46730581-Strategii-de-Comunicare-English

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1. English for Special Purposes

DEFINITION

ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP communityto have a clear idea about what ESP means.

ESP can be described as:

English for any purpose that could be specified

English used in academic studies or

English for vocational or professional purposes

Origins of ESP

From the early 1960's English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one ofthe most prominent areas of EFL

Its development is reflected in the

increasing number of universities offering an MA in ESP

the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speakingcountries

There is now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion

"English for Specific Purposes: An international journal"

Reasons to the emergence of all ESP:

the economic demands of the New World,

a revolution in linguistics, and

focus on the learners needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

- Hutchinson & Waters, 1987: the end of the Second World War brought with it an

= " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and

economic activity on an international scale for various reasons, most notably the


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economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of

international language] fell to English" (p. 6).

- the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge

flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became

English.

General effects:

- A pressure on the language teaching profession to deliver the required goods.

Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject

to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers

(Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).- revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which

language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out

that spoken and written English vary according to the professional and social

environment. In other words, given the particular context in which English is

used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If

language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet

the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s

and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and

Technology (EST).

- more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the

differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners employ

o different learning strategies,

o different skills,

o different learning schemata, and

o different needs and interests


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Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods

employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge.

The natural extension that followed was the designing of specific courses to better meet

the individual needs.

To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centeredorlearning-centered.

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) = a sphere of including

technical English,

scientific English,

English for medical professionals,

English for waiters, and

English for Aviation

o English as ESP is taught to pilots, and cadets who are going to use it in

radio communications

ESP can be also considered as an avatarof language for specific purposes.

Avatar: a computer user's representation of himself/herself or alter ego whether in the

form of a three-dimensional model used in computer games or a two-dimensional

(picture) used on and other communities.

Avatar: (Sanskrit: incarnation)

Definition of ESP

Absolute characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities

of the discipline it serves.3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to

professional activities in terms of


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grammar,

lexis,

register, (a variety of language used in a specific socialsetting: speaking in an informal register; writing in ascientific register.)

study skills,

discourse

genre

o discourse (L. discursus, "running to and from")

means either "written or spoken communicationor debate" or "a formal discussion of debate." The

term is often used in semantics and discourse

analysis.

o written or spoken language, especially when it is

studied in order to understand how people use

language

o is the use of living language, as in conversation.

Some of the more subtle aspects of grammar

cannot be understood by looking just at

sentences, but only by looking at how those

sentences are used in the larger context of

discourse. ...

o the totality of codified linguistic usages attached

to a given type of social practice. Eg: legal

discourse, medical discourse, religious discourse.

o This term describes a coherent piece of spoken

and/or written language in a specific context. A

discourse may be a whole text (for example, a

personal letter or an entire conversation), or it


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may be part of a text that conveys related

meanings (for example, several exchanges, within

a dialogue ...

o [noun] Discourse is a contiguous stretch of

language comprising more than one sentence

(text) or utterance (speech)


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The distinctions between the absolute andvariable characteristics of ESP

Some specialists define ESP by identifying its absolute and variablecharacteristics:

I. Absolute characteristics:

ESP consists of English language

designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines,

occupations and activities;

centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis,

discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;

in contrast with General English

ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the

discipline it serves;

II. Variable characteristics:

ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);

the development of the ESP skills is not closely connected to any pre-

ordained methodology

ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from

that of general English;


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ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners in a professional work

situation.

Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language

system, but it can be also used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).

Types of ESP

(David Carter 1983):

English as a restricted language

English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

English with specific topics

Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between- restricted language and- language:

... the language ofinternational air-traffic control could be regarded as'special' in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is

strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English forAcademic and Occupational Purposes.

In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken downinto three branches:

a) English for Science and Technology (EST),b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), andc) English for Social Studies (ESS)

Abilities Required for Successful Communication inOccupational Settings

Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between:1. basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and2. cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)


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The former refers to the language skills used in the everydayinformal language used with friends, family and co-workers.


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The latter refers to a language proficiency required to make senseof and use academic language.

Situations in which individuals use BICS are characterized bycontexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However,

CALP use occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues

Abilities required in order to communicate successfully in occupationalsetting:

the use of particular jargon characteristic of that specificoccupational context

use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as:o conducting research and

o responding to memoranda

which are largely related to understanding a newprofessional and social culture

use the language of everyday informal talk tocommunicate effectively, regardless of occupationalcontext (chatting over coffee with a colleague orresponding to an informal email message)

Public relations (PR) definition and history.Where from?

Definitions:

Professional field concerned with maintaining public image for businesses,

non-profit organizations or high-profile people, such as celebrities, and

politicians

The first World Assembly of Public Relations Associations (Mexico City 1978):

"the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences,

counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programs of

action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest


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the practice of managing communication between an organization and its

publics. Public relations provides an organization or individual exposure to

their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that provide a

third-party endorsement and do not direct payment

o Once common activities include

speaking at conferences, working with the media,

crisis communications and social media engagement,

employee communication

The European view:

a relational form of interactivity there concerned with publics with public

consequences of organizational behavior.

interactive communication using the internet encompassing social media and

other channels for communication and many platforms for communication

such as personal computers, (PCs), mobile phones, and video-game consoles

with Internet access (Phillips and Young in Online Public Relations, Second

Edition (2009)

Almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena

employs some level of public relations

Disciplines of corporate communications

Analyst relations

Media relations Investor relations

Internal communications

Labour relations

Publicities

Other types of public relations:

Financial public relations - providing information mainly to business

reporters Consumer/lifestyle public relations - gaining publicity for a particular

product or service, rather than using advertising

Crisis public relations - responding to negative accusations or information

Industry relations - providing information to trade bodies

Government relations - engaging government departments to influence

policymaking


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History

Edward Bernays, nephew of Sigmund Freud - widely recognized as the

father of public relations (USA)

the founder of the profession and practice: Dr Kevin Moloney (UK) used the

first printed news outlets, events management and social gatherings in thelate 18th century

1912 - the first recognized public-relations firm (Doris Fleischman in 1919

in 1928, "public relations" was the term used first as a way of shielding the

profession from the ill repute increasingly associated with the word "propaganda"

PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY

The need for public relations personnel is growing at a fast pace.

The types of clients for whom public relations people work include:

the government,

educational institutions,

nonprofit organizations,

specific industries,

corporations, athletic teams,

entertainment companies

Methods, tools and tactics

Public relations and publicity are not synonymous, but many public relations

campaigns include provisions for publicity.

Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public awareness for a product,

person, service, cause or organization, and can be seen as a result of effective public

relations planning.

