Chapter TwelveChapter Twelve

LeadershipLeadership

Trait TheoryTrait Theory

• Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary byvary by- intelligence- dominance- self-confidence- level of energy and activity- task-relevant knowledge

• Contemporary findings show thatContemporary findings show that- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance- people want their leaders to be credible- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.

Trait Theory (continued)Trait Theory (continued)

• Gender and leadershipGender and leadership- men and women were seen as displaying more

task and social leadership, respectively

- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women

- men and women were equally assertive

- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

Behavioral Styles TheoryBehavioral Styles Theory

• Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior.1. 1. ConsiderationConsideration:: creating mutual respect and trust with followers2. 2. Initiating StructureInitiating Structure:: organizing and defining what group members should be doing

• University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies- one style was employee centered and the other was job centered

• Blake and Mouton’s Managerial GridBlake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people

• Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The

effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader EffectivenessImproving Leader Effectiveness

BehaviorBehavior Recommended Recommended BehaviorsBehaviorsListenListen Intensely listen to what others have to say.

Determine the true cause of performance problems.

ExamineExamine Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved.

AssistAssist Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.

DevelopDevelopExplain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures.

EncourageEncourage Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles.

RecognizeRecognize Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.

House’s Path-Goal Theory Employee CharacteristicsEmployee Characteristics- Locus of control- Task ability- Need for achievement- Experience- Need for clarity

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors- Employee’s task- Authority system- Work group

Leadership StylesLeadership Styles- Directive- Supportive- Participative- Achievement oriented

Employee AttitudesEmployee Attitudes and Behavior and Behavior- Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader- Motivation

Transactional versus Transactional versus Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership

Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership: focuses on the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees

• Transactional LeadersTransactional Leaders- use contingent rewards to motivate employees- exert corrective action only when employees fail to obtain performance goals

Transactional versus Charismatic Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership (continued)Leadership (continued)

Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership:: emphasizes symbolic leader behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests

• Charismatic LeadersCharismatic Leaders- use visionary and inspirational messages- rely on non-verbal communication- appeal to ideological values- attempt to intellectually stimulate employees- display confidence in self and followers- set high performance expectations

• For class discussionFor class discussion:: Should a leader be both transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior executives and not for entry level supervisors or managers?

Charismatic Model of LeadershipCharismatic Model of LeadershipIndividual andOrganizationalCharacteristics

Leaderbehavior

Effects onfollowers andwork groups

Outcomes

• TraitsTraits •Leader establishes a vision

•Increased intrinsic motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit

•Personal commitment to leader and vision

• Organizational Organizational CultureCulture

Charismatic Model of Leadership Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)(cont)

Individual andOrganizationalCharacteristics

Leaderbehavior

Effects onfollowers andwork groups

Outcomes

• Organizational Organizational CultureCulture

•Leader establishes high performance expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision

•Leader models the desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision

•Increased identification with the leader and the collective interests of organizational members

•Increased cohesion among workgroup members

•Increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interests in goal accomplishment

•Increased role modeling of charismatic leadership

•Self-sacrificial behavior

•Organizational commitment

•Task meaningfulness and satisfaction

•Increased individual group, and organizational performance

• TraitsTraits

The Leader-Member Exchange The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Model)(LMX Model)

• This model is based on the idea that one of two This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct types of leader-member exchange distinct types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve, and these exchanges are relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related to important work outcomes.related to important work outcomes.- in-group exchange:in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking- out-group exchange:out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking

• Research supports this modelResearch supports this model

Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

• Substitutes for leadershipSubstitutes for leadership represent situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the effects of leadership.

• Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly influence employee attitudes and performance.

Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

Characteristic

Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Of the SubordinateOf the Subordinate

1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X

2. Need for Independence X X

3. “Professional” orientation X X

4. Indifference toward organizational rewards

X X

Of the TaskOf the Task

5. Unambiguous and Routine X

6. Methodically invariant X

7. Provides its own feedback concerning

accomplishment X

8. Intrinsically satisfying. X

Characteristic

Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary

Of the OrganizationOf the Organization

9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas

of responsibility)

X

10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and

procedures)

X X

11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff

functions

X X

12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups X X

13. Organizational rewards not with the leader’s

control

14. Spatial distance between superior and

subordinate

X

Substitutes for Leadership (cont)Substitutes for Leadership (cont)