45498957 Home Automation

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DTMF BASED HOME AUTOMATION SYSTEM

CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page No.

1. ABSTRACT2. INTRODUCTION3. BLOCK DIAGRAM4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM6. COMPONENT DESCRIPTION7. RESULT AND CONCLUSION8. FUTURESCOPE9. BIBLIOGRAPHY


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ABSTRACT:

In this design, we present a Home Automation System using telephone lines. The system consistsof two subsystems. One is the Remote Control system. The other one is the Phone Monitoring

system. The Remote Control system used the Dual Tone Multi-frequency signals to control the

operations of various appliances. The hardware and software are designed based on the standard

telephone system. The Phone Monitoring system provides convenient services for the user tobetter monitoring the usage of their phones. Experimental results show that the two subsystems

provide better home services and living quality for modern lives.

INTRODUCTION

Most often, the users would like to have remote control on some preliminary operationsof their home appliances before they go back to home. These operations may be the turn on or

off the air conditioner, the cooker, the light, the video, or the security system, or even some

things that he or she forgot to do before leaving, etc. It will be comfortable and convenient for

people to live in such a modern house with the above functions. Besides, phone is an important

bridge of two parties. Sometimes it is important to keep the information of conversations toprotect the family. In this case, it is useful to have extra functions to monitor the usage of

phones. These functions include automatic warning and recording.The above needs bring up the idea of Home Automation in modern lives. That includes

two major parts. One is the RC (Remote Control) system. The other is the PM (Phone

Monitoring) system. Both applications introduced, were designed based on the standardtelephone system. This means that the above systems can be installed for public use widely. Both

systems were designed based on the DTMF (Dual Tone Multi-frequency) signals that are

produced by the telephone system. The DTMF signals were sent from the user end to the

destination end. The RC system detects the number of phone ring and a set of defined codes todetermine if a remote control signal has been sent out to control the operation of target appliance.

If the control signal is confirmed by the system, the system will send out a control signal toinitiate the operation of the appliance.

The PM system will send out a warning signal and automatically record the content of the

Conversation if it detects an in or out call of the phone. In this design, we will discuss the design

of the Home Automation system using a standard DTMF phone system.

The code is written in assembly language in AT89c2051 microcontroller and is compiledthrough the compiler Kiel software.


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BLOCK DIAGRAM


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The supply taken for the kit is 9v battery. This 9v is given to voltage regulator to regulate

9v to 5v. This is done because the supply required for the microcontroller is only 5v. The design

mainly consists of two sections. They are transmitter and receiver section. The two phones act as

transmitter and receiver itself. But the receiver section consists of processing section also, i.e.,

the processing switching on a particular device as per the instruction given.

The DTMF in both the phones is the heart of the circuit. Each key has some built in

frequency on which they operate. Here in this design only ON/OFF of two appliances are shown.

Every phone has both encoder and decoder. The encoder in the transmitter section sends the data

to the decoder in the receiving phone. This data is given to the opto isolator. Every opto isolator

works on a specified frequency. Optic isolation unit shown in Figure 5 has been designed to

detect number of rings. When the input of the circuit is exited by high amplitude sinusoidal ring

signal, 0-5 V square wave signal appears at the output port. The output port of the optic isolation

circuit is connected to RA0 pin of the PIC based microcontroller. 16 pulses appear at the output

for every ring. PIC based controller counts the pulses to determine the number of rings. When

the number of rings specified is reached, the controller opens the telephone line. For example,

controller counts 128 pulses for 8 rings. 4N25 opto-coupler integrated circuit provides the optic

isolation between the controller circuit and telephone line. When the frequency is matched the

isolator sends the data to the microcontroller. The microcontroller reads the data first and

according to the command given to it, it will give the required output. This output is passed

through the hex inverter IC. This will make ON the required appliance.

The whole working depends on the key pressed as well as the command given to the

micro controller. In this way the DTMF based home automation works. Here totally we can

operate 12 appliances.


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COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

Crystal Oscillators

One of the most important features of an oscillator is its Frequency Stability, or in other words itsability to provide a constant frequency output under varying conditions. Some of the factors that

affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature, variations in the load and

changes in the power supply. Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the

proper selection of the components used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifierbut there is a limit to the stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits. For

very high stability a quartz crystal is generally used as the frequency determining device to

produce other types of oscillator circuit known generally as Crystal Oscillators.

When a voltage source is applied to a small thin piece of crystal quartz, it begins to change shape

producing a characteristic known as the Piezo-electric Effect. This piezo-electric effect is theproperty of a crystal by which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the

shape of the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to the crystal produces anelectrical charge. Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as transducers as they convertenergy of one kind into energy of another. This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical

vibrations or oscillations which are used to replace the LC tank circuit and can be seen in many

different types of crystal substances with the most important of these for electronic circuits being

the quartz minerals because of their greater mechanical strength.

The quartz crystal used in Crystal Oscillators is a very small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz

with the two parallel surfaces metalized to make the electrical connections. The physical size andthickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final frequency of

oscillations and is called the crystals "characteristic frequency". Then once cut and shaped the

crystal can not be used at any other frequency. The crystals characteristic or resonant frequencyis inversely proportional to its physical thickness between the two metalized surfaces. A

mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by an equivalent electrical circuit consisting of

low Resistance, large Inductance and small Capacitance as shown below.