Public relations professionals are using technology as their main tool is to get their

messages to target audiences through

social networks,

blogs

Internet radio

Methods used to find out what is appealing to target audiences:

surveys,


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research on focus groups

Tactics are the ways to attract target audiences by using the information gathered

about that audience and directing a message to them using tools such as

social mediums or other technology

Another emerging theme is the application of psychological theories of impression

management

Tools

Press release and

media kits which are sent out to generate positive press on behalf of theorganization.

brochures,

fact sheets websites

photographs

newsletters and

annual reports

interactive social media outlets engaging in two-way communication andreceiving immediate feedback from stakeholders and publics (blogs,

twitter and Facebook)

social media outlets (allow the organization to engage in two-way

communication, and receive immediate feedback)

The public targeting process

Identifying the target audience and tailoring message to appeal to that audience

The audience can be

o general,

o nationwide or

o worldwide

o segment of a population

o trending audience

Lobby groups

established to influence

government policy,

corporate policy, or


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public opinion

Ex: governments may lobby public relations firms in order to sway public opinion. A

well illustrated example of this is the way civil war in Yugoslavia was portrayed.

Governments of newly succeeded republics of Croatia and Bosnia invested heavily with

American public relations firms, so that they would give them a positive war image in theUSA

Spin (public relations)

Pejorative term = a heavily biased portrayal in specific favour of an event or situation.While traditional public relations may also rely on creative presentation of the facts, spin

often, though not always, implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or highly manipulative

tactics.

Ex: Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political opponents when

they produce a counterargument or position

The techniques of spin:

o cherry picking = selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal

positions

o non-denial denial = (in a way presumes unproven truths)

o euphemisms = drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and

ambiguity in public statement; careful choice of timing in the release of certain

news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news

o issue versus non-issue (spin particular political viewpoints)

Spin doctors = skilled practitioners of spin; state-run media in many countries also

engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are favorable to the

government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may

also use propaganda to indoctrinate or actively influence citizens' opinions. the same

techniques to.

PUBLIC RELATION SPIN TECHNIQUES

Publicity events

Talk show circuit: a public relations spokesperson, or the client, "does the circuit"by being interviewed on television and radio talk shows with audiences that theclient wishes to reach

Books and other writings

Blogs

Rolodex (After a public relations practitioner has been working in the field for a

while, he or she accumulates a list of contacts in the media and elsewhere in the

public affairs sphere; a prized asset, and job announcements sometimes even ask


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for candidates with an existing Rolodex, especially those in the media relations

area of public relations

Direct communication (carrying messages directly to constituents, rather thanthrough the mass media) with, e.g., newsletters in print and e-letters

Collateral literature, traditionally in print and now predominantly as web sites

Speeches to constituent groups and professional organizations; receptions;seminars, and other events; personal appearances

The slang term for a public relations practitioner or publicist is a "flack"

(sometimes spelled "flak")

A desk visit is where the public relations person literally takes their product to the

desk of the journalist in order to show them emerging promotions

Astroturfing = the act of public relations agencies placing blogs and online forum

messages for their clients, in the guise of a normal "grassroots" user or comment(an illegal practice)

Online social media and Internet mediated public relations practices

Practices of Conveying the message

means by which a message is communicated can be as important as the message itself

o direct mail

o robocalling

o adevertising and

o public speaking

o press realease

o newspapers

o microblogging press conference

o front groups organizations (purport to serve a public cause while actuallyserving the interests of a client whose sponsorship may be obscured or

concealed; "concocts and spins the news)

Ex: Instances with the use of front groups as a public relations technique have been

documented in many industries:

1. Coal mining corporations have created "environmental groups" that

contend that increased carbon dioxide emissions and global warming will

contribute to plant growth and will be beneficial,2. trade groups for bars have created and funded citizens' groups to attack

anti-alcohol groups,

3. tobacco-companies have created and funded citizens' groups to advocate

for tort reform and to attack personal injury lawyers,4. trial lawyers have created "consumer advocacy" front groups to oppose

tort reform

3. PUBLIC RELATION COMMUNICATION


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DEFINITION

COMMUNICATION: Form of communication that is primarily directed toward gaining

public understanding and acceptance.

It tends to deal with issues rather than specifically with products or services.

Public relations uses publicity that does not necessitate payment in a wide variety of

media and is often placed as news or items of public interest.

Public relations communications offer a legitimacy that advertising does not have, since

advertising is publicity that is paid for.

The practice of PR is used to build rapport with the various publics a company,

individual, or organization may have (i.e., employees, customers, stockholders, voters,competitors, or the general population).

Publicity releases, employee-training seminars, and house organs are examples ofinstruments used in public relations.

Financial public relations = a specialized branch of the profession concerned with

corporate annual reports,

stockholder communications, and

the disclosure rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission

METHODS

Public relations describes the various methods a company uses to disseminate messagesabout its:

products,

services, or

overall image to its

o customers,

o employees, stockholders,

o suppliers, or

o other interested members of the community.

The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the company and

its offerings.


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TOOLS

Commonly used tools of public relations include:

news releases,

press conferences,

speaking engagements, and

community service programs

GOALS:

Although advertising is closely related to public relationsas it too is concerned with

promoting and gaining public acceptance for the company's productsthe goal of

advertising is generating sales, while the goal of public relations is generating

good will. The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap between how an

organization sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it

o employee relations, stockholder and investor relations

o media relations, and community relations

o educate audiences about things relevant to the organization

business in general,

new legislation,

how to use a particular product/service

overcome misconceptions and prejudices regarding particular

industries/products/practices

create, maintain, and protect the organization's reputation, enhance its prestige,

and present a favorable image

o consumers often base their purchase decisions on a company's reputation,

so public relations can have a definite impact on sales and revenue. Public

relations can be an effective part of a company's overall marketingstrategy. In the case of a for-profit company, public relations and

marketing should be coordinated to achieve the same objectives

Steps in a Public Relations Campaign

Effective public relations requires knowledge, based on analysis and understanding, of allthe factors that influence public attitudes toward the organization

public relations project

proactively or

reactively (to manage some sort of image crisis),


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1. involve analysis and research to identify all the relevant factors of the situation.

The organization gains an understanding of its

various constituencies and

the key factors that are influencing their perceptions of the organization

2. the organization establishes an overall policy with respect to the campaign in

order to evaluate proposed strategies and tactics as well as the overall success of the

campaign by defining

goals,

desired outcomes,

the constraints

under which the campaign will operate

3. the organization outlines its strategies and tactics: the knowledge of the target

audiences and its own established policies by

specific programs to achieve the desired objectives

4. actual communication with the targeted public implies employment of

specific public relations techniques (press conferences; special events, etc)

5. the organization receives feedback from its public

reaction on the public relations campaign

unexpected developments?

