20320140507008

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print),

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online), Volume 5, Issue 7, July (2014), pp. 64-80 © IAEME

64

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER REUSE IN ARID REGIONS - SCOPE FOR

IRRIGATION IN MADURAI CITY

Rajendran, S.M* and Dr. Sekaran, V**

*Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Karpagam University, Coimbatore, TN, India.

**Former Principal, Raja Engineering College, Madurai, TN, India.

ABSTRACT

As water can neither be created nor destroyed, more than 80% of quantity of water used for

domestic purposes appear as wastewater. Increasing water demand due to growing population

coupled with human related activities against the constant water resources solicits attention of the

water managers to think of wastewater as a source of water across the world. Wastewater deserves

recognition as a source of irrigation water in different countries around the world. India becomes

water stress with the per capita available water dropping down below 2000 cubic metre per head per

year. Uneven distribution of water resources from north to south makes water crisis severe in the

states like Tamil Nadu. Available water is shared by different sectors and stiff competition between

sector viz: drinking and irrigation prevails. In India, the total wastewater generation from the urban

towns has been assessed as 38474 MLD. It indicates its potential for reuse in water management.

Wastewater reuse has been in practice at selected locations around the world including India.

Guidelines, clearly explaining the health associated factors, have been developed and prescribed by

the EPA, US and WHO. Sewage treatment plants are installed to treat the sewage by the government

and effluent may be used for indirect and direct reuse purposes. The forecast of the wastewater

generation from Madurai City Corporation indicates the quantity of 162.8 MLD at 2014 and is likely

to be 338.7 MLD in the year 2044. The irrigation potential of wastewater reuse is assessed as 3000

ha with crops like groundnut, maize, millet etc during 2014 and about 6000 ha during 2044. Scope

for utilizing the existing minor irrigation tanks/ponds may be used for storage. Such tanks may also

be useful in polishing the water quality as a result of natural purification. Scope for groundwater

recharge through soil-aquifer treatment is also more.

Keywords: Wastewater Generation, Reuse, Irrigation, SBR Technology.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY (IJCIET)

ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print)

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online)

Volume 5, Issue 7, July (2014), pp. 64-80

© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/ijciet.asp

Journal Impact Factor (2014): 7.9290 (Calculated by GISI)

www.jifactor.com

IJCIET

©IAEME



65

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Environment of the earth is unique in nature. Presence of water (hydrosphere) on the crust of

earth planet keeps the earth as the only live planet in the solar system. Scriptures reveal that all the

living organisms have originated from the water. The total quantity of water available has been

estimated at 1.40 billion cubic kilometre. As per the law of conservation of mass "mass can neither

be created and destroyed", the earth's total water remains constant for millions of years and is going

to be unchanged in the years to come. Appearance of water in the hydrological cycle is in different

forms. Evaporation and condensation process render the water to appear as rainwater, surface water

and groundwater. Out of available water, major portion, 97%, is seen as salty water in the ocean. The

balance 3% is not directly useable. Only about 0.6% of the total water is found as fresh water for the

entire demand. Uneven distribution of water within the countries and the regions within a country is

an another detrimental factor. Water is essentially required for the sectors: Irrigation, Drinking,

Industry, Energy and other purposes. Rain water, surface water (river, lake, pond and dam),

groundwater and sea water are generally considered as the sources of water for the various demands.

Though the water available stands at fixed level, the demand is steadily increasing in lieu of

increasing population coupled with industrialization and growing agricultural food production.

Entire development of a country rests with its water resources. Countries located in the arid

and semi arid regions mostly experience water shortages. Water becomes scarce commodity and

even play a role of deciding the ruling power. Conflicts between countries, states and even at village

level are seen worldwide due to shortages of water. Competition between the sectors is also

pronounced. Forecast indicates the next world war at the cost of water. As the quantity of water

supplied for drinking need becomes wastewater (used water) after use. It is now considered as a

source across the globe for the water management as shown in figure 1. As both industry and

populations continue to increase and freshwater availability decreases, wastewater becomes an

important regional planning variable.

Figure 1: Water resource, use and treatment cycle



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With this in mind, an attempt has been made to analyse the wastewater generation potential

from Madurai City corporation, Tamil Nadu, India and its scope of reuse for the water management

especially for irrigation.