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Quartz Crystal

A quartz crystal has a resonant frequency similar to that of a electrically tuned tank circuit butwith a much higher Q factor due to its low resistance, with typical frequencies ranging from

4kHz to 10MHz. The cut of the crystal also determines how it will behave as some crystals will

vibrate at more than one frequency. Also, if the crystal is not of a parallel or uniform thickness ithave two or more resonant frequencies having both a fundamental frequency and harmonics such

as second or third harmonics. However, usually the fundamental frequency is more stronger or

pronounced than the others and this is the one used. The equivalent circuit above has threereactive components and there are two resonant frequencies, the lowest is a series type frequency

and the highest a parallel type resonant frequency.

We have seen in the previous tutorials, that an amplifier circuit will oscillate if it has a loop gain

greater or equal to 1 and it has positive feedback. In a Crystal Oscillator circuit the oscillator

will oscillate at the crystals fundamental series resonant frequency as the crystal always wants tooscillate when a voltage source is applied to it. However, it is also possible to "tune" a crystal

oscillator to any even harmonic of the fundamental frequency, (2nd, 4th, 8th etc.) and these are

known generally as Harmonic Oscillators while Overtone Oscillators vibrate at odd multiples

of the fundamental frequency, 3rd, 5th, 11th etc). Generally, crystal oscillators that operate atovertone frequencies do so using their series resonant frequency.


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TRIAC

INTRODUCTION

Approvals in their outer aspect, SCR and TRIAC are resembled like many water drops. To

distinguish them, therefore, is impossible, if it is not rerun to the exact acknowledgment of theacronym and to the ritrovamento of this on a common prontuario. But the acronyms, today

attributed to these semiconductors, are many, too many for being collections all in a handbook

modernized to the capacity of the amateurs. Which, often, during their activity, are found in

embarrassment, because, ignoring the characteristic electrical workers, they cannot lead those

tests that serve to identify the components and to know their state of efficiency. Here because the

idea is risen us to conceive a simple circuit, of immediate realization, absolutely economic, to

entrust our hobbyist readers, with which they can distinguish, with a sure rapidity, a SCR from a

TRIAC, estimating some, at the same time, the behavior electrical worker, is worth to say the

validity works them. But since the principle of operation of the device is based on the use, from

part of the SCR, of average cycle of the alternated voltage, while the TRIAC works with theentire cycle of the same voltage, alla presentation of the apparatus must make to precede those

theoretical slight knowledge that regulates the way to behave itself of these particular diode , that

by now all know and whose employment is often from we prescribed for the construction of the

many plans that, month for month, come publishes to you on this periodical.

SCR: STRUCTURES and SYMBOLS

Known also under the name of controlled diode, the SCR inner is composed from three P-N

splices, that they form a semiconductor of P-N-P-N type, similar to two normal diode connectsto you in series. They finishes relative to the anode makes head more external the P

semiconductor, while the cathode remains connected with the N semiconductor situated in the

opposite part. A1 according to field of P material is connected the representative electrode of the

gate ones, said also "door". The symbol electrical worker, that it characterizes diode SCR, is that

one represented in figure 1, while the outer aspect more common than this semiconductor it can

be identified with one of the graphical expressions brought back in figure 2.

DIODE


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Fig. 1 - Symbol electrical worker of diode SCR, famous also with the denomination of controlled

diode. With the G letter it comes indicated the electrode of gate, or door, through which it comes

applied to the component the voltage impulse that of it provokes the conduction (primes). With

the letter To the electrode of anode is marked and with the K that one of cathode.

Fig. 2 - These are the two types of diode SCR (silicon-controlled-rectifier) more commonly

findable in commerce and mainly it uses you from the amateurs.

Operation of the SCR

Applying to the anode of the SCR a negative voltage regarding the cathode, some conduction is

not obtained electrical worker, therefore as it happens in a common semiconductor diode . The

SCR can therefore be assimilated to an open switch. Inverting the polarity of the voltage, the

SCR contrarily remains still blocked to how much happens in a normal diode , in which

conduction would be had electrical worker; but the block remains until does not arrive on gate a

positive impulse regarding the cathode, of such amplitude to put the diode controlled in

complete conduction. And this commutation happens in a extremely short time, of the order of

0,5 us. As it can immediately be deduced, this time is the much short one than that one

demanded from the analogous electromechanical systems. Once primed, the SCR remains

conductor without need of some voltage of commando on the gate. conserving this condition also

when on the gate ones they come applies new impulses to you of commando. For turning off theSCR, that is in order to bring back it to the state of interdiction, two exist arrange: the voltage

between anode can be reduced to zero and cathode, or the anode regarding the cathode can be

made to become negative. In this case the alternated voltage is revealed much useful, because it

passes for the zero when it inverts the own polarity to every semi period. In figure 5 light bulb to

filament in alternating current is introduced the example of a according to electronic interrupting

SCR in a circuit of feeding of one. We see of it hour the behavior theoretical.


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Fig. 3 - Theoretical circuit of application of a according to interrupting diode SCR, closed

or open, of ignition of lamp LP.

In absence of it marks them on the gate ones, the SCR is behaved like a opened switch, that is it

does not lead current and lamp LP remains extinguished. But when an impulse of voltage to

every half-cycle of the alternated voltage is applied, the switch closes itself and lamp LP isignited. Not however in the full load of its brightness, because the SCR is behaved like a normal

diode in series to the circuit, that it straightens the alternated voltage. In practical, the ignition of

the lamp is reduced to 50%. In figure 6 the new condition is illustrated electrical worker of the

circuit of figure 5, in which I SCR transforms in a diode rectifier of the alternated voltage.