6. organization assesses the program and makes any necessary adjustments

Areas of Public Relations

1. PRODUCT PUBLIC RELATIONS = close relationship with marketing dpt. for

promoting a new or existing product or service

new product introductions by creating awareness,

o differentiating the product from other similar products,

o changing consumer behavior

o introduce new products through staging a variety of special events and

handling sensitive situations


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A

Prince Matchabelli division of Chesebrough-Pond's USA introduced a

new men's cologne that was differentiated by other twenty-one men's

fragrances by creating a National Hero Awards Program honoring

authentic male heroes and enlisted the participation of Big Brothers/BigSisters of America to lend credibility to the program

B

Coleco introduced its Cabbage Patch Kids dolls; their public relations

dpt. helped increase awareness through licensed tie-in products

trade show exhibits,

press parties,

window displays in Cartier jewelry stores

C

creation or renewing visibility of a product/service

the California Raisins Advisory Board organized a national tour featuring live

performances by the California Dancing Raisins to maintain interest in raisins during a

summer-long advertising hiatus.

The tour generated national and local publicity through:

media events,

advance publicity,

trade promotions, and

media interviews with performer Ray Charles

D.

stimulation of secondary demand of existing products

Campbell Soup Co. increased overall demand for soup by publishing a

recipe booklet

identifying new uses for the product


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Public relations can interest the media in familiar products and services in a number

of ways:

seminars for journalists,

staging a special media day, and supplying the media with printed materials

o "backgrounders" (in-depth news releases)

o booklets and brochures

An effective public relations campaign can help to properly position a

product and overcome negative perceptions on the part of the general

public.

EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

Employees = audience in a company

The ongoing public relations programs aim to

maintain the employee good will

uphold the company's image and reputation among its employees

The essence of a good employee relations program is:

keeping employees informed and

providing them with channels of communication to upper levels of managemento publish annual reports for its employees to keep them informed about the

company's operations

o surveys to determine what information employees considered useful

o a range of communication devices to improve employee-management

communications

monthly tabloids, magazine,

video magazine,

local newsletters,

bulletin boards,

call-in telephone service, "brown bag" lunches where live presentations about the company

suggestion systems

Other public relations programs focusing on employees include

training them as company public relations representatives;

explaining benefits programs to them;


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offering them educational, volunteer, and citizenship opportunities;

staging special events such as picnics or open houses for them.

Other programs can improve performance and increase employee pride andmotivation

Public relations can also play a role in:

recruiting new employees;

handling reorganizations,

relocations, and mergers;

and resolving labor disputes

FINANCIAL RELATIONS

Financial relations involves communicating with

the company's stockholders,

the community of financial analysts and potential investors

The effectiveness of an investment plan will increase

the value of a company's stock and

make it easier to raise additional capital

In some cases special meetings with financial analysts are necessary to overcome

adverse publicity,

negative perceptions about a company,

investor indifference

Such meetings may take the form of

full-day briefings, formal presentations, or luncheon meetings

a tour of the company's facilities

mailings and ongoing communications can help the company achieve

visibility among potential investors and financial analysts

moving the location of their annual meeting from city to city


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TOOLS:

Annual reports can be complemented by quarterly reports and dividend check

inserts

regional or quarterly meetings in addition to the usual annual meeting

newsletter or company magazine

Personal letters to new stockholders and a quick response to inquiries

COMMUNITY RELATIONS

A comprehensive, ongoing community relations program can help virtually any

organization achieve visibility as a good community citizen and gain the good will of the

community in which it operates

Ongoing programs will include:

supporting urban renewal,

performing arts programs,

social and educational programs,

children's programs, community organizations, and

construction projects

On a more limited scale, small businesses may achieve community visibility by:

sponsoring local sports teams or other events. Support may be financial or takethe form of employee participation.


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Organizations have the opportunity to improve good willand demonstrate a commitment

to their communities when they

open new offices,

expand facilities, and open new factories

converting a vacant building into a permanent meeting place

built its new headquarters in an abandoned building

A well-planned public relations campaign, combined with appropriate actions, can

alleviate the tensions that plant closings can cause. Some elements of such a campaign

might include:

offering special programs to laid-off workers, informing employees directly about proposed closings,

controlling rumors through candid and direct communications to the

community and employees


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Special programs can improve community relations through:

employee volunteers to work on community projects,

sponsoring educational and literacy programs,

staging open houses and conducting plant tours,

celebrating anniversaries, and

mounting special exhibits

support programs to improve the quality of life in their community:

o crime prevention,

o employment,

o environmental programs,

o clean-up and beautification,

o recycling, and restoration


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CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS

Public relations practitioners become heavily involved in crisis communications:

a major accident or

natural disaster

bankruptcy,

product failures, and

management wrongdoing

by

helping potential victims

rebuilding an organization's image

planning in advance to deal with potential crises in an honest and forthright

manner

Ex:

After the San Francisco earthquake of 1989, for example, the Bank of America

utilized its public relations department to quickly establish communications with

customers, the financial community, the media, and offices in 45 countries to assure

them the bank was still operating


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GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL RELATIONS

a wide range of activities:

staging debates, holding seminars for government leaders,

influencing proposed legislation,

testifying before a congressional committee

Trade associations and other professional organizations can block unfavorable legislation

and support favorable legislation

Ex. :

The liquor industry in California helped defeat a proposed tax increase by

taking charge of the debate

winning endorsements,

recruiting spokespersons,

cultivating grassroot support

trained volunteers to communicate key messages to the public through:

o printed materials

o radio

o television commercials


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PUBLIC RELATIONS IN THE PUBLIC INTEREST

Organizations attempt to generate good willand position themselves as responsible

citizens through a variety of programs conducted in the public interest:

Ex.:

environmental programs (including water and energy conservation)

antipollution programs

health and medical programs sponsored by a wide range of

o nonprofit organizations,

o healthcare providers

o other businesses and industries

Ex.

Policies to encourage

AIDS-in-the-workplace

smoke out

political education,

leadership and self-improvement,

recreational activities,

contests, and safety instruction


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OTHER PUBLIC RELATIONS PROGRAMS

corporate identity programs:

name changes and

new trademarks to

Special events may be held to call attention to an organization and focus the public's goodwill:

anniversary celebrations,

events related to trade shows,

special exhibits, or

fairs and festivals

TOOLS:

Speakers bureaus and celebrity spokespersons

The face-to-face communication (more effective than printed materials, especially

when the target audience is small and clearly defined)

Public Relations for Small Businesses

relationships with:

customers,

employees, investors,

suppliers, or

other interested members of the community

Entrepreneurs of small businesses may choose to hire a public relations specialist or

contract with an outside agency

An ideal public relations specialist candidate would be:

creative and

enterprising,


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Specific public relations activities for small businesses:

sponsoring a local sports team,

speaking at a chamber of commerce meeting, volunteering at a neighborhood clean-up, etc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bianco, David, ed. PR News Casebook:1000 Public Relations Case Studies. GaleResearch, 1993.

