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ENVS 4446 Protected Areas Term Paper

The Impacts and Management of Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

To: Paul Wilkinson

By: Megan Finlay

April 17th 2014

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The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in Australia is the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem. It

supports many different types of species ranging from fish to corals. As one of the Seven Natural

Wonders of the World, the reef was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. The Great Barrier

Reef is managed and protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA).

The reef is located in the Coral Sea, occupying two thirds of the east coast of Queensland,

Australia. The Reef, with its high biodiversity and productivity, prospering warm, clear waters,

has become a popular tourist destination (Gossling, et al., 2008). Providing people with activities

such as fishing, diving, snorkelling, swimming, and other sought after activities, the tourism

significantly impacts the environment and the economy. The Reef also has social implications to

tourists and locals. The Great Barrier Reef is worth approximately $5.1 billion to the Australian

economy, the majority of which is derived from the tourism industry (Baird, 2011). Since the

industry is so large, tourism provides many career and job opportunities. With this significant

contribution to the economy, environmental impacts from tourism are often overlooked. Some of

these impacts include pollution and degradation, boat-induced and human-induced damage to

reef and animals, and wildlife interactions (Harriott, 2002). It is acknowledged that tourist

activities in the Great Barrier Reef can impact the environment’s ecological integrity. These

threats are being addressed by the GBRMPA. This paper discusses the economic and social

impacts with a focus on environmental impacts that tourism on the Great Barrier Reef has and

how the management strategies of the GBRMPA protect the Reef from the tourism industry in an

ecotourism way.

The Great Barrier Reef

The reef has a distance of 2300 km along two thirds of the east coast of Queensland.

Almost all of the marine ecosystem is now included in the park and is approximately 344

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400km2 (Australian Government, 2009). The reef represents 10% of the world’s total coral reef

(Australian Government, 2009).

Coral reefs have high biodiversity and productivity, prospering in warm, clear waters

(Gossling, et al., 2008). In the Reef’s 2900 reefs and 300 coral cays, 1500 species of fish, 400

species of coral, and 6 species of sea turtles are only some examples of the large amount of

species the Reef supports (Baird, 2011). Coral reefs recycle nutrients, provide food, serve as

breeding grounds, protect coastline, and is a habitat to many marine species (Gossling, et al.,

2008). Coral Reefs across the world are susceptible to local and global change.

The park is used for commercial marine tourism, fishing, ports and shipping, recreation,

scientific research, and indigenous traditional use (Australian Government, 2009). Many

activities in the park require a permit, such as tourism, building and operation of structures,

repairs, anchoring or mooring, waste discharge, research, educational programs, and hunting.

There are many activities prohibited in the park. These activities include oil drilling and logging

in the Wet Tropics, the wet tropical forest located in the World Heritage Site on the mainland of

Queensland (Driml, 1996). Other legislation requires control over other conservation of the

natural environment such as fishing laws.

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef

The Reef was placed on the World Heritage List in 1981 because of its outstanding

natural significance. Established in late 1975, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act addressed

conservation and sustainable development to create multiple management strategies. The Act, as

well as the establishment of the park, attempts to manage human activity and stress on the

ecosystem. The management areas in the Marine Park include air space above to a height of

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1000m, subsoil beneath the sea bed to a depth of 1000m, commonwealth owned islands, and all

waters below mean water level mark (Baird, 2011).

Winter season is the most popular time to visit the Reef. Vessels that visit for day trips

can carry anywhere from 10 to 400 passengers. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 85 % of

tourism is focussed on accessible reef areas off Cairns and in the Whitesunday Island region

(Harriott, 2002). Figure 1 demonstrates visitors, in terms of nights and days, and the main

purpose of travel in the GBR catchment. Demonstrated by the figures, we can see that the most

popular purpose of visit is categorized as holiday/leisure, proving how popular the tourism

experience is. GBR tourism industry involves structure based tourism operations, vessel based

tourism operations, extended vessel based tourism operations, bareboat charter, cruise ships,

aircraft based operations, and resort and shore based operations (Harriott, 2002). Figure 2

demonstrates where, in the GBRMP, the number of visitors a day per year visit. Figure 3

demonstrates the distribution of the activities that visitors participate in during the years 2003,

2007, 2008. Figure 4 demonstrates the types of activities that occur in the park. The most popular

activities are swimming, fishing, and motorized boating.