Fig. 4 - The diode SCR, connected in series with a conductor covered from alternating

current, is behaved like a rectifying element, leaving via free the passage of the sun positive

semi-waves.

OPERATION OF THE TRIAC

In figure 7 the theoretical application of a TRIAC, analogous is brought back to that one of the

SCR of figure 5.


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Fig. 5 - Example of employment of a TRIAC, as electronic switch, in a circuit of ignition of

one lamp fed in alternating current (C.A).

In absence of tension impulse that in this case, with the exception of how much it happens in the

SCR can be is positive that negative, the TRIAC does not lead, that is is behaved as an open

switch and lamp LP remains extinguished. Applying instead one small tension, positive ornegative, on the gate ones, the TRIAC becomes conductor and is equivalent to a closed switch.

But this time the semiconductor lets to cross from both the semi waves of the alternated tension,

as it indicates the design of figure 8.

Fig. 6 - Since in the TRIAC two diode are contained connect to you in ant parallel, all the

semi waves, those positive ones and those negatives of the alternating current cross the

semiconductor.

And that because the inner structure of the TRIAC is correspondent to that one of two

diode SCR connects to you in parallel, with the polarity opposite. in ant parallel. but with the

electrode of I prime in common.

We have said that the TRIAC can be primed applying a tension impulse on its gate ones. But this

auto innesca component when the value of the tension alternated applied on the two anodes

exceeds a sure limit, called tension of breakdown. Making then to diminish the current and to

increase the cargo resistance of the TRIAC, a point is caught up in which the current it is not

more in a position to maintaining in conduction the semiconductor.

The minimal value of the current that can maintain primed the TRIAC comes commonly

indicated like current of Hold, that is maintenance current.

**DATASHEET**BT136


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3. ULN 2003In electronics, the Darlington transistor (often called a Darlington pair) is a compound

structure consisting of two bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected

in such a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by the second

one. This configuration gives a much higher current gain (written , hfe, or hFE) than each

transistor taken separately and, in the case of integrated devices, can take less space than two

individual transistors because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come

packaged in transistor-like packages.

A Darlington pair can be sensitive enough to respond to the current passed by skin contact even

at safe voltages. Thus it can form the input stage of a touch-sensitive switch.

The datasheet of this transistor is as shown below.

**DATASHEET**


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DTMF:

Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) is used for telecommunication signaling overanalog telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone handsets and other

communications devices and the switching center. The version of DTMF used for push-button

telephone tone dialing is known as Touch-Tone, first used by AT&T in commerce as a registeredtrademark, and is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. It is also known in the UK asMF4.

Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network.

Multifrequency signaling

Prior to the development of DTMF, telephone systems employed pulse dialing (Dial Pulse or DPin the U.S.) or loop disconnect (LD) signaling to dial numbers. It functions by rapidly

disconnecting and re-connecting the calling party's telephone line, similar to flicking a light

switch on and off. The repeated interruptions of the line, as the dial spins, sounds like a series of

clicks. The exchange equipment counts these dial pulses to determine the dialed number. Loopdisconnect range was restricted by telegraphic distortion and other technical problems, and

placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance (operators used an earlier

kind ofmulti-frequency dial) or the provision ofsubscriber trunk dialing equipment.

Multifrequency signaling (see also MF) is a group of signaling methods, that use a mixture of

two pure tone (pure sine wave) sounds. Various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell

System and CCITT. The earliest of these were for in-band signaling between switching centers,where long-distance telephone operators used a 16-digit keypad to type the next portion of the

destination telephone number in order to contact the next downstream long-distance telephoneoperator. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost

effectiveness. Based on this prior success with using MF by specialists to establish long-distance

telephone calls,Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling was developed for the consumer to

signal their own telephone-call's destination telephone number instead of talking to a telephoneoperator.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_dialinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_trunk_dialinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R2_signalling#MF_toneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCITThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_operatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keypadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_callhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_callhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keypadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_operatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-distancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCITThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R2_signalling#MF_toneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscriber_trunk_dialinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calling_partyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_dialing


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Due to DTMF over analog telephone lines in the voice-frequency band between telephone

handsets and other communications-terminating devices and the switching center, the previouslysemi automated system that needed human intervention from a telephone operator, who then

dialed a sequence of MF digits that were then routed and switched via automation. AT&Ts

Compatibility Bulletin No. 105, AT&T described the product as "a method for pushbutton

signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path ." In order to prevent using aconsumer telephone to interfere with the MF-based routing and switching between telephone

switching centers, DTMF's frequencies differ from all of the pre-existing MF signaling protocols

between switching centers: MF/R1, R2, CCS4, CCS5, and others that were later replaced by SS7digital signaling. DTMF as used for push-button telephone tone dialing was known throughout

the Bell System by the trademarkTouch-Tone. This term was first used by AT&T in commerce

on December 1, 1960 and then was introduced to the public on November 18, 1963. It wasAT&T's registered trademark from September 4, 1962 to March 13, 1984, and is standardized by

ITU-T Recommendation Q.23. It is also known in the UK asMF4.

Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature Tone dialing or

DTMF, or used their own registered trade names such as theDigi tone of Northern Electric, nowknown as Nortel Networks.

The DTMF system uses eight different frequency signals transmitted in pairs to represent sixteen

different numbers, symbols and letters - as detailed below.

As a method ofin-band signaling, DTMF tones were also used by cable television broadcasters

to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks forthe benefit of cable companies. Until better out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in

the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged, and loud DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the

commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere.

The engineers had envisioned phones being used to access computers, and surveyed a number of

companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the number sign

(#, sometimes called 'octothorpe' or 'pound' in this context - 'hash' or 'gate' in the UK) andasteriskor "star" (*) keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection: A, B, C and D. In the

end, the lettered keys were dropped from most phones, and it was many years before these keys

became widely used for vertical service codes such as *67 in the United States and Canada tosuppress caller ID.

Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from

the magnetic strip.

The U.S. military also used the letters, relabeled, in their now defunct Autovon phone system.Here they were used before dialing the phone in order to give some calls priority, cutting in over

existing calls if need be. The idea was to allow important traffic to get through every time. The

levels of priority available were Flash Override (A), Flash (B), Immediate (C), and Priority (D),with Flash Override being the highest priority. Pressing one of these keys gave your call priority,

overriding other conversations on the network. Pressing C, Immediate, before dialing would

make the switch first look for any free lines, and if all lines were in use, it would disconnect any
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_telephone_exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R2_signallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push-button_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q.23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortel_Networkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-band_signalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_signalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_signhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteriskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_service_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_IDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_striphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autovonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autovonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_striphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payphonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_IDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_service_codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteriskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_signhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_signalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcastinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-band_signalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortel_Networkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q.23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-Thttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Push-button_telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R2_signallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_telephone_exchangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handsethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone


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non-priority calls, and then any priority calls. Flash Override will kick every other call off the

trunks between the origin and destination. Consequently, it was limited to the White HouseCommunications Agency.

Precedence dialing is still done on the military phone networks, but using number combinations

(Example: Entering 93 before a number is a priority call) rather than the separate tones and theGovernment Emergency Telecommunications Service has superseded Autovon for any civilian

priority telco access.

Present-day uses of the A, B, C and D keys on telephone networks are few, and exclusive to

network control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through differentcarriers at will (thereby listening in on calls). Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers.

The A, B, C and D tones are used in amateur radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow,

among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active phone line.

DTMF tones are also used by some cable television networks and radio networks to signal the

local cable company/network station to insert a local advertisement or station identification.These tones were often heard during a station ID preceding a local ad inserts. Previously,

terrestrial television stations also used DTMF tones to shut off and turn on remote transmitters.

DTMF signalling tones can also be heard at the start or end of some VHS (Video Home System)

cassette tapes. Information on the master version of the video tape is encoded in the DTMF tone.The encoded tone provides information to automatic duplication machines, such as format,duration and volume levels, in order to replicate the original video as closely as possible.

DTMF tones are sometimes used in caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information,however in the USA only Bell 202 modulated FSK signaling is used to transfer the data.

A DTMF can be heard on most Whelan Outdoor Warning systems.

Keypad

1209 Hz on 697 Hz to make the 1 tone
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Communications_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Communications_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Emergency_Telecommunications_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autovonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_IDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_202http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whelenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MultiTone1.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MultiTone1.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MultiTone1.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MultiTone1.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whelenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keyinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_202http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_IDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autovonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Emergency_Telecommunications_Servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Communications_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Communications_Agency


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The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 44 matrix, with each row representing a low frequency, and

each column representing a high frequency. Pressing a single key (such as '1' ) will send asinusoidal tone for each of the two frequencies (697 and 1209 hertz (Hz)). The original keypads

had levers inside, so each button activated two contacts. The multiple tones are the reason for

calling the system multi frequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center to

determine which key was pressed.

DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips)

1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz

697 Hz 1 2 3 A

770 Hz 4 5 6 B

852 Hz 7 8 9 C

941 Hz * 0 # D

Special tone frequencies

National telephone systems define additional tones to indicate the status of lines, equipment, orthe result of calls with special tones. Such tones are standardized in each country and mayconsist of single or multiple frequencies. Most European countries use a single frequency, where

the United States uses a dual frequency system, presented in the following table.

Event Low frequencyHigh frequency

Busy signal 480 Hz 620 Hz

Ring back tone (US) 440 Hz 480 Hz

Dial tone 350 Hz 440 Hz

The tone frequencies, as defined by the Precise Tone Plan, are selected such that harmonics and

inter modulation products will not cause an unreliable signal. No frequency is a multiple of

another, the difference between any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies, andthe sum of any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies. The frequencies were

initially designed with a ratio of 21/19, which is slightly less than a whole tone. The frequenciesmay not vary more than 1.8% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will ignore

the signal. The high frequencies may be the same volume or louder as the low frequencies when

sent across the line. The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be aslarge as 3 decibels (dB) and is referred to as "twist."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bf/Dtmf1.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7d/Dtmf2.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Dtmf3.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d5/DtmfA.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/Dtmf4.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Dtmf5.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7b/Dtmf6.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/DtmfB.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/Dtmf7.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f7/Dtmf8.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/59/Dtmf9.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/DtmfC.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/DtmfStar.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/DtmfStar.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/Dtmf0.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Dtmf-.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Dtmf-.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/DtmfD.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busy_signal_%28telephony%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringback_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precise_Tone_Planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_series_%28music%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_series_%28music%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precise_Tone_Planhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringback_tonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busy_signal_%28telephony%29http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/DtmfD.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Dtmf-.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/Dtmf0.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/DtmfStar.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/96/DtmfC.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/59/Dtmf9.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f7/Dtmf8.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/Dtmf7.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5a/DtmfB.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7b/Dtmf6.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Dtmf5.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/Dtmf4.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d5/DtmfA.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/Dtmf3.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7d/Dtmf2.ogghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bf/Dtmf1.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal


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The minimum duration of the tone should be at least 70 ms, although in some countries and

applications DTMF receivers must be able to reliably detect DTMF tones as short as 45ms.

