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, , ,Ian Horton, Hsiao-chi Peng, Roxanne Li

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What is Current Nuclear Technology?hat is Current Nuclear Technology?

classifications of nuclear reactors Generation I: earliest prototypes and reactors developed

Generation II: reactors built commercially through the 1990s

Generation III: evolutionary improvements on Generation II

researched

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All reactors generate fissile

material, but breeders produce

more fissile material than theyconsume (Pu-239!). . VERY expensive.

Reprocessing required.

Thorium :

Potential source of massive amounts ofenergy, with less waste.

.

Definitively Generation IV technology.3

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Breeder Reactors

Can produce more fissile material than theyconsume.

Require an initial stock of fissile enricheduranium or plutonium.

water as a coolant (usually molten sodium).

Have been successfully built before! Notablythe French Superphnix produced electricityfrom 1985 to 1997.

Can be rigged to burn fertile Thorium ornaturally occurring uranium.

Very few made for commercial production highly experimental.

Generall considered Generation IV.

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More abundantthan uranium

Difficult to reprocess

Less long-lived

waste products

Still requires an initialstock of enriched

uranium or plutonium

Less overallradioactive waste

No large scalecommercial reactors

are currently

e a ve y cu oweaponize (it is not

fissile)

opera ona

Generation IV fuelsource

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A reactor A reactor

with lessthan 300 with lessthan 700

capacity is

considered

capacity is

defined as. .

SMRs provide flexibility and require less capital investment.

Unfortunately, SMRs are NOT currently available on themarket, and it may be a long time before they arecommercially available in the United States.

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Small and Medium Sized Reactors: SMRs

Smaller reactors have a smaller capital investment. By riggingseveral smaller plants to achieve the same output as a larger plant,revenue can be enerated before the ro ect is com leted limitinthe maximum negative cash flow of the project. This is the conceptbehind the 225 MWe International Reactor Innovative and Secure(IRIS), which will boast a built time of 2-3 years for a single unit.

SMRs can also be hooked up independent of the grid toserve remote locations.

, ,the pressurized water reactor, IRIS. Here are a few of the front-runners:

The 80-165 MWe Pebble Bed Modular Reactor uses helium gas as a

coolant and graphite as a modulator. Since it can operate at highertemperatures than conventional reactors, it is more efficient with its fuel:metal-alloy pellets. The design is in the pre-application process with the

,Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor.

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The Toshiba Super Safe, Small, and Simple (4S) is a sodium cooled

,operate without maintenance for 30 years before being excavated andreturned to the company. It is in the pre-application stage with theNRC, and there is a proposed site for a prototype in Galena, AK. It isscheduled to perhaps be the first of its kind to reach the commercial

market, but there are significant safety concerns. A lack of routinemaintenance for 30 years poses a problem, as unexpected problems

. ,unnoticed breach in the system could lead to a large explosion. Thelack of maintenance, while initially appealing, is possibly a potential

snag for many SMRs.

The 25 MWe Hyperion Power Module (HPM) is designed to be buriedand maintenance free for a eriod of 7-10 ears before refuelin . It

would use a 20% enriched uranium nitride fuel, and would be leadbismuth cooled. A mere 1.5m x 2.5m in size, the HPM is highlyportable, completely sealed, and has no moving parts. Hyperion

,build a prototype by 2015.

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SMRs are not currentl available on the commercial market, and even themost advanced ones still have a long way to go before they can be soldcommercially in the US. This is for a few possible reasons:

,

SMRs require new technology, and this technology has not been as readilyavailable as that of large reactors.

2) Furthermore, regulatory barriers prevent SMRs from being economicallyviable at this point, even if the capital costs are lower. That is because

regulations put in place by the NRC are specifically for large plants, and they. ,

of $4.5M for each operating license it issues. This is not a huge fee for alarge plant, but for the small rate of power SMRs produce, the number canbe stifling. Similar regulatory issues exist with decommissioning funds,

insurance, and liability that make it easier and more economical to build alarger plant. Until these regulations are tailored to the new situation, SMRswill have difficulty reaching the commercial market in the US.