2.0 WATER DEMAND IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU

India with varied climatic conditions and uneven distribution of water sources enters into the

list of water stress countries in the world. In India, the total quantity of water available is assessed as

4200 Billion cubic metre. The water demand for irrigation, drinking, industry, energy and other

purposes for the year 2010, 2025 and 2050 assessed by the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR)

and by National Council for Integrated Water Resources and Development (NCIWRD) is shown in

figure 2 and figure 3 respectively. It is observed from the figures that the demand for all the sectors is

showing increasing trend. The water supply demand for the 498 class I cities is put at 44769 Million

Litre per Day (MLD) while the 410 class II towns demand 3324 MLD of water. So, the total drinking

water demand for the urban area is 48093 MLD. It indicates the wastewater generation potential and

suggests the scope for reuse after required treatment for varied applications. Now-a-days, various

technologies have been developed for the treatment and reclamation of wastewater across the world.

The matter of concern is only the cost.

Figure 2: India's water requirement for various sectors

Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India



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Figure 3: India's water requirement for various sectors

Source: National Council for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCRWD).

Tamil Nadu is the water starving state next to Rajasthan in India. With the 80% of the

geographic area of hard rock, groundwater potential is declining day by day warranting an alternate

choice of source for water. In respect of Tamil Nadu, the total population, as per census 2011, is

721.38 lakh (Rural- 371.89 lakh and Urban - 349.49 lakh). There are 42 class I cities with the same

number of class II towns. The drinking water demand for the class I cities and class II towns is

shown in figure 4. Tamil Nadu accommodates 94614 rural habitations. Out of which 84003

habitations have been supplied with 40 litres per head per day (LPCD) of water. The balance 10611

villages receive at about 20 LPCD. The water demand in the year 2020 has been assessed as 2170

Million Cubic Metre.



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Figure 4: Water supply quantity to the cities in Tamil Nadu

3.0 WASTEWATER REUSE

Wastewater reuse is classified into Indirect reuse and direct reuse. In indirect reuse, reclaimed

water from the used water (wastewater) is discharged into the natural streams, rivers and recharge of

groundwater through aquifer (figure 5). Groundwater augmentation by artificial recharge is also

done. It is sometimes called as Soil aquifer treatment (SAT). Most of the natural purifications taking

place in the river beds are of SAT form. It is reported that the micro-organisms have the tendency to

stick to the solid surfaces when they come across during travel. Based on which the distance between

the water source and any disposal point is mostly suggested to prevent pollution.

Figure 5: Types of wastewater reuse



69

Direct reuse application includes the use of reclaimed water for agricultural, industrial and

residential irrigation. Reclaimed water from the sewage is used for drinking (direct potable use)

purposes (NEWater) in Singapore. Further, the reclaimed water can be used for many other purposes.

Non-irrigation uses for reclaimed water are:

Urban reuse:

Ornamental landscape water features and golf course water features such as ponds and

fountains

Fire protection

Dust control and concrete mixing on construction sites

Vehicle and window washing

Toilet flushing in public, commercial, and industrial buildings

Industrial reuse:

Cooling water

Boiler make-up water

Industrial process water

Intentional indirect potable reuse.

Indirect potable reuse refers the discharge of wastewater into a water body where it is then

knowingly or unknowingly drawn for water supply in the river courses. For an example, many water

sources have been located for the cities lie along the river course of Cauvery in Tamil Nadu, The

effluent from the sewage treatment plants after natural purification (passing through a stream,

channel etc) reaches the river bed. This occurs unintentionally in most of the rivers, as the

downstream water treatment plants use treated water discharged by upstream wastewater treatment

plants.

Wastewater reuse is not of recent origin, but has been in practice across the world since 1912.

Reuse of wastewater for water lawns and supplying to ornamental lakes in golden gate park, San

Francisco, California, USA is an example of early twentieth century. NEWater project, reclamation

of potable water from sewage project, in Singapore has been in operation since 2003. South Africa,

USA, Israel, Australia, India, Singapore, Japan, etc are the countries started extensively practice the

wastewater reuse.

In India, wastewater irrigation is increasingly used for crops such as vegetables, fruits,

cereals, flowers and fodder. Kolkata (formerly known as Calcutta) has a long history of using

wastewater stabilization tanks for aquaculture. An estimated 2.4 t/ha of fish is produced annually in

Kolkata from about 3200 ha of ponds with inflow of about 3 m3/sec. Throughout India, many

industries recycle wastewater to reduce the requirements for freshwater. Thanks to the enforcement

of zero discharge concept. This trend is led by industries in Saurashtra, Gujarat and Chennai.