As with other multi-frequency receivers, DTMF was originally decoded by tuned filter banks.

Late in the 20th century most were replaced with digital signal processors. DTMF can be

decoded using the Goertzel algorithm.

DTMF Decoder:

DTMF Decoder is a very easy to use program to decode DTMF dial tones found on telephonelines with touch tone phones.

DTMF Decoder is also used for receiving data transmissions over the air in amateur radio

frequency bands.

The following are the frequencies used for the DTMF (dual-tone, multi-frequency) system,

which is also referred to as tone dialing. The signal is encoded as a pair of sinusoidal (sine wave)tones from the table below which are mixed with each other. DTMF is used by most PSTN

(public switched telephone networks) systems for number dialing, and is also used for voice-

response systems such as telephone banking and sometimes over private radio networks toprovide signaling and transferring of small amounts of data.

Table of DTMF frequencies (CCITT)

SymbolTone B [Hz]

1209 1336 1477 1633

Tone A [Hz]

697 1 2 3 A

770 4 5 6 B

852 7 8 9 C

941 * 0 # D

Live tone signals are fed from telephone line or radio into soundcard of computer. Either line-or microphone input jack is used. It is highly recommended to ensure galvanic decoupling

between PC and telephone line or radio receiver. DTMF Decoder output is clear text consisting
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequency_receiverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goertzel_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goertzel_algorithmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-frequency_receiver


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of the symbols shown in table above. An exact log is displayed; when, which number was dialed.

This log is automatically stored into a log file for later exploration.

2051 Microcontroller:

The 2051 is a 20 pin version of the 8051. It is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory. Atmel

manufactures the chip using high-density nonvolatile memory technology. The 2051 and is

compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit

CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel 2051 is a powerful microcontroller. It provides

a very flexible, cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

Operational features of the 2051

The 2051 features Compatibility with MCS-51 Products, 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash

Memory with 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles. The operating range of the 2051 is 2.7V to 6V. Among

these features, the 2051 also contains the following features:

Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

Two-level Program Memory Lock

128 x 8-bit Internal RAM

15 Programmable I/O Lines

Two 16-bit Timer/Counters

Six Interrupt Sources

Programmable Serial UART Channel

Direct LED Drive Outputs

On-chip Analog Comparator

Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

2051 Pin-out and Description


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Pin Description

Pin Name: Purpose:

VCC Supplies voltage and power.

GND Ground.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 toP1.7 provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and

P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the

negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The Port 1

output buffers can sink 20mA and can drive LED displays directly. When 1s are written to Port 1

pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are externally

pulled low, they will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives

code data during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O pins with internal pull-ups. P3.6 is

hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a general

purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20mA. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins

they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that

are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.


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Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C2051 as listed

below:

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

RST

Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes high. Holding the RST pin high for

two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.

Restrictions on Instructions

The AT89C2051 and is the economical and cost-effective member of Atmels family of

microcontrollers. Therefore, it contains only 2K bytes of flash program memory. It is fully

compatible with the MCS-51 architecture, and can be programmed using the MCS-51 instruction

set. However, there are a few considerations one must keep in mind when utilizing certain

instructions to program this device. All the instructions related to jumping or branching should

be restricted such that the destination address falls within the physical program memory space of

the device, which is 2K for the AT89C2051. This should be the responsibility of the software

programmer. For example, LJMP 7E0H would be a valid instruction for the AT89C2051 (with

2K of memory), whereas LJMP 900H would not.

1. Branching instructions:

LCALL, LJMP, ACALL, AJMP, SJMP, JMP @A+DPTR

These unconditional branching instructions will execute correctly as long as the programmer

keeps in mind that the destination branching address must fall within the physical boundaries of

the program memory size (locations 00H to 7FFH for the 89C2051). Violating the physical space

limits may cause unknown program behavior.

CJNE [...], DJNZ [...], JB, JNB, JC, JNC, JBC, JZ, JNZ


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With these conditional branching instructions the same rule above applies. Again, violating the

memory boundaries may cause erratic execution.

For applications involving interrupts the normal interrupt service routine address locations of the

80C51 family architecture have been preserved.

2. MOVX-related instructions, Data Memory:

The 2051 contains 128 bytes of internal data memory. Thus, in the 2051 the stack depth is

limited to 128 bytes, the amount of available RAM. External DATA

memory access is not supported in this device, nor is external PROGRAM memory execution.