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Design

Characteristics Coolant NRC

Status

GenerationIII

(ABWR)

Reactors,1350Mwe Water Certifiedin1997

AP600 PassiveSafetyFeatures,

600MWe Water Certifiedin1999

AP1000 Passive

Safety

Features,

1,100MWe Water Certifiedin2005

EconomicSimpleBoilingWater PassiveSafetyFeatures,Water

AppliedforCertification in 2005;

eac or , we n er ev ew

U.S.EvolutionjaryPowerReactor

(USEPR)

GreaterSafetyMargins,

1,600Mwe Water

AppliedforCertification2007;

UnderReview

U.S.Advanced

Pressurized

Similar

to

Current

Applied

for

Certification

in

2007;

WaterReactor(ASAPWR) Reactors,1700Mwe UnderReview

InternationalReactorInnovative

andSecure(IRIS)

InnovativeModular

Design,325MWe Water

HasnotyetAppliedfor

Certification

GenerationIV

SupercriticalWater

Cooled

Reactor(SCWR) Large

Plant,

1,700MWe Water Has

not

yet

Applied

for

Certification

LeadCooledFastReactor(LFR)

Lowpowerreacors,Long

refulingperiod;501200LiquidLeador HasnotyetAppliedfor

MWe

SodimCooled

Fast

Reactor

(SFR) 150

1,700

Mwe Liquid

Sodium

HasnotyetAppliedfor

Certification10

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Generation III+ Pressurized Light

Water Reactor

Many simplified passive safetymeasures in place.

1154 MWe

12 units are scheduled foroperation in China by 2015.

14 licenses have been filed forreactors in the US, and 1 contracthas been agreed upon in Vogtle,

**First Generation III+ reactorto have been approved by

.

Commission (2005)**

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Westinghouse AP1000

Great Things to Come!

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Construction Decommissioning

Operation

3 650

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Capital

Material costs var widel overtime and geography

Construction

Delays and unexpected

Discount Rate

Interests rates have asignificant effect in this period All construction performed withnegative profit

Solution: Modularization

Westinghouse hasattempted to cut construction

time to 36 months thou h

modularization of AP1000

reactor sections14

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AP1000 Construction Cost

Estimates$3.3 B Westinghouse

2008 MIT

StudyWorld Nuclear

$1.8 B

$2.2 BAssociation

$1.32 B

600 MWe CoalPlantWestinghouse AP1000 15

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$3000/KW $3000/KW

$2000/KW

$1200/KW

600 MWe CoalPlantWestinghouse AP1000 16

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Uranium

Consistently theowes cos ener y

resource Front end

-20% of totalcost/KW

inelastic withrespect to fuel

Source: Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI):http://www.nei.org/resourcesandstats/documentlibrary/reliableandaffordableenergy/graphicsandcharts/monthlyfuelcosttouselectricutilities17

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18

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- Only 3 licensed facilities in U.S.

Carolina US Ecology in Washington State

EnergySolutions Clive Operations in Utah

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-

cooling pools

Safety controls-

monitors and

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Inde endent S ent

Fuel StorageInstallations

ac o s up toPWR fuel

For AP1000 over 10yrs, produce enough

fuel assemblies tofill 28 ISFSIs

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-

Vitrification

Stored on-site for 40-50 years, after

remains

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5x less high-level waste

Faster rate of decay

Recovery of uranium andplutonium for re-use

Further development throughU.S. partnership with GNEP

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In 2010, construction halted and Office of

Civilian Radioactive Waste Managementwas disbanded , , an

environmental

NRC.

industry suingEnergyDepartment

26

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Nuclear Accidents are not viewed as a good

thing due to loss of life and long term effects

on the land Chernobyl, Fukushima, 3 mile island

In all 3 cases, critical safety precautions wereoverlooked (this is true in Fukushima Japan

too even thou h it was s urred b a tsunami Nuclear Plants feature defense in depth, a

series of redundant safety features that will

emergency Most accidents occur because these

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Control of Radioactivit

Most common method is to introduceneutron absorbing control rods into thereac or

Maintenance of Core Cooling

temp environments, sodium may be needed

Concrete walls, vacuum building, PPE and

SOP

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Stron Em hasis on Passive Safet

Systems use natural forces (gravity, natural

physics

Virtually no moving parts (lack of pumps,ans, ese genera ors, c ers, e crequired for safety system

Valve onl movin art movement is

made using stored energy from springs,compressed gas or batteries.