Management for the GBR has been in place since 1975. Tourism is a critical issue

concerning the sustainability of the reef and has been addressed by management systems and

control of touristic activities to minimize their environmental impact. Although extending

throughout the GBR, commercial marine tourism is concentrated in a few intensively managed

areas (Australian Government, 2009). Management works close with the tourism industry

because it contributes a significant amount of money to the economy and also has positive social

impacts. Environmental, economic, and social impacts will be discussed below.

Environmental Impacts of Tourism

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One of the biggest concerns about the reef is the impact that tourism has on the

environment. Since tourism is so popular at the GBR, management of the GBRMPA work

closely with the tourism industry. Research conducted by Shafer and Inglis (2000) found that

visitor satisfaction and enjoyment of the park was tied to the quality of corals and fish. This

creates motivation for the conservation and protection of the reefs and the involved species.

Tourism is a driving force that management struggles to regulate to avoid environmental impact.

No matter how small or large the impacts are, tourism can impact the environment in

many different ways. These ways can be directly and indirectly. The World Wildlife Federation

(WWF) list major environmental threats as unsustainable fishing, pollution, climate change,

coral bleaching and coastal development (WWF, 2002). These are large scale impacts. For

example, climate change is not only due to carbon emissions from touristic activities in Australia

but from carbon emissions from all over the globe. Other environmental issues that were listed

include declining inshore water quality, outbreak of crown of thorns starfish, effects of trawling

on reef benthos, effects of line fishing and threat of oil spills from shipping (Harriott, 2002). In

Harriott’s research paper on marine tourism impacts in the GBR, she states that marine tourism

impacts are coastal tourism development, tourism infrastructure (island and marine based), boat-

induced damage, water-based activities, and wildlife interactions (Harriott, 2002).

Tourism Development

The popularity of the GBR and the amount of visitors it receives each year require

infrastructure. The infrastructure includes accommodations such as hotels and lodges,

transportation, entertainment, accessible roads, and services such as electricity and sewage

(Harriott, 2002). Large scale tourism development could potentially affect the environment

through land degradation and destruction, and water through pollution from waste and runoff.

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The coastal development due to population pressures and the development of the tourism

industry should be reviewed and further monitored so that cumulative social and environmental

impacts are accounted for.

Infrastructure

There are 27 islands that support resorts for tourism in the GBR. The development of a

marina or harbour changes the shape of the coast and water level (Harriott, 2002). Digging and

depositing material for boats can damage and alter the natural state of the marine and land

structure. Other marine based infrastructure include pontoons, moorings, and fish feeding.

Generally, pontoons and other water vehicles are moored in areas with few coral cays, and other

pontoons and infrastructure. Pontoons are generally used for docking boats offshore and

conducting recreational activities such as diving. Pontoons are used to release the pressure that is

put on the coral reef by visitors and structure activity of the visitors. Due to the shade that the

pontoons create, benthic communities that reside under them are impacted (Nelson and

Mapstone, 1998). Pontoon operators are motivated to implement practices to protect the nearby

environment because there are limited areas where pontoons can be stationed and there are high

costs to move them if the reef were to be damaged (Harriott, 2002).

Water based Activities

Boating damage, similar to climate change, cannot be separated from damage by tourism.

Locals boating for recreational and business activity have the potential to cause damage and

pollution as well. Anchoring, although a local impact which does not affect the entire reef, can

cause significant damage (Harriott, 2002). Large numbers of anchoring damage corals and other

benthic organisms from not only dropping the anchor, but also from the movement of the chains

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(Wachenfeld et al, 1998). Boats can also release waste water and litter (Harriott, 2002). Boats or

marine crafts that move at high speed can injure, kill, or disturb wildlife such as dugongs and

turtles (Harriott, 2002)

Scuba diving is a popular tourist and local activity. It is popular for people seeking

interactions with marine animals in the wild. Diving is another water activity that has the

potential to cause significant damage, especially when it is concentrated in one area. Hawkins

and Roberts study, 1992, concluded that diving in a single site caused detectable changes. These

changes were observed in the coral communities and the aesthetics of the reef. Most damages

were to branching corals (Hawkins and Roberts, 1992). Inexperienced and unskilled divers were

the culprits of the damage. Snorkelling, although less studied than diving, appears less likely to

negatively impact the reef (Harriott, 2002). Tourist activities that involve swimming or diving

with free ranging cetacean species are not necessarily supported. For example, the Whale and

Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS) does not support it for two reasons. The first reason is

that it is difficult to ensure that encounters with wild cetaceans take place on the cetacean’s

terms. The second reason is because the safety of the diver cannot be guaranteed (Curtain and

Garrod, 2008).