Therefore, no MOVX [...] instructions should be included in the program. A typical 80C51

assembler will still assemble instructions,

even if they are written in violation of the restrictions mentioned above. It is the responsibility of

the controller user to know the physical features and limitations of the device being used andadjust the instructions used correspondingly.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 2051


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Power-down Mode

In the power down mode the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power down is

the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their

values until the power down mode is terminated. The only exit from power down is a hardware

reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not beactivated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long

enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

P1.0 and P1.1 should be set to 0 if no external pull-ups are used, or set to 1 if external pull-

ups are used.

The 2051 is a low voltage (2.7V - 6V), high performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 2

Kbytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). This device is

compatible with the industry standard 8051 instruction set and pin-out. The 2051 is a powerful

microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embeddedcontrol applications.

In addition, the 2051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and

supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while

allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The

Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip

functions until the next hardware reset.

Uses of the 2051 Microcontroller:

The 2051 is used in many applications.

Controlling 7-segment displays

- Clocks

Sensor projects

- Temperature

Used to Control LCD ( 8051 )

**DATASHEET**


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Opto-isolators

1. Introduction

Opto-isolators, or opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a light sensitive device, all

wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two, just a beam of light. The

light emitter is nearly always an LED. The light sensitive device may be a photodiode, phototransistor, or

more esoteric devices such as thyristers, triacs etc.

The cheapest kind has phototransistors. Below is a basic circuit diagram using one of these types(4N25):

The output of this circuit simply follows the input:


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Note the slight curving of the square wave input. All opto-isolators will only work up to a certain

frequency. Some are much faster than others. Make sure that the opto-isolator you use is fastenough for the signals you are putting through it - more details in section 4. The reason the rise

time is slower than the fall time of the output waveform is that the rising edge is due to the 4k7

pull-up resistor, which has to discharge the capacitance in the opto transistor. If this needs to be

speeded up, the 4k7 resistor value can be reduced, at the expense of using more current when theoutput is low.

When the LED is driven with a current of 10mA or so, it shines onto the phototransistor, which

then starts to conduct (turn on). This takes the output voltage low. However much electrical

noise is on one side, it can never be transmitted over to the other side. We may use an opto-isolator to send PWM signals from the low-power electronics side to the MOSFET drivers on the

high-power side, and we may use them to transmit information from the high- power side back to

the low-power side.

To complete the isolation of the low and high power sides, each must be powered by a

completely separate battery. The high power side will be powered by the main 12v or 24vbattery. The low-power side can be powered by a much smaller battery, maybe 6v.

2. Opto-isolator parameters

If you open a datasheet for an opto-isolator in a separate browser window, we can go through some of

the parameters and describe what they mean. Click here to open a datasheet for the Sharp PC123 in

another window, because we will be referring to it.

Collector-emitter voltage

This is the maximum voltage that can be present from the collector to the emitter of the receiving

phototransistor (when it is turned off - no light) before it may break-down.
http://sharp-world.com/products/device/ctlg/esite22_10/table/pdf/cpl/trans_out/pc123_e.pdfhttp://sharp-world.com/products/device/ctlg/esite22_10/table/pdf/cpl/trans_out/pc123_e.pdf


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Creepage distance

This is physically how far a spark would have to travel around the outside of the package to get from one

side to the other. If the package has contaminants on it, solder flux, or dampness, then a lower-

resistance path can be created for noise signals to travel along.

Forward currentThis is the current passing through the sending LED. Typically, an opto-isolator will require about 5mA to

turn the output transistor on.

Forward voltage

This is the voltage that is dropped across the LED when it is turned on. Most normal diodes drop about

0.7v, but with LEDs it is typically 1 - 2 volts.

Collector dark current

This is the current that can flow through the output phototransistor when it is turned off.

Collector-emitter saturation voltageWhen the output transistor is fully turned on (saturated), this is the voltage there will be between the

collector and emitter.

Isolation resistance

This is the resistance from a pin in the input side to a pin on the output side. It should be very high.

Response time

Thee rise and fall times are the times that the output voltage takes to get from zero to maximum. The

rise time is very much dependant on the load resistor, since it is this that is pulling the output up.

Therefore this value is always quoted with a fixed load resistance. Note however that the value, 100

Ohms, is much less than you are likely to use in practice. This is another of the manufacturer's attemptsto make the product look better than it is!

Cutoff frequency

This is effectively the highest frequency of square wave that can be sent through the opto-isolator. It is

actually the frequency at which the output voltage is only swinging half the amplitude than at DC levels

(-3dB = half). It is therefore linked with the rise and fall times.

Current Transfer Ratio (CTR)

This is the ratio of how much collector current in the output transistor that you get given a certain

amount of forward current in the input side LED. It is affected by how close the LED and phototransistor

are inside the device, how efficient they both are, and many other factors. In fact it is not a constant but

varies wildly with LED forward current as we will see.

2.1. The graphs

The graphs are essential to see how the device actuallyperforms, rather than how the manufacturer

wants you to think it performs on initial reading of the front page parameters! We'll take an example

and work it through the graphs.


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The first few graphs on power dissipation are not really of any great interest to us. They aremore useful for people designing low-power consumption circuits.

Fig 7: The Current Transfer Ratio vs. Forward Current is a useful graph. This shows how the CTRvaries wildly. In our design, we will start with a required collector current for the output

phototransistor. From that, we can calculate how much forward current is required in the LED to

produce it using this graph. For example, if we required 10mA of collector current, then we must

follow the line of this graph until the forward current times the CTR is 10mA. This occurs at

about If=6mA / CTR=180%.