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Core cooling and containmentindefinitel with no o erator or AC owersupport requirements

Passive residual heat removal

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Emergency Core cooling system

in AP1000

Desi ned to rotect a ainst leaks in the

reactor cooling system Safety Injection and Depressurization

Relies on water from core makeup tanks,accumulators, and in-containment refueling

water stora e tank Passive Residual heat removal

PRHR heat exchanger

Passive Containment Cooling system Relies on air circulation passing over

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. Not always taken into consideration when

discussing Nuclear Power Includes Shutdown, waste disposal,

dismantlin and restoration of overall site to astate in which it is no longer hazardous to thegeneral public

Immediate Dismantling: relatively quick Safe enclosure: average 40 to 60 years before doing

an thin

Entombment: site is designed to retain everything itgenerates over the course of its active life foreveronsite in a safe manner

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Greenhouse Gas Emissionsreenhouse Gas Emissions

http://depletedcranium.com/greenpeace-issues-top-ten-against-nuclear-power/

Nuclear power plant operation emits no or negligible

amounts of carbon dioxide.

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A European treatmentof roduction andexternal costs,

specifically of powergeneration in

Project), has been doneby the Paul Scherrer

Institute and shows thatthe damage costs fromfossil fuels are 10 to350% of the production

The twin bars represent the range of values for plants operating in=

,

nuclear are very small.

http://www.vattenfall.com/en/file/2005-LifeCycleAssessment_8459810.pdf36

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Carbon Footprint Comparison

Continued

Figures published from Japan's CentralResearch Institute of the Electric Power

Full Lifecycle CO2 Emissions from Energy

Industry give life cycle carbon dioxideemission figures for various generationtechnologies. Nuclear power is only bestedby wind and hydro.

Wind is the only more carbon neutralpower generation source

http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf68.htmlhttp://www.world-nuclear.org/climatechange/nuclear_meetingthe_climatechange_challenge.html

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Emissions of a nuclear power plant at various stages of operation showing thefossil CO2 contributions from fossil fuel derived sources.

http://www.vattenfall.com/en/file/2005-LifeCycleAssessment_8459810.pdf

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Nuclear ower has hi her overall lifetime costs.

Cap and Trade may drive down that cost bytrading credits.

Cap and Trade has little impact on the nuclearpower option because of it negligible production of

reenhouse ases. Policies are currently being considered to increase

reliance on nuclear power in conjunction with

renewa es an ap an ra e o ecreasedependency on foreign fuel.

http://web.mit.edu/nuclearpower/pdf/nuclearpower-ch1-3.pdf39

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Ma or U.S uranium reserves

http://www.energy-net.org/01NUKE/u-mining/us-uranium-usgs.jpg40

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Cayuga Lake

en tat on

290-megawatt coal-fired plant

830-megawatt nuclear-fueledsteam electric station

Heat from the lant would add a roximatel 6 billion Btu er hour to the water over and

Maximum depth of 435 feet, and a mean depth of 179 feet.

A volume of 331 billion cubic feet.

above the reported 1.3 billion Btu per hour heat rejection from Milliken.

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Simple Calculation of Temp. incensementimple Calculation of Temp. incensement

Capacity of power it will be heated at a rate

Flow rate of coolingwater:1100 cubic feet /

o =

megawatts. 1780X947 = 1 680 000

The thermal efficiency ofnuclear power plants : 32%

Btu (of energy are putinto 1100 cubic feet of

megawatt = 947 Btu ofenergy

.

The water will be heated1,680,000/(62.4X1100)

the temperature of onepound of water by 10 F

=25F

.pounds

25F in the condensers.

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The effects on Ca u a Lake

Thermal Stratification - refer to a change inthe temperature at different depths in the lake,

due to the change in water's density with.