There are positive benefits of diving when it is in context with conservation. PADI

AWARE, Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education Foundation and the Reef

Environmental Education Foundation, have been established by divers who focus on marine

conservation. They use volunteers to collect information, education on marine ecology, and

issues in marine conservation (Townsend, 2008). Through close encounters, diving with

cetaceans can enhance tourist satisfaction and experience (Curtain and Garrod, 2008).

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Encounters with animals can cause excitement, tranquility, reduction of stress, feeling of inner

harmony,

Wildlife

It is popular for locals and tourists to interact with wildlife. Simple walking tours are

provided to access land wildlife. With marine wildlife, boating adventures are more common. A

popular activity is whale watching. Boats will take passengers to where whales feed, breed, and

migrate. Tours may do the same for fish and turtles. Other tourism opportunities include wildlife

diving. In some cases, participants are dropped off at a reef to explore or dropped off the boat

next to the mammal. Cetaceans, such as whales, can be impacted by large amounts of

concentrated diving (Hawkins and Roberts, 1992). Certain islands and beaches are closed to

visitors so that bird and turtle nesting are not disturbed.

Economic Impacts of Tourism

There are different types of economic costs to marine wildlife parks; direct, indirect, and

opportunity (Cater and Cater, 2008). Direct costs involve the costs of land, development,

maintenance of roads, facilities, or administration costs. Indirect costs reflect the costs that derive

from more negative aspects such as property damage or personal injury. Opportunity costs are

the value of the benefits from the operation of the location and the location’s resources. Coral

reefs not only have a significant environmental value but significant economic value as well. The

GBR contributes a significant amount of money to the Australian economy. This includes

industries such as commercial fishing and tourism. Tourism is the dominant economic activity.

Recorded in 2013, tourism contributes $6 410.6 million by direct expenditure but an added value

of $5 175.6 million of added value (Deloitte, 2013). Figure 5 demonstrates the economic

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contribution to Australia by visitor type. The figure shows us that almost 60% of economic

contribution comes from holiday and leisure activities.

Recreational tourist activities have a significant impact on the added value. Recreation

activities include fishing, boating, sailing, and island visits. These activities impact the economy

through trip related expenditure and equipment. Recreation economic contribution total value

added was approximately $244 million (Deloitte, 2013). This provided 2,758 full time equivalent

(FTE) jobs directly and indirectly (Deloitte, 2013).

Though this does not involve tourism necessarily, commercial fishing and aquaculture are

important industries in Queensland. In 2012, commercial fishing and aquaculture contributed

$160 million to Australia’s added value, 60% of the value generated by catchment (Deloitte,

2013). It also added 975 FTE jobs. The direct economic contribution was estimated to be $92.5

million (Deloitte, 2013). Commercial fishing, if not properly managed, has the potential to

negatively impact species population and indirectly affect the health of the GBR.

Overall, the tourism industry in the Great Barrier Reef creates 64,338 FTE positions,

which help operate the industry. In the Natural Resource Management regions of the Reef,

tourism has declined by 10% in the last five years. Holiday and leisure account for

approximately 50% of the reasons for travel in this area.

Social Impacts of Tourism

As discussed above, tourism in the GBR provides many different job opportunities for

locals. The tourism industry provides 64,338 FTE (Deloitte, 2012). There are other social

impacts that can benefit locals and tourists. For example, wildlife tourism, a touristic activity

with the purpose of observing, studying, or enjoying marine wildlife, can benefit its participants

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(Zeppel and Muloin, 2008). Benefits of marine wildlife tourism have psychological and socio

psychological outcomes and may influence beliefs for non-consumptive or non-destructive of

marine life and anti-whale killing. First-hand experience can create a connection between visitor

and environment.

Management of the Great Barrier Reef

There are many stakeholders that contribute to the protection of the GBR. Two of the main

and powerful stakeholders are the Queensland and Australian governments. Together, the two

governments jointly manage the protected marine area. They have the influence over statutory

instruments such as regulations, zoning plans, plans of management and permits, and non-

statutory instruments such as policies (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014). They

also have partnerships with other management associations, education programs, and

communities. According to the Strategic Assessment report, the GBRMPA current management

goals are to ensure “The long term protection, ecologically sustainable use, understanding and

enjoyment of the Great Barrier Reef for all Australians and the international community through

the care and development of the Marine Park.” According to the Strategic Assessment Report,

the objective of management includes the following.