Vadodara is the third largest city in Gujarat and growing rapidly. At present, water there is used by

three major sectors. Industrial use began in the 1950s and 1960s with oil, chemical and

pharmaceutical plants. It is concentrated in such peri-urban areas as Nandesari, Bajuva, Ranoli and

Makarpura, where a separate effluent channel handles much of the industrial effluent. Domestic

water supply serves a population estimated at about 1.5 million in 2001. A large agricultural area

extends well beyond the peri-urban limits into the rural areas to the southwest of the city. Municipal

sewage is used to grow vegetables, wheat, paddy rice, and flowers along an 80-km stretch of the

rivers Jambuva, Vishwamitri and Dhadar. It is termed as the municipal sewage use area (MSU area).

Effluent is also used for irrigation along a 56.3-km stretch of the Effluent Channel Project (termed as

the ECP area). Area irrigated with treated wastewater in various cities in India is given table 1.



70

Table 1: Area irrigated with wastewater in various cities in India

Sl.No Name of the City Direct use, ha Indirect use, ha

1 Ahmedabad 890

2 Amirstar 1124

3 Bhilai 607

4 Bikner 40

5 Calcutta (Kolkata) 12900

6 Delhi 1214

7 Gwalior 202

8 Hyderabad 110 40500

9 Jamshedpur 113

10 Kanpur 1300

11 Lucknow 150

In Noida, around 69 MLD of treated sewage water is generated each day at the two sewage

treatment plants. It is reported fit for use in construction and irrigation activities. Sequential Batch

Reactor (SBR) technology in two sewage treatment plants has been installed in the city. The levels of

organic pollutants in treated water have gone down and the average level of BOD in water has

become reduced to just about 10 mg per litre. It is planned to use the treated effluent for construction

and irrigation purposes. The Authority currently uses treated wastewater to irrigate some green belts

in the city. Excess water is released in Yamuna river. The move will reduce the burden on

groundwater considerably. Further, it has been proposed to construct an additional STP of 87 MLD

capacity with SBR technology. In Karnataka, Hubli-Dharwad, reuse project is an one of the

examples of wastewater reuse projects. Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sewerage Board sells

treated wastewater to the public sector undertakings for industrial purposes.

Zero discharge wastewater treatment with reuse system is in operation since July 2009 in a

dwelling house at Dindigul, TN. The house accommodates two families having 3 people in each

family. Daily 600 litres of water is being pumped from a borewell by means of 5.0 HP motor coupled

with air compressor and stored in 2 numbers of 300 litres sintex tanks placed on roof. As mixing of

black water and grey water makes the treatment a little complex, Grey water and black water are

collected separately with separate plumbing arrangement. The photographic image of the planter bed

shown below (Photo 1).



71

Photo 1: Grey water treatment and reuse for vegetables

The black water treatment system accommodates a septic tank and a sub surface Constructed

wet land (CW) (reed bed /root zone bed). The size of the septic tank is 3.0 m X 2.40 m. Constructed

wet land has the size of 3.5 m X 0.45 m X 0.60 m with receiving chamber and outlet box.

Wastewater generated from the toilets is passed through Septic tank and CW. The overflow of the

septic tank is connected to the on-site CW

4.0 WASTEWATER GENERATION AND SEWAGE TREATMENT FACILITY AT

MADURAI CITY

4.1 About Madurai

Madurai city corporation is one among the ten metropolitan cities in Tamil Nadu. Having

located at almost in the southern part of the state, it is the city for education and business. City covers

an area of 148.99 square kilo metre. Climate prevailing is arid to semi arid. Rainfall is occasional.

Annual rainfall varies from 547.0 mm to 1264.0 mm against the normal rainfall of 891.50 mm.

Groundwater table level fluctuation during 1991 to 2012 is found to vary between 4.0 metre and

11.10 metre below ground level. The 2011 census population is 15.64 lakh. The population from

1961 to 2011 is tabulated (Table 2) and the projected population for the future by different methods

(arithmetic increase, incremental increase, geometric increase and line of best fit) is shown in figure

6. It is observed that the population has increased to almost three fold over a period of 5 decades. In

addition to urbanization, more and more adjacent areas are merged with the city corporation limit.



72

Table 2: Population of madurai City Corporation

Sl.No Year Population, lakh

1 1961 4.24

2 1971 5.49

3 1981 8.20

4 1991 9.41

5 2001 10.67

6 2011 15.64

The forecast indicates that the population during the year 2044 is more than 30 lakh. It is

almost double the 2011 census population. The present water supply level is more than 100 LPCD

and it is planned to increase to 135 LPCD. Vaigai river is the major source for the city's drinking

water demand. Surrounding area of the city is an agricultural area.