Heat

Temp. high Temp. low

ens y ow

Temp. low

MIXED

ens y g .Density high

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depletion in the large underlying layer of cooler water,

will become lower than they do at present, before being

re lenished b the dela ed fall mixin of the u er andlower layers.

44

G S f N

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Government Support for New

Projects

The typical U.S. electric company cannotafford to inde endentl finance new ro ects

High construction costs

Political and re ulator risks Cost overruns by the licensing process and

litigation

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tax credits

loan guarantees

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Production Tax Credits

allows 6,000 megawatts of new nuclear capacity to

earn $18 per megawatt-hour for the first eight years

.

plant is capped at $125 million per year

The construction and operating license application had to

have been submitted to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory

Commission by Dec. 31, 2008. The plant must be under construction by January 1, 2014.

e p ant must e operat ng y anuary , .

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Loan Guarantee

through the Department of Energy General Ob ective of the Loan Guarantee: to

support the commercial deployment of

innovative technologies that reduce

em ss ons

allows a more highly leveraged capital

guaranteed project debt cannot exceed 80percent of total project cost)

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pay a premium for the insurance coverage

six new nuclear plants. Standby support

covers delays caused only by factorsou s e a company s con ro

administered by the Department of Energy

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State-specific policies Some states may:

guarantee that capital costs associated with construction willbe added to the rate base when the plant comes online

passed on to ratepayers during construction. *Note: Allowing CWIP reduces the cost ratepayers will pay

for power from the plant when it goes into commercial. assist with financing for unregulated plants by allowing pre-

negotiated, long-term power purchase agreements (PPA). PPAs guarantee the project will have a source of cash flow

an cos recovery once s opera ona

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Government Support for Research

and Development (R D)

The U.S. wants to develop in collaboration with

other nations reprocessing and fuel treatment

technolo ies that are:

cleaner,

more e c en ,

less waste intensive, and

more proliferation-resistant

51

Government Support for Research

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Government Support for Research

On February 6, 2006 the Global Nuclear Energy

and Development (R&D)

Partnership (GNEP) began as a U.S. proposal,

announced by then Secretary of Energy SamuelBodman

GNEP represents an international partnership topromote the use of nuclear power and close the

nuclear fuel cycle in a way that reduces nuclearwas e an e r s o nuc ear pro era on

In July 2007, DOE announced that, through itsAdvanced Fuel Cycle Initiative, it would be making

$20 million available to conduct detailed sitingstudies for public or commercial entities interestedin hosting GNEP facilities

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Who is the primary regulating agency?

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

e s espons e orlicensing and regulating the construction and

o eration of commercial nuclear

power plants.

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The Extent of Federal Authority

N l Pver Nuclear Power

construction ( licensing ) andoperations, including:

nuclear health and environmental safety concerns and onsite physical security

Exclusivel controls the trans ortation

and storage of spent nuclear fuel

licensees to store spent nuclear fuel at reactor sites

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includes a Safety Analysis Report, which contains:

comprehensive data on the proposed site,

various hypothetical accident situations and the safetyfeatures of the plant that prevent accidents or willcontain them, and

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If the application is accepted, the NRC holds a public

with: the safety and environmental aspects,

the regulatory process, and

the provisions for public participation in the licensing

NRC then conducts:

a safety review, an environmental review, and

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Safet Review

The NRC reviews characteristics of the site,

including surrounding population, seismology,meteorology, geology and hydrology;

design of the nuclear plant; anticipated response of the plant to hypothetical

accidents plant operations including the applicant's

technical qualifications to operate the plant;

Safety Evaluation Report, prepared by the NRCsummarizing the anticipated effect of thero osed facilit on ublic health and safet

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The National Environmental Policy Act requiresthe NRC to evaluate the potential environmentalimpacts and benefits of the proposed plant

the NRC then issues a Draft Environmental

appropriate Federal, State, and local agenciesas well as by the public.

The NRC issues a Final Environmental ImpactStatement that addresses all commentsreceived

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hearing be held before a constructionermit is issued

The public hearing is conducted by a

-Licensing Board

,

who acts as chairperson, and twotechnicall ualified ersons

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some construction at the site prior to theissuance of a construction ermit.

