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Observation, Measurement and

the Problem of Objectivity in Science

Science, Technology and Society 12T 2011-2012

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The Measurement Activity

• How did you arrive at yourmeasurements?

• What is the experience of measuring theseareas like?

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Objectivity in Science

• Science is an objective enterprise.

• Its objectivity is typified by its method:

 – Gathering information (via direct or indirect

observation, measurement, experiments, etc.) – Organizing information (classifications, measurement

scales, models, theories, etc.)

 – Accounting for phenomena (explanation, prediction,

etc.) – Data enhancement/extrapolation (evidence

confirmation/falsification, hypothesis testing, etc.)

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The Problem of Objectivity in Science

• Is the scientific method itself foolproof?

• Is it really objective? I.e. can the findingsof one scientist really be replicated,independently, by other scientists?

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Consider the case ofdouble-blind tests

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Objectivity and Observation

• Is there objectivity in observation?

• Is observation theory-free?

• Is it subjective?• Is it really a good starting point of scientific

investigations?

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A Negative Answer

• Our expectations, previous experience,training, etc. influence the categories bywhich we observe objects, events,

processes, etc.

• Observation is not objective; it issubjective.

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A Positive Answer

• The theory-independence or neutrality ofobservable facts makes them a suitablefoundation for scientific knowledge, or at

least for testing theories.

• Observation is objective and notsubjective.

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Hanson’s Argument for the

Subjectivity of Observation

• Observation is an experience of seeingthings as  something

• This “as something” is already influenced

by one’s previous experience, expectation,

etc.

• Thus, observation (seeing as) is notobjective per se.

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Consider flies and infants

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Disclaimers

• Of course there is an object observed.

• Of course there are physical effects of thebounce of light from an object to one’s

eyes.

• But observation is not any of these. It is anexperience of seeing objects assomething.

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Scheffler’s argument for the

objectivity of observation

• Observation has a subjective aspect: it involvesa certain sense of conceptualization.

• But conceptualization has two senses:

 – Concepts, general terms, categories, classes,vocabulary, etc.

 – Propositions, statements, hypotheses, body ofassertions, etc.

• Observation is thus objective in the secondsense.

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Observation statements

• “I see a patch of red.” 

• “I smell some fragrance.” 

• “I taste something sweet.” • “I feel something solid.” 

• … 

• These could be judged as true or false.

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Scheffler’s point 

• “Our categorizations and expectations guide byorienting us selectively toward the future; theyset us, in particular, to perceive in certain waysand not in others.” 

• “Yet they do not blind us to the unforeseen. Theyallow us to recognize what fails to match

anticipation, affording us the opportunity toimprove our orientation in response todisharmony.” 

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What do you think?

• Is Hanson right? Is observation reallysubjective (theory-laden)?

• Is Scheffler right? Is observation reallyobjective? Does it start from beingsubjective to being objective?

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Measurement

• Science is objective becausemeasurements can be tested by differentscientists at different times and places.

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Objectivity and Measurement

• How many angles does a triangle have?

• What is the sum of all angles in a triangle?

• How do we double a square?• How do we prove the Pythagorean

theorem?

• All of these have definite answers.

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Pythagorean Theorem

• The square of thehypotenuse of a givenright triangle is equal

to the sum of thesquares of the othertwo sides.

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Doubling the Square

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But is measurement really objective?

• Jones’ Claim: 

 – The process of measuring is fundamentally andirreducibly subjective as the nature of measurementitself.

• The Argument:

 – In measuring anything, we must know what the thingwe are measuring is, the kind of measuring devise

and measuring system to use. – But all the steps in this process already is subjective.

 – Thus, measuring itself is subjective.

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Motivation

• Knowing the thing is seeing the thing asthat thing (Hanson’s case again). 

• The decision to use a ruler, a tape

measure, an atomic measurement, etc.are all tied down to one’s own judgment. 

• The precision of measurement is also

contaminated with one’s own judgment.(How do we measure the closeness of twoobjects? Don’t we use estimates?) 

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Metric or English

• The very measuring system used in measuringlength, width, height, etc. are all brought aboutby non-objective factors.

• Condorcet, in 1795, proposed the metric system.(This is opposition to the English system).

• The use of a universal metric system wasbrought about by a consensus by the late 19th tothe early 20th century.

• UK still uses the English system.

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The Issue

• If measurement itself is subjective (theory-laden), what does this say about its role/sin scientific practice?

 – Is measurement a basis for objectivity? – Is it a “starting point” of scientific inquiry? 

 – Does the reliability of measurement varydepending upon the presumptions that must

be made (such as the measurement scale,the stability of the “object” being measured,etc.)?

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What do you think?

• Is measurement really objective?

• Why or why not?

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Next Meeting

• Scientific Experiments• Per group, bring the following:

 – 9 volt battery – 3 feet thin copper wires

 – 1 3” nail – Paper clips – 1 cup cornstarch – Bowl

 – 1/2 cup water – spoon – pie plate – food coloring