Kaydo, Chad. "How to Hire a PR Firm." Sales and Marketing Management. April2000.

Lesly, Philip, ed. Lesly's Handbook of Public Relations and Communications.

AMACOM, 1991.

Nucifora, Alf. "Small Businesses Need Positive PR." Dallas Business Journal.

May 19, 2000.

Young, Davis. Building Your Company's Good Name. AMACOM, 1996

4. Development of Speaking Skills

Objectives:

This unit will deal with aspects of speaking to make the students able speak

competently and creatively to explore, develop and sustain ideas through talk. They

will also learn how to understand, recall and respond to speakers implicit and

explicit meanings, and explain or comment on speakers use of language, including

vocabulary, grammar and non verbal features.

The development of speaking skills means that the speaker needs to

to adapt his talk to the listeners;

use a range of ways to express himself;

use talk to clarify his ideas and

sustain his talk to develop thinking and reasoning

Effective speaking means:


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putting thoughts into words and sharing them in groups;

taking opportunities to speak at some length to explain ideas in different

situations;

giving a talk or presentation using gestures, aids and rhetorical specific devices

It is essential that speakers be provided with planned opportunities for speaking in arange of contexts, including:

to different audiences, such as professionals, non professionals;

with different levels of formality such as with peers,

to unknown people,

an assembly and for different purposes, such as:

- recounting events and telling stories,

- explaining,

- describing,

- justifying views and- persuading

Speakers need to know how to make

extended contributions (expanding ideas, using connectives; making connections

between reasoning and predicting; using language to organise and sequence ideas

2.1. Speaking and listening skills in a meeting

The art of effective business-meeting communication is very much a learnable skill.

The skills involved in getting your point across are not different than those of a keynote

speaker giving a speech to a meeting group.

Although they are overlooked, the following critical speaking-listening tips make abusiness meeting effective and win-win emphasizing the upside.

1. Focus on the values of your partners

stay focused on what your partner says: the positive remarks at business meetings

genuinely contribute to successful business outcomes. The positive score between

positive comments and those designed more to sting than support will stay solutionfocused, offering up twice as many positive comments as you do negative. "When it's

possible, affirm others' ideas by using active and constructive feedback. For example: 'I

really like Bill's idea on how we can use a different approach when responding tocustomer complaints.'"

2. Address to the entire group.


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When speaking in a group, move your eyes around and talk to anyone who's listening to

what you have to say. "When responding to a question, address the entire group, not just

the person who asked the question and make everyone included.

3. Facilitate and encourage feedback.

Active comment and feedback based on what you have to contribute will broaden,

amplify and substantiate your remarks. Make your point across but also open it up for

discussion. Call on people and make them feel you are interested in what they think. Thepoint is not just to be a participant, but also a facilitator.

4. Make your communication consistent with the comfortable atmosphere

where everyone feels at ease. If, for instance, most participants are keeping their remarks

short, do the same. If their tone is low and reserved, follow their lead. The point is not to

mindlessly mimic but, rather, to affirm and contribute to the overall tenor of the meeting.

If others are being succinct, try to do the same. That makes productive and efficient giveand take gathering. You can also mirror behaviors of other participants such as leaning

forward, crossing your legs and other.

5. Keep the conversational balance

Any participant in a business meeting wants to make his or her point of view clear. It is a

must not to make it a filibuster. Be thorough, but don't take so much time to get your

message across that you lose others' attention or, even worse, alienate someone who maybe waiting their turn to talk. If need be, keep an eye on your watch when you've got the

floor so a comment meant to be short doesn't turn into a diatribe.

6. Keep away the clichs and rhetoric.

A central tenet of powerful business-meeting communication is being as clear as

possible. Avoid wrapping your message into tired catch phrases or too many rhetoricalquestions or negative remarks that do not contribute to the discussion advancement.

7. Make the talking issue one-on-one

If your message warrants a lot more discussion tell the audience that you will give further

details some other time or after the meeting. Don't derail meetings or drag them on

endlessly by going into detail that can be addressed at another time.

8. Be aware of your body language.

The way you express your ideas and message is equally telling in your ability to share

your thoughts with others. Don't limit supportive interaction to just what you say. Show it

by nodding your head, making eye contact, raising your eyebrows and making other


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gestures that demonstrate that your interest and involvement in the discussion aren't mere

lip service.

The effectiveness of speaking skills is supported by the development of active,responsive listening comprehension skills. Speaking should be clear, audible, sometimes

quietly, emphasizing key-words by gesture, facial expression, tone, volume, and eye-contact. The use of precise words would convey meaning and message and hold the

attention of the audience and respond to others contributions by adding or elaborating onthem or by expressing an alternative point of view. The following set ofspeaking and

listening rules are also to be considered for a formal or informal talk:

RULES FOR TALKING RULES FOR LISTENING

Respect each others opinion Dont interrupt

One voice at a time Listen carefully, empathically

Say what you think Be open to new ideas

Say why you think it Think about what others say

Build on what talk partners say Dont interrupt your partners speechSupport and include each other

Ask when you dont understand

Strive to reach agreement


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Your speech nervousness can be turned into an asset by harnessing it, and

transforming it into vitality and enthusiasm.

8. Confidence is built by experience, which is the key to effective speaking. Anxietyto speak in public decreases with experience.

Remember, he who fails to prepare is preparing for failure!

2.1.2. Speaking fluently and accurately

Fluency in English is accuracy with good pronunciation - not speed. In order to imprint

words on your memory and also to feel comfortable about pronouncing them at a

moment's notice, it is necessary to practice vocabulary the number of times you feel

necessary to make your speaking ability fluent and accurate.

1. Decide which constructions and vocabulary items are handy for you to learn .

- -Choose about ten new words per day to practice until you are word-perfect

- -use them in real situations by incorporating them into conversations with as

many people as possible (at least six times each word or construction, but more if

possible). The more you manage to use them in conversation, the more readily

you will be able to say them fluently in the future.

- -Mind the English richness in constructions and vocabulary which convey

similar meanings.

- -Mistakes occur when speakers remember half of one construction and half of

another; ending up with a hotch-potch which is at best "incorrect but

understandable" and at worst "nonsense".

- -Choose only one version to learn accurately for future use.