This authorization is known as a Limited

risk of the licensee

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Operating License Application

Includes a Final Safety Analysis Report describes the final design of the facility and

NRC prepares a Final Safety Evaluation Report

ublic hearin is not mandator for o eratin licenseapplications the NRC publishes a notice in the Federal Register

,

providing notice to those whose interest might beaffected by the issuance of the license to request a

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operating in accordance with regulations ree ers o overs g o ensure:

Reactor safety - avoiding accidents

Radiation safety - for plant workers andpublic from radiation exposure during

routine operations Safeguards - protection against security

threats

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Oversi ht of O erations

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Oversi ht of O erations

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Measuring and Inspecting Nuclear Plant

er ormance: wo er rocess

objective performance indicators

provides plant operational insight about, among otherthings, the possible occurance of:

- - safety system failures- reactor cool ing system leakage- securit breaches

- etc. inspection findings

prov es grea er ep an rea o n orma on

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Detecting, preventing, and responding toterrorist attacks requires government

coordination among: Nuclear Regulatory Commission Intelligence Staff

Department of Defense

Department of Homeland Security

Federal Bureau of Investigation

National Counterterrorism Center State and Local Government law enforcement

etc.

67

NRC Security Experts

inspect facilities for

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the following Onsite Security Requirements:

Vehicle barriers and checks before plant entry

Trained security patrols Force-on-Force inspections

Including simulated combat between mock adversary

force and lant securit force Comprehensive employee background checks

Criminal record checks

Psychological assessments Behavioral observations

mergency response personne

68

Exclusive federal control over spent

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nuclear fuel transportation and storage

how high level radioactive waste and spentnuclear fuel enerated b civilian nuclearpower reactors must be disposed

reactors (e.g., utilities)

DOE "takes title" to the nuclear waste

69

The Federal Government holds the

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ibilit f b ildi g tesponsibility of building a permanent

storage site

DOE has a contractual obligation to accept nuclear

waste from commercial reactors

Several utilities have sued the federal government civilly fordamages.

Earlier Federal Court decided that the government indeed had

breached its contracts, but the courts did not award damages Later decisions awarded monetary damages to nuclear power

plant owners

70

Should the Obama dministration

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have terminated theYucca Mountain

Maybe, if the health and environmental fears weresu c en y we groun e

Howeverfrom a financial standpoint the political

s ammer ng as een cos y

The government had invested two decades and $10 billion on

Recent court decisions awarding damages to nuclear power

plant owners have been in the tens, if not hundreds, of millions

of dollars

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Getting Ithaca Onboardetting Ithaca Onboard

Community Against Health and Safety Threats

Petitioning represents an additional means

for the public to raise safety concerns

The other means for the ublic to raise concerns:

Rulemaking

cens ng

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Public Petition Process, NUREG/BR-0200, Rev. 5, February 2003. 72

Getting Ithaca Onboardg

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Public Petit ions to SafeguardAgainst Health or Safety

Threats

Anyone may petition the NRC to take enforcement action related

to NRC licenses or licensed activities

NRC may modify, suspend or revoke an NRC-issued license

In writing the petit ioner can identify the affected licensee or

licensed activity

The NRC evaluates whether the petition includes supportedassertions of safety problems

- .g., e w no a e ac on n response o genera oppos on o nuc ear

power

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Getting Ithaca Onboard

Nuclear risks associated with power productionGetting Ithaca Onboard

are covere y:

a private liability insurance fund made. .

American Nuclear Insurers ($375 million liability

limits , and a public fund has been made available by

assessments on nuclear power plant

operators, which was created in 1957 aspart of the Price Anderson Act ($12.2on o a y pro ec on

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Getting Ithaca Onboard

Coverage under Price-Anderson is comprehensiveGetting Ithaca Onboard

and includes injuries caused by:

theft,,

transporting or storing nuclear fuel or waste, and

the o eration of reactors Covered Injuries include:

h sical illness e.g., bodily injury sickness, disease resulting in death

property damage and losses, and reasonable living expenses for people who have been

evacuated from an affected area

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