1. Ensure long term protection and conservation of environment and biodiversity of the Park

and ensure its sustainability to future generations.

2. Allow sustainable use of the reef as long as it supports or does not diminish the previous

goal.

(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Strategic Assessment Report, 2014)

To achieve these extensive goals, the two governments have committed to the following.

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1. Prohibit activities that will result in the recovery of minerals or petroleum. These

activities include drilling and mining in the area.

2. Continue to follow management arrangements.

3. Halt and reverse watery quality decline.

4. Maximize ecosystem resilience

5. Address significant threats the health and biodiversity in the GBR ecosystem

6. Ensure Indigenous traditional cultural practices continue to be recognized

7. Periodically review the condition of the Reef

(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Strategic Assessment Report, 2014)

Claiming to be one of the world’s best managed marine protected areas in the world, the

GBRMPA uses different tools to mitigate the impacts of tourism on the environment so that they

can “maintain the diversity, integrity, and productivity of the Reef.” (Colliers International, n.d).

Management of the park requires “fair and equitable access and use” between and within

industries (Colliers International, n.d). To manage tourism in the GBRMP, there is a mix of

many different instruments. These instruments include legislation, Zoning Plans, Plans of

Management, permits, best practice codes of conduct, and policies (Colliers International, n.d).

Although these are strong instruments, there is potential for even stronger integrated instruments

to better manage the park. Description of the instruments follow:

Management Plans

The increase in tourism in specific sites has created the need for management plans (Driml,

1996). Management plans provide more control between zoning plans and permits. Developed

for individual reefs or islands, management plans can identify the allowed number of visitors and

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particular activities or uses of certain sites (Driml, 1996). Management of the park is divided into

4 areas; Far Northern, Cairns and Cooktown, Townsville and Whitesundays, and Mackay and

Capricorn (Baird, 2011). Plans of management have been considered a weakness according to

the GBR Strategic Assessment Report. It is considered a weakness because of the inconsistency

across jurisdictions.

Zoning

Established under the Marine Park Act in 2003, the park is further broken into zoning

plans. Zoning plans define what activity can occur in specific locations (Colliers International,

n.d)(Australian Government, 2013). This has the potential to protect the environment and

separate activities and uses. Required by zoning plans, all tourism operators have a permit to

operate in the marine park (Colliers International, n.d).

Zoning plans have proven to be beneficial, in particular with coral trout. Coral trout has

been a popular target for line fishing and has sustained a fast recovery in numbers and physical

size (Dobbs, et al., 2010). This recovery pattern is reflected across the entire reef mostly because

of ‘no-take’ zones in the GBR. No-take areas cover 32% of the GRB (Dobbs, et al., 2010). Reef

sharks have also benefitted from ‘no-entry’ zones. Compared to traffic areas, reef sharks were 30

times more abundant in no entry zones. Figure 6 demonstrates the number of sharks per hectare

in different zoning planned areas. No take areas support and protect the ecological and, therefore,

economic significance. Crown of thorn starfish, a major threat to the health of the coral reef, is

3.75 times lower in no take zones (Dobbs, et al., 2010). Benefits of a zone may spread to all

zones due to ecological connectivity between these areas. This also applies for negative impacts.

Permits

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Permits are another principle tool for the management of the GBR (Harriott, 2002). All

tourist operators are required to have a permit. Permits control what activities can occur where,

how many visitors are allowed on a certain site, and the conditions under which the tourist

operator operates (Driml, 1996). Permits are also required for activities such as anchoring and

fishing and usually cost money to obtain. The increase of tourism operators and the demand for

permits have made permits a more complex issue (Colliers International, n.d.). According to the

GBR Strategic Assessment Report, permits are considered a weakness. Permits are evaluated

case by case and with a limited understanding of the collective use of permits. The Strategic

report discusses how operators with permits may still lack knowledge of zoning plans,

management plans, and codes of best practice (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014).

Volunteer

Some marine management strategies are done through volunteer programs. High

Standard Tourism Operators operate with higher standards than required by legislation

(GBRMPA.gov, n.d). This certification comes from the ECO Certification Program. Reward for

this certification is an extension of tourism program permits. Eyes and Ears Incident Reporting

Program is another program that tourist operators or the general public can take part in. It is as

simple as filling out an incident report form so that the authority can follow up on the reported

incident. There are also volunteer codes of best practice and educational programs.