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- To improve your fluency accuracy with the English language you should use an

English English dictionary only.

o It facilitates the understanding of the word meanings and the meaning of the

meaning too.

o It helps you to familiarize your self with the language and also exposes you to

new English words that you should find out the meanings of.

oUse the English-English dictionary every time you come across a new word. It

is not enough to have a dictionary kept on the shelf, but to make use of it! The

must dictionary that you buy should contain example sentences along with every

word. The sample sentence programs the brain to use the word properly and

clears all doubts or misunderstandings, it explains how the word can be used in

conjunction with other words and how the different words connect to form a

sentence.

For example:

reaction: Response to an earlier activity, attitude

E.g. Sentence: What was your reaction when you heard the news?

Whenever you are looking up some new word and you come across a sample

sentence, you should read it again and again until you know the sentence by-

heart, to make yourself able to use the word or the phrase in sentences of your

own correctly. Forming correct sentences becomes easy if you learn the

sample sentences after reading them again and again. Now-a-days, many


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- speeches that entertain

corresponding to the four types of discourse that

- instructs,- explains,

- shows, or

- tells

The cause-and-effect relationship:

The cause is why something happens; the effect is result, what happens due to the cause.

Therefore, cause-and-effect speeches establish a relationship between events

Cause and effect usually (but not always) happen in time order:

The cause comes first, creating an effect. The following chart shows this order of events:

Golden rules for speaking Golden rules for listening

Take turns to talk

Speak quietly

Choose your words carefully, useappropriate language

Think before you speak

Show respect for each other

Negotiate try to reach an

agreement

Use Standard English

Say what you think

Vary your expression to interestyour audience

Be quiet while other people are

talking

Look interested in what is beingsaid

Repeat what has been said sothat everyone in the groupunderstands

Look at people when they aretalking

Think about what people say

Ask questions when you dontunderstand

Be open to new ideas


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Support and include everyone inthe group

Explain your ideas and opinions

clearly and fully

Listen twice as much as youtalk

One voice at a time

LISTENING SKILLS

Good listening skills are vital to healthy relationships. Whether you're strengthening a

relationship, resolving a conflict, or offering support in a facing a crisis, good listening

skills can be a lifeline to peace. Learn how to be a truly supportive listener, and you mayfind yourself surrounded by others who are able to do the same. Here are some important

steps to developing good listening skills:

1. Listen, Listen, Listen. Ask your friend whats wrong, and really listen to theanswer. Let them vent their fears, frustrations and other important feelings,

maintaining eye contact and showing that youre interested in what they have to say.

Resist the urge to give advice, and just let them get it out.

2. Reframe What You Hear. Summarize and repeat back your understanding of

what theyre saying so they know youre hearing them, and focus on the emotionsthey might be feeling. For example, if your friend is talking about family problems,

you might find yourself saying, It looks like things are getting pretty hostile. You

sound like youre feeling hurt.

3. Ask About Feelings. Ask them to expand on what theyre feeling. Asking about

their feelings provides a good emotional release and might be more helpful than just

focusing on the facts of their situation

4. Keep The Focus On Them. Rather than delving into a related story of your own,

keep the focus on them until they feel better. You can reference something thathappened to you if you bring the focus back to them quickly. They will appreciate

the focused attention, and this will help them feel genuinely cared for and

understood.

5. Help Brainstorm. Rather than giving advice in the beginning, which cuts off

further exploration of feelings and other communication, wait until theyve gottentheir feelings out, and then help them brainstorm solutions. If you help them come

up with ideas and look at the pros and cons of each, theyre likely to come up with

a solution they feel good about. Or they might feel better after just being able to

talk and feeling heard.


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Tips:

1. Stay Present. Sometimes people feign listening, but theyre really just waiting for

their friend to stop talking so they can say whatever theyve been mentallyrehearsing while theyve been pretending to listen. People can usually sense this, and

it doesnt feel good. Also, they tend to miss whats being said because theyre notfocused.

2. Dont Give Advice. Its common to want to immediately give advice and fix

your friends problem. Unless it's specifically requested, dont. While youre trying

to help, what would work for you might not work for your friend; also, advice canfeel condescending. Unless they ask directly for advice, your friend probably just

wants to feel heard and understood, and then can find his or her own solutions.

3. Trust The Process. It might feel a little scary to listen to feelings before diving

into solutions, and hearing your friend talk about upset feelings might even make

you feel helpless. But usually offering a supportive ear and sitting with yourfriend in an uncomfortable place is the most helpful thing you can do, and once

the feelings are cleared out, the solutions can start coming.

4. Let Things Even Out Over Time. With all this focus on your friends problems,

it might be difficult not to focus equal time on your own. Relax in the knowledge

that, when you need a friend, your friend will likely be a better listener for you. If

youre consistently doing all the giving, you can re-evaluate the dynamics of therelationship. But being a good listener can make you a stronger, more caring

person and bring a more supportive angle to your relationships.

PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING

A public relations person who has a clear idea of the mission

and goals of an organization and who understands how public

relations fits into that mission can construct a strategic public

relations plan by sequentially answering the ten following

questions. This part of the overall planning process is often

best recorded and reported using a grid format.

Audience and goal identification

The first questions that need to be addressed--e.g.

With whom does the organization need to have relationships?


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What does it want these people to think about the

organization?-

o can be answered after a little introspection and

discussion with top management.

o Keep in mind that these are ultimately top

management's decisions, not the public relations

practitioners. The public relations people should speak

out and try to influence who is included and who is

excluded from this list, but they rarely make the final

decision.

Probably the most effective way of dealing with these first four

questions is for the public relations staff to develop a preliminarylist of target audiences and relationships and then meet with key

managers to review and discuss them.

1. Who are the organization's key target audiences?

Depending upon the nature of the audiences, these listings may be

as short and simple as the names of key people, organizations, and

communities or as long and complex as psycho demographic

profiles of prospective buyers of a particular product. For mostorganizations the list will include a mix of short and long

identifications. Long audience identification, if they include unique

characteristics, appears that are particularly effective with this

audience.

2. Why is the audience important to the organization?

No matter how obvious it seems, each audience should be

evaluated in terms of its relevance and importance to theorganization. Data about the audience's abstract or general

importance--e.g.,

how big it is,

how politically influential it is, or


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how rich its members are-

o -is not enough and can, in fact, be very

misleading.

The critical information needed is how and why this audience

affects the organization. What does it, or could it do, to help, or to

hinder the organization in reaching its goals?

Padding an audience list with people or organizations who have

little or no direct bearing on the organization is a waste of time.

It serves little purpose, no matter how prestigious these audiencesmay be. It might even interfere with or delay meaningful planning.

3. What view does the organization want this audience to have

of it? / What kind of relationship does the organization want to

have with this audience?

Both of these questions boil down to essentially the same thing: a

reflection of what the organization hopes to accomplish by

interacting with this audience. It may be having them purchaseproducts or services, or voting for specific political candidates, or

supporting new legislation, or any number of other things,

depending upon the organization and the audience.