Figure 6: Forecast of population by different methods



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4.2 Wastewater generation

Wastewater quantity generation is generally assumed as 80 % of quantity of water supplied

for drinking purpose. Assuming the per capita rate as 100 litres per head per day, the quantity of

wastewater generation is shown in figure 7.

Figure 7: Wastewater generation in Madurai - present and future

Forecast indicates a wastewater quantity of around 160 MLD and 300 MLD at present and in

2014 and 2044 respectively. Almost a constant quantity of wastewater can be expected from the city

as the drinking water supply has to be consistent.

4.3 Sewage Treatment (Wastewater) Plant Madurai city has 2 numbers of sewage treatment plants located one at Avaniyapuran and an

another at Sakkimangalam. The former has 125 MLD capacity and the later's capacity is 47.50 MLD

totaling to 172.50 MLD. Among various sewage treatment technologies available ( Oxidation ditch,

Activated sludge process, extended aeration(ASP), Up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB),

fluidized aerobic bio reactor(FAB), moving bed bio reactor (MBBR), sequential batch reactor (SBR),

membrane bio reactor (MBR), waste stabilisation ponds, etc, the sewage treatment plant of Madurai



74

employs SBR technology ( otherwise called as C-Tech basins) with necessary primary treatment unit

(screen, grit removal) and disinfection and sludge handling arrangement due to the following

advantages.

�� Less area to install the plant

�� Good efficiency in treatment, like reducing BOD,COD,TSS,etc.

�� Biological nutrient control for total nitrogen

�� No need of secondary treatment.

�� Reducing the treatment time.

�� Total working in Automation so less manpower.

�� Total process take in aerobic method no need of anaerobic no danger.

�� Reduced energy consumption

�� Biological phosphorus control.

Photo 2: Aerial view of Sewage treatment plant with irrigation tank at Madurai



75

Figure 8: Flow diagram sewage treatment process at Madurai

Total city sewage is

collected at MPS (Main

pumping station) Wells

MPS TO STP INLET CHAMBER

SCREENING (fine screen) ALL

FLOTING PARTICALS ARE

REMOVED HERE

GRIT CHAMBER TO

REMOVE FINE

PARTICALS

BIOLOGICAL SELECTOR ZONE

C-TECH TANKS TO REMOVE

BOD,COD,TSS,NH3

TREATED WATER TO

CHLORINETOR SLUDGE TO

CENTRIFUGE HOUSE

DIFFERENT PONDS



76

Table 3: Characteristics of raw Sewage and treated with EPA standard

Sl.No Parameter Raw sewage

( Range )

Treated effluent EPA standard

for reuse

1 Biological oxygen demand

(BOD), mg/L

200-300 Less than 10 30

2 Chemical oxygen demand

(COD),Mg/L

400-500 Less than 100

3 Total suspended solids, mg/L 200-400 Less than 10 30

4 Total Kjedahl Nitrogen, as N,

mg/L

12-15 Less than 10

5 Ammonia Nitrogen as N, mg/L 5-10 Less than 2

6 Total phosphate as (PO4),mg/L 3-5 Less than 2

7 Faecal coliform, Numbers/100

mL

1Million Less than 200 200

8 pH 7.0-9.0 7.9

9 Oil and Grease, mg/L 15-20 Less than 5

The city's sewage is collected through a net work of sewer lines to the main pumping station

(MPS) and then pumped to the inlet chamber at STP. The flow diagram of the treatment system is

depicted in figure 8. Effluent from the STP is collected through pipes to Chlorination tank, After

chlorination, final effluent is conveyed through pipes to the different ponds. The sludge which is

pumped to Centrifuge after adding poly electrolyte wherein sludge is thickened as cakes.

The characteristics of raw sewage and treated effluent with the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) of USA Standard for reuse in agriculture with restricted access irrigation is tabulated

(Table 8). It is observed that the strength of the sewage indicates that it is almost domestic sewage as

the BOD is less than 300 mg/L. No industrial effluent mixing is observed. It may the fact that city

limit does not accommodate any major industries. The treated effluent quality meets the standard set

by EPA and Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB) for restricted access irrigation. The

highly improved characteristics of the treated effluent shows the efficiency of the sewage treatment

technology, ie SBR technology.