Recommendations Moving Forward

Despite the efforts and management strategies that the GBRMPA has made, the question

of sustainable tourism still stands. Can reef based nature tourism bring visitors into contact with

a living natural system without harming the environment? For sustainable tourism to occur,

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tourism and the conservation of the environment must be compatible and tourism must continue

to have a steady or increasing stream of economic benefits (Driml, 1996). Driml discusses in her

paper that the facilities and activities that are associated with tourism in the reef can damage the

reef in a variety of ways, many of which have already been discussed. In her paper, it is noted

that the impacts that are observed involve solutions such as investment in technology or

operational activities to avoid impact, such as prohibiting fish feeding.

Some of the environmental impacts from tourism are being addressed. For example,

moorings reduce anchor damage (Harriott, 2002). The GBRMPA provide public moorings and

require permits for private moorings in heavily used sites. The GBRMP also has designated ‘no

anchoring’ and ‘limited anchoring’ areas to limit anchoring away from coral and ‘at risk’ areas.

Zoning plans such that limit activity or anchoring have proven successful.

Social marketing may be a beneficial way to change tourist’s outlook and behavior in the

GBRMP. This type of marketing could potentially motivate ecological integrity while

maintaining tourist engagement and experience. Social marketing’s challenge is changing long-

term behaviour of tourists and even locals in the GBRMP. The GBRMPA uses social marketing

but might benefit more if they invested more time and effort into it. Some examples of social

marketing include codes of practice, education and interpretative programs, volunteer programs.

A way to reduce damaged coral from divers, the GBRMPA adopted ‘a code of practice’

(Harriott, 2002). This recommends different strategies to help prevent damage such as

establishing buoyancy over sandy areas. Snorkel trails that restrict impact of snorkelers to small

areas have also been proposed (Harriott, 2002).

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In Environmental Interpretation in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park; An Assessment

of Programme Effectiveness, Elizabeth Madin believes that interpretive programmes are a

significant strategy in achieving ecotourism conservation objectives. Interpretation involves

educational, illustrative activity that educates the visitor of the relationships and connections of

the systems and resources through first hand experiences. This creates a combination of

knowledge and first-hand experience which is aimed to influence tourist behaviours, attitudes,

and values (Madin, 2004). The aim of this education is to influence or change the participant’s

knowledge so that they would, ideally, change their behaviour in the area. The GBRMPA has

created some interpretative programs that educate the tourist on the relationships and systems of

the marine ecosystem.

In Driml’s paper, it is recommended that the tourism industry in the GBR stays localized.

This limits and controls the amount of activity and road use. A realistic approach to managing

the reef is to concentrate on avoiding negative impacts (Driml, 1996). This is possible through

the use of environmental impact assessment, adoption of avoidance techniques, and minimum

impact technologies (Driml, 1996).

Strategic Assessment Report recommends improvements to the Authority’s management.

The success of the GBRMPA management arrangements were evaluated using the International

Union for Conservation of Nature World Commission on Protected Areas framework (Great

Barrier Reef Marine Authority, 2014). Recommendations include improve recognition and

identification of the elements that are of significance to the natural environment, adapting

climate change, and supporting protection and restoration techniques to strengthen resilience

(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014). In regards to tourism, the report recognizes

the GBRMPA of its close, effective relationships between the tourism industry, the government,

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and the community, and recommends that the strong relationships continue. The report also

recommends that tourism management arrangements should become the same in all jurisdictions,

improve the tourism industry’s education and understanding of the Reef and its value, and

improve infrastructure, planning, and operation (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,

2014). The last recommendation the report makes in regards to tourism and recreation is to make

the benefits derived from tourism experience more clearly to participants in the industry.

Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park has a significant impact on the social and

economic aspects of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef catchment. The Great Barrier Reef is

worth approximately $5.1 billion to the Australian economy, and the majority of the wealth

comes from the tourism industry (Baird, 2011). Since the industry is so large, tourism provides

many career and job opportunities as well as psychological and socio psychological experiences.

Although it creates many positive impacts in these sections, it creates negative impacts to the

environment. These negative impacts require special attention and management in order to

mitigate and eliminate them. The tourism industry impact pollution and degradation, boat-

induced and human –induced damage to reef and animals, and wildlife interactions. These

impacts are generally localised compared to the large magnitude of other environmental concerns

such as global warming. The increases and pressure from tourism development puts pressure on

the environment. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority works closely with the tourism

industry so that these negative impacts are minimal or eliminated so that the Reef can continue to

be enjoyed and utilized in a sustainable manner. Zoning plans, management plans, permits,

volunteer and education instruments are used to manage the Reef. These management tools have

encouraging results and many successful results. With these plans, there are also other solutions

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to help sustain the Great Barrier Reef. Social Marketing strategies such as education and

interpretative programs would benefit the tourist’s experience and tourist operator strategies.