The more clearly and concretely this view is expressed, the more

helpful it will be for future planning and relationship building.

Reporting research findings

Once the target audiences and desired relationships have been

nailed down, the next step:

explore the existing relationship the organization has with

each of those audiences and


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decide whether it needs any adjustment. This calls for more

than internal discussion. Simply letting the public relations

staff and/or organizational managers speculate will never

yield reliable information.

You need to check with people who actually know--actual

members of the target audiences. Carefully conducted research,

whether it's done by the public relations staff or by hired research

consultants, is the only way to get vital and meaningful

information about the audiences you need to reach. It's critical to

successful planning that such research be done, and that its

findings then be incorporated into the plan as it's being developed.

4. What is this audience's current view of our organization?

Or, what is the organization's current relationship with this

audience? The exact phrasing should correspond to question 3 so

the answers can be juxtaposed, showing where the relationship is

now compared to where the organization wants it to be.

This is not something to be guessed at. This question, more than

any other part of the strategic planning process, requires accurate,non-ambiguous answers. Virtually all the rest of the planning

process, including the setting of specific objectives and the

measurement of success, is based on the information gathered at

this step.

5. What issues and appeals are important to this audience?

and

6. Which media does this audience use and trust the most?

They are not absolutely essential for properly assessing the

organization's current relationships or for determining what can be

done to improve them, but the information they provide can be


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extremely helpful later, during tactical planning and while carrying

out a public relations campaign.

Answering these two questions helps ensure that only the most

effective and efficient media for reaching the target audiences areused and that the messages the organization sends via these

channels will include the best possible themes and concepts for

garnering a response from the audience.

Responses about preferred media or channels of communication

should not be limited to the major mass media, but should also take

narrower and more selective communication techniques

interpersonal conversations public speeches

telephone calls

direct mail

the Internet,

o etc


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Assessment and plan development

This third stage of the planning process integrates the first two

stages with a series of questions that build upon and furtherexplore the responses to the earlier questions.

7. How does this audience's current view of the organization

differ from the desired one?/How does the organization's

current relationship with this audience compare with what the

organization wants it to be?

compare what the organization's managers said about the

desired relationship (question 3) with the audience'sresponses (question 4).

This comparison lets the organization know which of its

relationships are moving along on track and which are most

in need of adjustment.

A frequent outcome of this planning step is a prioritized list

of relationships which need immediate attention.

8. What message themes will have the greatest impact on this

audience?

In some instances, especially when an organization is closely tied

to an issue that has a strong emotional context for its audiences, the

responses to this question end up being identical to the responses

to question 5.

However, something that has become increasingly common inrecent years as organizations seek more and more ways to establish

additional linkages to their constituents is that the perceived

strength of an audience's feeling about a particular topic will

"inspire" the organization to take a similar public stance on that


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issue even though it has no direct bearing on the organization and

would otherwise have gone unnoticed by its management.

9. What are the best ways of reaching this audience?

As with question 8, there are some instances in which responses to

this item are nearly identical to the media preferences identified for

the audience in question 6. At other times, the audience's stated

preferences may not be suitable or affordable for the organization

to use.

The means of reaching the audience which are identified here need

to be appropriate, available, and affordable. In many instances, it

may be most effective to list several different means ofcommunicating with each audience, specifying which means and

medium is most appropriate for various types of situations.

10. Who will serve as the organization's primary contact for

working with this audience?

Even though public relation is concerned with all of an

organization's relationships, the public relations practitioners

themselves are not always the most appropriate "point persons" for

working with every audience.

Some prestigious, high-profile audiences - may not be

satisfied dealing with public relations staff members. They

may expect and warrant the personal attention of the CEO or

the chairman of the board.

Other audiences may be so engrossed with technical issues

that they need to deal with by subject matter specialists andtechnical experts.

Still others may not care who they deal with, just so someone

from the organization pays attention to them.

PUBLIC SPEAKING TIPS


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Centuries ago great speakers often spoke twohours and more. But today when sound bytes ontelevision news are the norm and serious

problems are solved in an hour on a televisiondrama, audiences are most interested inspeakers that get their points across in a shortperiod of time.

Television has helped create an impatientsociety, where audiences expect us to make our

point simply and quickly.Today great speakers are noted for theirbrevity.

More work done in less time produces morepower. In the same way, a speaker's message ismost powerful when he [or she] can deliver a lot

of good material in a short amount of time."

Here are guidelines to make brevity a keyfoundation in your next speech.

First, keep your stories under two minutes inlength.

In preparing a story, continue to ask thequestion,

- "How can I say this in less time and in fewerwords?"


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Script out your story and then seek tocondense it. There is an adage in usinghumor: "The longer the story the funnier it had

better be." Connecting this principle to storiesin general, we might say, "The longer thestory, the more impact it had better have." Tomake sure your stories stay under twominutes, include only information that answersthe questions,

"Who?"

"What?"

"When?"

"Where?" and

"Why?"

If it doesn't answer one of these questions,leave it out. Make sure also that you have asense of direction in the story. Each part of thestory should move toward the conclusion inthe mind of the listener. The listener shouldalways feel you are going somewhere in

developing your story.

Second, when possible, follow the proverb,"Less is better than more."


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- Never use three words when you can say itin two.

- Leave out clichs, filler words, andhackneyed words, such as "You know,""OK," and "All right."

- Leave out phrases such as "Let me behonest," or blunt, or frank. Avoid "In otherwords - " or "To say it another way - "

- Speak in short sentences, short phrases,and short words. Word choice should beinstantly clear to an audience. Make it a goalto make every word have impact in yourspeech.

Third, know the length of your speech by

practicing it.

Never be surprised by the length of your speech.Never say to an audience, "I'm running out oftime, so I must hurry along." You should knowbecause of your preparation and practice of thespeech. To go one step further, if you know thetime limit on your speech is 20 minutes, stop aminute short; don't go overtime. Audiences willappreciate your respect of their time and willthink more highly of you as a speaker because


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of that. You should never be surprised by howlong it takes you to deliver a speech

Fourth, learn to divide parts of your speechinto time segments

- Let's use a 20-minute speech as anexample. The introduction should be nolonger than 2 minutes. You can get theattention and preview your message easilyin that length of time. Avoid opening with

generalizations about the weather or theaudience. Let the audience know up frontthat every word you speak counts.

- Spend the bulk of your time in the body ofthe speech. This is where you make yourpoints and give support or evidence for each

point.

- The final two minutes should be yoursummary and move to action statement.Some speakers have a hard timeconcluding. When you say you are going toconclude, do so. As one wise person stated,

"Don't dawdle at the finish line of thespeech."

