabled the ISC to identify the following Recommendations and Longer-Term Objectives: 1. Further international network development. Continue to build up the network of NCs. Although the present phase of CYANONET has been wide-reaching in all continents, major gaps exist where toxic cyanobacterial blooms are likely to affect water supplies, but where no information has yet been obtained. However the necessary additional NCs are being identified, providing prospects to increase global situation assessment. Completion of the NC network is also necessary to identify needs and establish effective routes for the dissemination of the future proposed CYANONET outputs for awareness-raising, education, training and technology transfer. 2. Continue data collection, situation assessment and develop information sharing. This should be done via: (a) the developing system of reporting to the ISC by the NC
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network; (b) actively involving NC representatives in two-way communication to provide a forum for building awareness; (c) further development of the CYANONET website as a powerful vehicle and major global resource to address water quality and health problems relating to cyanobacterial bloom and cyanotoxins. 3. Development of guidance materials and management tools. Although some of these resources are currently available via the web, the material is uneven in its coverage, and is often not authoritative or applicable to specific situations and needs. The CYANONET project has the potential capacity to develop and deliver authoritative material, through its access to an expert working group and as part of UNESCO IHP. The recommended tools and materials are:
3a. Material for recognition of cyanobacterial blooms, including photos and photomicrographs of cyanobacteria. This is an important primary source of awareness in the first instance for public and professional users of the website. The collation of this material for the website is already underway with examples for all continents provided by the ISC.
3b.Training course packages for officials in public health, water management, treatment and supply, environmental and conservation agencies, to strengthen awareness and build capacity. CYANONET has strongly identified the need for authoritative materials for training and guidance of technicians, managers and other officials. Packages should be developed with reference to the needs at different levels. Vehicles for delivery should include the CYANONET website, plus guidance manuals and training workshops to be held in regions of highest perceived need.
3c. Development and promotion of generic ‘Alert Level Frameworks’ (ALF) for the management of cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. An ALF is a monitoring and management action-sequence that can be used for a graduated response to the onset and progress of a potentially toxic cyanobacterial bloom. ALFs provide a rational basis for decision-making. Although they are intended to assist in the management of potentially toxic cyanobacterial blooms, the approach of systematic and precautionary monitoring and assessment is applicable to the occurrence and excessive growth of all cyanobacteria. Although the ALF is primarily a generic model for drinking water, it can also been translated for use as a management tool for monitoring cyanobacterial-affected waters for other beneficial water-uses including recreation, aquaculture and agriculture.
3d. Database of current international and national country guidelines, regulations and other management materials. This is an expanding field. The CYANONET website is recommended as a useful site at which to maintain links and a rolling list of these guidelines and regulations, for consultation, comparison and information throughout the world.
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3e. Recommendations and guidelines for consistent sampling and monitoring protocols for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. This should include best practices, be responsive to advances in materials and methods, and most importantly include a range of methods suitable for diverse levels of resources and experience.
3f. Recommendations for requirements and data collection procedures for basic epidemiological investigations involving cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins. This basic guidance would be valuable to allow for early identification of potential public health-related cyanotoxin contamination or poisoning, especially where skills and immediate guidance are not available locally. These principles may be sourced from other standard guidance manuals, with advice to be contributed by medical and public health colleagues.
4. Proposed Phase II of CYANONET project.
4a. The recommendations listed in 1 to 3 above should be addressed in an extension to CYANONET (Phase II.).
4b. Further development of CYANONET website. The current sections
displaying information on Contact Points, Links, Frequently Asked Questions and News should be augmented by information in sections created for a Database (with public and members sub-sections), Gallery of images, and Implementation (subsections: list of experienced researchers and laboratories, management tools, list of global guidelines and legislation, education and training resources and events).
4c. A Second CYANONET Workshop should be convened with an agenda to include: (a) development of training materials at a suitable level for placement on the website, if they cannot be sourced elsewhere. (Advice from training experts for particular target audiences may be required for this component). (b) collation and editing of priority guidance materials identified above for publication by CYANONET on the website.
4d. Liason of CYANONET Phase II activities with UNESCO International Hydrology Programme-VI Themes. The longer-term objectives of CYANONET, with specific reference to cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins, are compatible with the 5 wider Themes of IHP-VI. These (Global Changes and Water Resources; Integrated Watershed and Aquifier Dynamics; Land Habitat Hydrology; Water and society; Water Education and Training) encompass the potential occurrence of cyanobacterial mass populations and cyanotoxins. Close liaison between CYANONET and the IHP-VI Themes is recommended for greater benefits to their complementary objectives especially in the delivery of education and training.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The production of the databases and assessments has been greatly aided by the valuable contributions of the National Contacts throughout all of the Regions in this study. We thank them for their generous co-operation. GAC thanks Fiona Young and Deborah Barnaby (University of Dundee) for their conscientious help throughout the project, and Tomasz Jurczak (University of Lodz) for his effective work in developing and managing the accompanying CYANONET website (www.cyanonet.org). We also thank Prof. Maciej Zalewski (University of Lodz) for help and support.
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