Many numbers of small and minor irrigation tanks, ponds and other structures are available

adjacent to the city and the sewage treatment plant. Natural channels prevail to facilitate the

conveyance of effluent to the ponds. Tamil Nadu is known for the ponds (kulam, Kuttai and Oorani)

and irrigation tanks. 3511 tanks are available in Madurai district against the 86746 numbers in Tamil

Nadu. These tanks may be used for storing the effluent from the STP and used for irrigation. Storing

the effluent open to atmosphere may improve the quality of water by way of aeration and natural

settling. Every chance is there to increase the dissolved oxygen level.

4.4 sewage farm Wastewater reuse is not new for the Madurai city corporation. It has two sewage farms. One

is located at Avaniyapuram with an area extend of 385 acres, which is utilized for both solid waste

dumping yard and sewage farm. Guinea grass is grown in 145 acres and the rest is used for solid

waste management. Sakkimangalam sewage farm incorporates 180 acres of land. Photo 3 shows the

guinea grass grown in the farm. Annual revenue earned from the sewage farm on selling fodder is

about Rs.40.00 lakh.



77

Photo 3: Sewage farm with Guinea grass (fodder crop) at Madurai

After wetting the farm, reclaimed water flows into the nearby irrigation tank and stored.

These tanks are dry in most of the months in a year. They receive flow only during north-east

monsoon i.e during October and November.

4.5 Irrigation Potential Mostly groundnut, maize, sorghum, sunflower, etc are cultivated in and around Madurai due

to the climatic conditions and water resources availability. The area may be brought under

wastewater irrigation has been workout considering the daily wastewater generation expected during

2014 and 2044 based on the average crop water need with crop period. The average area which may

be irrigated works out to 3000 ha (Table 4). It doubles in the year 2044. The number of crops can be

grown comes as 4 for beans, 3 for maize and one crop for cotton.

Table 4: Irrigation potential of wastewater generation from Madurai

Cro

p

Cro

p w

ater

nee

d,

mm

Av

erag

e

Cro

p w

ater

nee

d,

m

Cro

p

per

iod,

Day

s

Cro

p w

ater

per

day

,m Area can be

irrigated, ha

Nu

mb

er

of

Cro

ps

2014 2044

Beans 300-500 0.40 83 0.00482 3378 7028 4

Citrus 900-1200 1.05 240 0.00438 3721 7742 1

Cotton 700-1300 1.00 187 0.00535 3044 6334 1

Groundnut 600-700 0.65 120 0.00542 3006 6253 3

Maize 500-800 0.65 95 0.00684 2379 4950 3

Sorghum/

Millet

450-650 0.55 125 0.00440 3700 7698 2

Soya beans 400-700 0.55 143 0.00385 4233 8806 2

Sunflower 600-1000 0.80 142 0.00563 2890 6012 2

Wastewater generation - 162.8 MLD during 2014

- 338.7 MLD during 2044



78

5.0 CONCLUSION

Water drawn from a water resource for domestic purpose appear as wastewater after use. The

three stage treatment viz: primary, secondary and tertiary/advanced treatment render the treated

effluent as a water resource. As the prime concern is given to supply drinking water at even critical

circumstance, the wastewater generation enjoys its consistency/dependability than other natural

water resources like river, etc. Wastewater deserves recognition as a source of irrigation water in

different countries around the world. In India, the total wastewater generation from the urban towns

has been assessed as 38474 MLD. It indicates its potential for reuse in water management.

Wastewater reuse has been in practice at selected locations around the world including India.

Guidelines, clearly explaining the health associated factors, have been developed and prescribed by

the EPA, US and WHO. The forecast of the wastewater generation from Madurai City Corporation

indicates the quantity of 162.8 MLD at 2014 and is likely to be 338.7 MLD in the year 2044.

Madurai city has two wastewater treatment plants with the total capacity of 172.50 MLD. The

irrigation potential of wastewater reuse is assessed as 3000 ha with crops like groundnut, maize,

millet etc during 2014 and about 6000 ha during 2044. 3511 tanks are available in Madurai district

against the 86746 numbers in Tamil Nadu. The existing minor irrigation tanks/ponds may be used for

storage. Storage of effluent in such tanks may also help in improving the water quality as a result of

natural purification. Scope for groundwater recharge through soil-aquifer treatment is also highly

encouraging. Existing sewage farm earn an annual return of Rs.40.00 lakh from selling of fodder

grown.

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