One way to keep your speech brief is to havefew points in the body of your speech-no more


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than three. With a maximum of three points, youwill have the self-discipline to condense ratherthan amplify. In organizing your material, accept

the fact you will always have more material thanyou can cover and that you will only includematerial that relates to one of the two or threepoints you plan to make. Trying to cover four tosix points will almost invariably make you goovertime in your speech.

A key to success in speaking is not just havingsomething worthwhile to say, but also saying itbriefly. We need to follow the speaking axiom:

"Have a powerful, captivating opening and astrong, memorable close, and put the two ofthem as close together as possible."

PUBLIC SPEAKING TIPS-2

Centuries ago great speakers often spoke two hours and more. But today whensound bytes on television news are the norm and serious problems are solved inan hour on a television drama, audiences are most interested in speakers that

get their points across in a short period of time.

Television has helped create an impatient society, where audiences expect us tomake our point simply and quickly.

Today great speakers are noted for their brevity.


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More work done in less time produces more power. In the same way, a speaker'smessage is most powerful when he [or she] can deliver a lot of good material in ashort amount of time."

Here are guidelines to make brevity a key foundation in your next speech.

First, keep your stories under two minutes in length.

In preparing a story, continue to ask the question,

- "How can I say this in less time and in fewer words?"

Script out your story and then seek to condense it. There is an adage in usinghumor: "The longer the story the funnier it had better be." Connecting thisprinciple to stories in general, we might say, "The longer the story, the moreimpact it had better have." To make sure your stories stay under two minutes,include only information that answers the questions,

"Who?"

"What?"

"When?"

"Where?" and

"Why?"

If it doesn't answer one of these questions, leave it out. Make sure also thatyou have a sense of direction in the story. Each part of the story should move

toward the conclusion in the mind of the listener. The listener should alwaysfeel you are going somewhere in developing your story.

Second, when possible, follow the proverb, "Less is better than more."

- Never use three words when you can say it in two.

- Leave out clichs, filler words, and hackneyed words, such as "Youknow," "OK," and "All right."

- Leave out phrases such as "Let me be honest," or blunt, or frank. Avoid"In other words - " or "To say it another way - "

- Speak in short sentences, short phrases, and short words. Word choiceshould be instantly clear to an audience. Make it a goal to make everyword have impact in your speech.

Third, know the length of your speech by practicing it.


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Never be surprised by the length of your speech. Never say to an audience, "I'mrunning out of time, so I must hurry along." You should know because of yourpreparation and practice of the speech. To go one step further, if you know thetime limit on your speech is 20 minutes, stop a minute short; don't go overtime.Audiences will appreciate your respect of their time and will think more highly of

you as a speaker because of that. You should never be surprised by how long ittakes you to deliver a speech

Fourth, learn to divide parts of your speech into time segments

- Let's use a 20-minute speech as an example. The introduction should beno longer than 2 minutes. You can get the attention and preview yourmessage easily in that length of time. Avoid opening with generalizationsabout the weather or the audience. Let the audience know up front thatevery word you speak counts.

- Spend the bulk of your time in the body of the speech. This is where you

make your points and give support or evidence for each point.

- The final two minutes should be your summary and move to actionstatement. Some speakers have a hard time concluding. When you sayyou are going to conclude, do so. As one wise person stated, "Don'tdawdle at the finish line of the speech."

One way to keep your speech brief is to have few points in the body of yourspeech-no more than three. With a maximum of three points, you will have theself-discipline to condense rather than amplify. In organizing your material,accept the fact you will always have more material than you can cover and thatyou will only include material that relates to one of the two or three points youplan to make. Trying to cover four to six points will almost invariably make you goovertime in your speech.

A key to success in speaking is not just having something worthwhile to say, butalso saying it briefly. We need to follow the speaking axiom:

"Have a powerful, captivating opening and a strong, memorable close, andput the two of them as close together as possible."

Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs. Know your

material thoroughly. Put what you have to say in a logical sequence. Ensure your speechwill be captivating to your audience as well as worth their time and attention. Practice

and rehearse your speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable, in front

of a mirror, your family, friends or colleagues. Use a tape-recorder and listen to yourself.


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Videotape your presentation and analyze it. Know what your strong and weak points are.

Emphasize your strong points during your presentation.

When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actoris onstage. How you are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the

occasion. Be solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your audience.Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant. Remain calm. Appear

relaxed, even if you feel nervous. Speak slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriateemotion and feeling relating to your topic. Establish rapport with your audience. Speak to

the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the

back of the room. Vary the tone of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If amicrophone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.

Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand

gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down

and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if

appropriate and necessary. Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPointwell before your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of

animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your topic. Do nottorture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and

reading it out to them.

Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your

audience effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients asthat which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from

INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate

and up-to-date information) to CONCLUSION (re-state thesis, summary, and logical

conclusion).

Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to

glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Do not

mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses orapologize profusely.

Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look

straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye

contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at thewhole audience while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience

feel involved.

Speakto your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their reactions, adjust and

adapt. If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, changeyour strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember that

communication is the key to a successful presentation. If you are short of time, know

what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know what could be effectively added.Always be prepared for the unexpected.


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Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race

through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of

breath.

Add humorwhenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout

your entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but aboring speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.

When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessaryequipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have

an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to

ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of

projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation.

Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of

time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste

time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.

Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time yourpresentation when preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your

written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your

oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same wayas you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a written paper. Remember, however, that

there is a difference between spoken words appropriate for the ear and formally written

words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an interesting remark or an

appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive impression and a sense ofcompletion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. Thank your audience and sit down.

Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if

required.

ORAL PRESENTATION

A common assignment in technical writing courses is to prepare and deliver anoral presentation. You might wonder what an oralreport is doing in a writingclass. Employers look for coursework and experience in preparing written

documents, but they also look for some experience in oral presentation as well.That's why the real name of courses like these ought to be "Introduction toTechnical Communications."

The following was written for a standard face-to-face classroom setting. If you aretaking the online version of technical writing, the oral reports can be sent in as"scripts," or with the right equipment, audio versions can be transmitted live.


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Either way, students evaluate each other's oral-report scripts by filling out anonline form and sending it to the instructor.

Check out these examples of oral report scripts:

Oral report 1: Patient Seminar onPhysical Therapy

Frames Nonframes Plain

Oral report 2: Presentation onAutomobile Airbags for SalesRepresentatives

Frames Nonframes Plain

Topic and Situation for the Oral Presentation

For the oral report, imagine that you are formally handing over your final writtenreport to the people with whom you set up the hypothetical contract oragreement. For example, imagine that you had contracted with a softwarecompany to write its user guide. Once you had completed it, you'd have ameeting with chief officers to formally deliver the guide. You'd spend some timeorienting them to the guide, showing them how it is organized and written, anddiscussing some of its highlights. Your goal is to get them acquainted with theguide and to prompt them for any concerns or questions. (Your class will gladlypretend to be whoever you tell them to be during your talk.)