Figure 9 shows how the CTR will be affected as the electronics get hot, which they are bound todo as the motors and MOSFETs start dissipating power. It shows at 100 degrees the CTR has

derated to about 60%, so we should re-estimate our required LED forward current based on

this. Assume the % values for CTR in figure 7 are only 60% of what they are shown, then we

need about If = 10mA, to get a collector current of If x CTR x 60% = 10mA x 180% x 60%.

Fig 6: Forward Current vs. Forward Voltage. This is the LED diode curve. We now know we need10mA of forward current, and from this graph we can see that the LED will drop about 1.1 volts

at 50 degrees C. If we power this LED from the output of a CMOS device (0 to 5 volts), then we

can calculate the series resistor required: R = (5-Vf)/If = (5-1.1)/10mA = 390 Ohms.

Figure 8 allows us see the collector-emitter voltage that will be present when the outputphototransistor is turned on. Follow the If = 10mA line until it crosses the 10mA Ic of the vertical

axis. The Vce(on) is about 1 volt. This is the voltage we will have at the output when the light is

on. We can now calculate the load resistor, Rl, that we require from the collector to battery

positive, Vb. This is Rl = (Vb-Vceon)/Ic = (12-1)/10mA = 1.1k.

Figure 11 shows how much current will flow through the phototransistor when the LED is off.Worst case, when hot, is about 10 microAmps. With this current, the output voltage will be Vo =

Ic(off) x Rl = 0.00001 x 1100 = 0.01V. This is how much lower than Vb the output will be, i.e. 12 -

0.01 = 11.99V. This is the output voltage with no light input.

Figure 12 allows us to see how fast a signal the opto-isolator can cope with given the conditionsthat we have now laid down. The load resistor is 1.1k, follow the tr and tf lines to get tr=25, and

tf=20 microseconds. Now the fastest signal will be when the output rises as soon as it has fallen,and falls as soon as it has risen. A complete cycle takes 20+25=45 microseconds. This is the

minimum time that one pulse can take. For the PWM signal, it is the thinnest pulse. If you want

the PWM signal to increase in steps of, say, 5%, so there are 20 discrete speed settings, then

one 5% slot will be 45 microseconds, so the complete frequency will be 20 slots worth, or 900

microseconds, which is a frequency of 1.1kHz.

This has shown how a design is developed using the given parameters from a datasheet.

3. Types of opto-isolator

The opto-isolator in the example above was a simple photo-transistor output type. These are the

cheapest types, although they're not always the most useful. For a start, the LED required 10mA offorward current. If you are driving it from a microcontroller, it may not be capable of sinking that much

current, so you would then need a transistor to boost it. In this case, you may better off using a logic to

logic opto-isolator. These require a 5 volt supply and will accept a logic level input. The output may also

be logic-level, or it may still be open-collector like the example above. Logic level opto- isolators

generally can be run at much higher frequencies. 10Mbits per second is typical.


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4. Frequency and Rise & Fall times

We are likely to be driving at least some of the opto-isolators with PWM signals for speed control of the

motors. What frequency are these PWM signals, and will the opto-isolators be able to cope with them?

The PWM signals are generated elsewhere in your circuit of course, so you may already have

decided what frequency they will be. This frequency, together with the number of discrete speedsteps that you have, determines how fast the opto-isolator must be. The diagram below show a

PWM signal with 12 discrete speed steps, with a 1/12 level signal (signal A). This means the

signal is high for one twelfth of the time:

The number of speed steps may be greater. Most microcontrollers with PWM outputs use an 8-bit register, giving 256 discrete speed steps.

The frequency of this PWM signal is the reciprocal of its total time period, t p. Fpwm = 1/tp.

However, any circuit that transmits this must be able to respond to the single pulse. To respondto this, it must be able to respond to a frequency rather higher than Fpwm, that shown in orange in

signal B. The frequency of this signal is

The 16 in the equation comes from the number of discrete steps, so in general, we can say that ifwe want n discrete steps, the opto-isolaator must be able to handle a frequency of


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Most opto-isolator datasheets quote the rise and fall tmes of the opto-isolator outputs rather than

a maxmum frequency. How can we use these values? The diagram below shows a more realisticsignal from an opto-isolator.

In this diagram, the rise and fall times are shown equal, but they are often not - especially withopen-collector or open-drain type optos where an external pull-up resistor controls the rise time.

It can be seen from this and the previous equations that

Therefore, if we are given an opto with defined rise and fall times, we can work out:

The maximum frequency for n discrete speed steps:

The maximum number of speed steps for a PWM frequency of FPWM:

Example

Question

The Hewlett Packard (Agilent) HCPL-3120 optocoupler has the following parameters:

tr = tf= 0.1s

Given that the PWM frequency has been set at 25kHz to be above audible range, what is the

greatest number of discrete speed steps that can be attained.

Answer


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Using the equation

n = 400. Therefore n 8-bit PWM register with 256 discrete steps would work fine.

Note that even if we drove this optocoupler with more than 400 steps, all that would happen isthat there would be no measurable difference between a setting of, say, 650, and 651, and if a

1024 discrete step PWM signal was set to a level 1/1024 (signal high for one 1024th

of the time),

then the opto would not respond, and the effective level would be zero.