This also encourages its participants to minimize their impacts for conservation. Localizing the

Reef will help localize any impact the tourism industry has on the environment. The Strategic

Assessment Report also highlights that management strategies should be the same in all

jurisdictions. It is important to Australia to manage sustainable tourism so that the Great Barrier

Reef remains healthy so that it can continue to support the Australian economy. It is also

important to keep healthy because it is one of the largest coral reef ecosystem in the world and

supports high levels of biodiversity.

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References

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Baird, D. (2011) Tourism and the Great Barrier Reef. Retreived from

http://iwlearn.net/abt_iwlearn/events/conferences/iwc5/iwc5_presentations/

iwc5_sponsor_quicksilver.pdf

Cater C., Cater E. (2008). The Economic Impacts of Marine Wildlife Tourism. In J. Higham and

M. Luck (Eds.), Marine Wildlife and Tourism Management (145-162). Cambridge MA,

United States: Cabi.

Colliers International.Protecting paradise: Managing tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park. (n.d.). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from

http://www.colliers.com/-/media/files/emea/uk/research/destination-consulting/managing-

tourism-in-the-great-barrier-reef.pdf

Curtain, S and Garrod, B. (2008). VulnerabilityofMarin Mammals to Diving Tourism Activities.

In New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability,

Management (pp. 139-152). Oxford: Elsevier

Deloitte. (2013). “Economic Contribution of the Great Barrier Reef.” Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park Authority. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a3ef2e3f-37fc-

4c6f-ab1b-3b54ffc3f449/files/gbr-economic-contribution.pdf

Dobbs, K., Day, J., Skeat, H., Baldwin, J., Molloy, F., Mccook, L., . . . Kenchington, R. (2010).

Developing a long-term outlook for the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: A framework for

adaptive management reporting underpinning an ecosystem-based management

approach. Marine Policy, 233-240.

Driml, S., & Common, M. (1996). Ecological economics criteria for sustainable tourism:

Application to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas,

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Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2012). Great Barrier Reef Region Strategic

Assessment, Australia.

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Gossling, S., et al. (2008). Diving and Global Environmental Change: A Mauritius Case Study.

In New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability,

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Harriott, VJ. 2002. Marine tourism impacts and their management on the Great Barrier Reef.

CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No 46. CRC Reef Research Centre,

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Hawkins JP, Roberts CM 1992. Effects of recreational SCUBA diving on fore-reef slope

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Nelson VM, Mapstone BD. 1998. A review of environmental impact monitoring of pontoon

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Technical Report No. 13, CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville. 85 pp.

Shafer CS, Inglis GJ. 2000. Influence of social, biophysical, and managerial conditions on

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Environmental Management. 26: 73-87.

Townsend, C. (2008). Dive Tourism, Sustainable Tourism and Social Responsibility: A Growing

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Wachenfeld, DR., Oliver, JK., Morrissey, JI. 1998. State of the Great Barrier Reef World

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Working together today for a healthier Reef tomorrow... (n.d.). Retrieved March 30, 2015, from

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Zeppel and Muloin. (2008). Marine Wildlife Tours: Benefits for Participants. In J. Higham and

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United States: Cabi.

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Figures

Figure 1

Deloitte. (2013). “Economic Contribution of the Great Barrier Reef.” Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park Authority.. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a3ef2e3f-37fc-

4c6f-ab1b-3b54ffc3f449/files/gbr-economic-contribution.pdf

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Figure 2

Australian Government. (2009). Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009. Published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.

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Figure 3

Australian Government. (2009). Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009. Published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.

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Figure 4

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2012). Great Barrier Reef Region Strategic Assessment, Australia.

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Figure 5

Deloitte. (2013). “Economic Contribution of the Great Barrier Reef.” Great Barrier Reef Marine

Park Authority.. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a3ef2e3f-37fc-

4c6f-ab1b-3b54ffc3f449/files/gbr-economic-contribution.pdf

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Figure 6

Dobbs, K., Day, J., Skeat, H., Baldwin, J., Molloy, F., Mccook, L., . . . Kenchington, R. (2010).

Developing a long-term outlook for the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: A framework for

adaptive management reporting underpinning an ecosystem-based management

approach. Marine Policy, 233-240.