As you can see, you shouldn't have to do any research to prepare for this

assignmentjust plan the details of your talk and get at least one visual ready. Ifyou have a topic that you'd prefer not to present orally to the group, discuss otherpossibilities with your instructor. Here are some brainstorming possibilities incase you want to present something else:

Purpose: Another way to find a topic is to think about the purpose of your

talk. Is it to instruct (for example, to explain how to run a text editing

program on a computer), to persuade (to vote for or against a certain

technically oriented bond issue), or simply to inform (to report on citizen

participation in the new recycling program).

o Informative purpose: An oral report can be primarily informative.

For example, as a member of a committee involved in a project to relocate

the plant, your job might be to give an oral report on the condition of the

building and grounds at one of the sites proposed for purchase. Or, you

might be required to go before the city council and report on the success

of the new city-sponsored recycling project.
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o Instructional purpose: An oral report can be primarily instructional.

Your task might be to train new employees to use certain equipment or to

perform certain routine tasks.

o

Persuasive purpose: An oral report can be primarily persuasive.You might want to convince members of local civic organizations to

support a city-wide recycling program. You might appear before city

council to persuade its members to reserve certain city-owned lands for

park areas, softball and baseball parks, or community gardens.

Topics: You can start by thinking of a technical subject, for example, solar

panels, microprocessors, drip irrigation, or laser surgery. For your oral

report, think of a subject you'd be interested in talking about, but find a

reason why an audience would want to hear your oral report.

Place or situation: You can find topics for oral reports or make more

detailed plans for them by thinking about the place or the situation in

which your oral report might naturally be given: at a neighborhood

association? at the parent teachers' association meeting? at a church

meeting? at the gardening club? at a city council meeting? at a meeting of

the board of directors or high-level executives of a company? Thinking

about an oral report this way makes you focus on the audience, their

reasons for listening to you, and their interests and background.

Contents and Requirements for the Oral Presentation

The focus for your oral presentation is clear, understandable presentation; well-organized, well-planned, well-timed discussion. You don't need to be Mr. or Ms.Slick-Operatorjust present the essentials of what you have to say in a calm,organized, well-planned manner.

When you give your oral presentation, we'll all be listening for the same things.Use the following as a requirements list, as a way of focusing your preparations:

Plan to explain to the class what the situation of your oral report is, whoyou are, and who they should imagine they are. Make sure that there is a

clean break between this brief explanation and the beginning of your

actual oral report.


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End with a real conclusion. People sometimes forget to plan how to end

an oral report and end by just trailing off into a mumble. Remember that in

conclusions, you can summarize (go back over high points of what you've

discussed), conclude (state some logical conclusion based on what you

have presented), provide some last thought(end with some final

interesting point but general enough not to require elaboration), or some

combination of these three. And certainly, you'll want to prompt the

audience for questions and concerns.

As mentioned above, be sure your oral report is carefully timed to 7

minutes. Some ideas on how to do this are presented in the next section.

Diagram of the oral presentation.

Preparing for the Oral Presentation


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Pick the method of preparing for the talk that best suits your comfort level withpublic speaking and with your topic. However, do some sort of preparation orrehearsalsome people assume that they can just jump up there and ad lib for 7minutes and be relaxed, informal. It doesn't often work that waydrawing amental blank is the more common experience.

Here are the obvious possibilities for preparation and delivery:

Write a script, practice it, keep it around for quick-reference during your

talk.

Set up an outline of your talk, practice with it, bring it for reference.

Set up cue cards, practice with them, use them during your talk.

Write a script and read from it.

Of course, the extemporaneous or impromptu methods are also out there for thebrave and the adventurous. However, please bear in mind that up to 25 peoplewill be listening to youyou owe them a good presentation, one that is clear,understandable, well-planned, organized, and informative.

It doesn't matter which method you use to prepare for the talk. Of course thehead-down style of reading your report directly from a script has its problems.There is little or no eye contact or interaction with the audience. The deliverytends toward a dull monotone that either puts listeners off or is hard to

understand.

For some reason, people tend to get nervous in this situation. Try to rememberthat your classmates and instructor are a very forgiving, supportive group. Youdon't have to be a slick entertainerjust be clear, organized, understandable,informative. The nerves will wear off someday, the more oral presenting you do.


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Introductory remarks in an oral presentation.

Delivering an Oral Presentation

When you give an oral report, focus on common problem areas such as these:

TimingMake sure you keep within the 7-minute time limit. Anything

under 6 minutes is also a problem. Do some rehearsal, write a script, or

find some other way to get the timing just right.

VolumeObviously, you must be sure to speak loud enough so that all of

your audience can hear you. You might find some way to practice

speaking a little louder in the days before the oral presentation.

Pacing, speedSometimes, oral presentators who are a bit nervous talk

too fast. All that adrenaline causes them to speed through their talk. That


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makes it hard for the audience to follow. In general, it helps listeners to

understand you better if you speak a bit more slowly and deliberately than

you do in normal conversation. Slow down, take it easy, be clear.

Gestures and postureWatch out for nervous hands flying all over theplace. This too can be distractingand a bit comical. At the same time,

don't turn yourself into a mannikin. Plan to keep your hands clasped

together or holding onto the podium and only occasionally making some

gesture. As for posture, avoid slouching at the podium and leaning against

the wall.

Verbal crutchesWatch out for too much "uh," "you know," "okay" and

other kinds of nervous verbal habits. Instead of saying "uh" or "you know"

every three seconds, just don't say anything at all. In the days before your

oral presentation, practice speaking without these verbal crutches. The

silence that replaces them is not a bad thingit gives listeners time to

process what you are saying.

Examples of verbal headings in an oral presentation.

Planning and Preparing Visuals for Oral Presentations


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Tables, charts, graphsIf you discuss statistical data, present it in some

form or table, chart, or graph. Many members of your audience may have

trouble "hearing" such data as opposed to seeing it.

Outline of your talk, report, or bothIf you are at a loss for visuals to usein your oral presentation, or if your presentation is complex, have an

outline of it that you can show at various points during your talk.

Key terms and definitionsA good idea for visuals (especially when you

can't think of any others) is to set up a two-column list of key terms you

use during your oral presentation with their definitions in the second

column.

Key concepts or pointsSimilarly, you can list your key points and show

them in visuals. (Outlines, key terms, and main points are all good,

legitimate ways of incorporating visuals into oral presentations when you

can't think of any others.)

During your actual oral report, make sure to discuss your visuals, refer to them,guide your listeners through the key points in your visuals. It's a big problem justto throw a visual up on the screen and never ev

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