More complicated PWM signals

This next diagram shows a PWM signal with 12 discrete steps, set at 3/12 level:

The three segments during which the signal is high are not necessarily next to each other. This

signal will generate a smoother resultant speed in the motor than if all three pulses were next toeach other. Some PWM generators may generate a signal like this, some may have all three

pulses next to each other, in which case the required response time of the optocoupler need notbe so high.

The opto isolator used in this design is MOC 3021.

Inverter(Logic Gate):

In digital logic, an inverter or NOT gate is a logic gate which implements logical negation. Thetruth table is shown on the right.

This representsperfectswitching behavior, which is the defining assumption in Digital

electronics. In practice, actual devices have electrical characteristics that must be carefullyconsidered when designing inverters. In fact, the non-ideal transition region behavior of a

CMOS inverter makes it useful in analog electronics as a class A amplifier (e.g., as the output

stage of an operational amplifier.


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Electronic implementation

NMOSInverter

PMOSInverter

Static CMOSInverter

Schematic of a Saturated-LoadDigitalInverter

An inverter circuit outputs a voltage representing the opposite logic-level to its input. Inverters

can be constructed using a single NMOS transistor or a single PMOS transistor coupled with a

resistor. Since this 'resistive-drain' approach uses only a single type of transistor, it can befabricated at low cost. However, because current flows through the resistor in one of the two

states, the resistive-drain configuration is disadvantaged for power consumption and processing

speed. Alternately, inverters can be constructed using two complimentary transistors in a CMOS

configuration. This configuration greatly reduces power consumption since one of the transistorsis always off in both logic states. Processing speed can also be improved due to the relatively low

resistance compared to the NMOS-only or PMOS-only type devices. Inverters can also be

constructed with Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) in either a resistor-transistor logic (RTL) ora transistor-transistor logic (TTL) configuration.

Digital electronics circuits operate at fixed voltage levels corresponding to a logical 0 or 1 (seeBinary). An inverter circuit serves as the basic logic gate to swap between those two voltage

levels. Implementation determines the actual voltage, but common levels include (0, +5V) for

TTL circuits.

Digital building block
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_Junction_Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor-transistor_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_4049_diagram.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverter.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CMOS_Inverter.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NMOS_NOT.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor-transistor_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_Junction_Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NMOS


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This schematic diagram shows the arrangement of NOT gates within a standard 4049 CMOS hex

inverting buffer.

The digital inverter is considered the base building block for all digital electronics. Memory (1bit register) is built as a latch by feeding the output of two serial inverters together. Multiplexers,

decoders, state machines, and other sophisticated digital devices all rely on the basic inverter.

TheHex Inverteris an integrated circuit that contains six (hexa-) inverters. For example, the

7404 TTL chip which has 14 pins and the 4049 CMOS chip which has 16 pins, 2 of which are

used for power/referencing, and 12 of which are used by the inputs and outputs of the six

inverters (the 4049 has 2 pins with no connection).

Performance measurement

Digital inverter quality is often measured using the Voltage Transfer Curve, which is a plot ofinput vs. output voltage. From such a graph, device parameters including noise tolerance, gain,

and operating logic-levels can be obtained.

Voltage Transfer Curve for a 20 m Inverter constructed atNorth Carolina State University

Ideally, the voltage transfer curve (VTC) appears as an inverted step-function - this wouldindicate precise switching between on and off- but in real devices, a gradual transition regionexists. The VTC indicates that for low input voltage, the circuit outputs high voltage; for high

input, the output tapers off towards 0 volts. The slope of this transition region is a measure of

quality - steep (close to -Infinity) slopes yield precise switching.

The tolerance to noise can be measured by comparing the minimum input to the maximumoutput for each region of operation (on / off).

The output voltage, VOH, can be a measure of signal driving strength when cascading many

devices together.

The logic IC used is 74LS04.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latch_%28electronic%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hexa-http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hexa-http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hexa-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverterVTC.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverterVTC.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverterVTC.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DigitalInverterVTC.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logichttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hexa-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latch_%28electronic%29


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Result and Conclusion:

Remote control system by telephone presented in this paper is based on PIC and has very

secure structure. Designed circuit is isolated both optically and electrically; therefore it does notcreate any effect on telephone line. With pin-check system, non-authorized people can not

connect to or use this system. In this application, secure, cheap and safe remote control system

for intelligent houses has been presented.

Future scope:

There exists great future scope in this thesis work.

1.) The devices control using the DTMF signal can also be controlled using the TCP/IP protocolsas it increases the range of control.

2.) The wireless techniques can be used where telephone lines does not exist.

3.) The also supports the use of blue tooth and other advanced techniques.


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4.) If the user environment is noise then noise can be eliminated using the signal-processing

tool.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Authors

Electronic devices and circuits By Louis boylsted and Naschalsky.

Linear Integrated circuits By Roy choudhary

The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems By Mohammad Ali Mazidi

Electrical machinery By P.s.Bimra

Internet Sources

www.wikipedia.com
http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/http://www.wikipedia.com/


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www.wikitronics.com

www.hobbyprojects.com

www.datasheetscatalogue.com
http://www.wikitronics.com/http://www.wikitronics.com/http://www.hobbyprojects.com/http://www.hobbyprojects.com/http://www.datasheetscatalogue.com/http://www.datasheetscatalogue.com/http://www.datasheetscatalogue.com/http://www.hobbyprojects.com/http://www.wikitronics.com/

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