The Relationship of Teachers' and Students' Motivation in ELT in Malta: A Mixed Methods Study

Maria Mifsud, MEd.

Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2011

Abstract

This thesis investigates the relationship between the motivation of secondary involved 34 Form in The Malta. English study school teachers and students of Four teachers of English and their 612 students (15 year-olds). A mixed involving methodology, methods research a survey and an interview study

levels The of employed. survey measured which complemented each other, was teacher and student motivation and the relationship between them through

had in then taken Some the teachers the were who part survey of questionnaires. interviewed about their motivation to teach and their perceptions of the

learn. their between to this students' motivation and motivation relationship The results show that mainly two factors link the motivation of teachers between These their English. teachers good rapport and a are of and students factors increase Both high these the motivation teacher of efficacy. students and Type teachers. their of school and the students' attitudes the and of students in factors found be influencing English Maltese to were also toward speakers of the relationship between teacher and student motivation.

Recommendationswhich stem from the study are that teachersshouldseek ways of professional self-improvement through support groups and

Continual Professional Development courses. Other suggestions, both at the if These level, forward. level recommendations, are put and the policy school implemented, should improve teacher motivation which would in turn lead to improved student motivation as a positive relationship between the two has been for first has it the in kind is its that established, one of established. The study time, that an empirical link exists between teacher and student motivation.

Acknowledgements

It is difficult to overstate my gratitude to my supervisor Prof Zoltan Drnyei who for his from I inspiration the guidance and not only grateful am start. was my expertise but also for his support and patience. My sincere thanks go to Dr Liberato Camilleri and Dr Frank Bezzina for their statistical know-how and availability.

I would like to expressmy gratitude also to all the teachersand studentswho participated in this study.I also owe my mother, Teresa for her love and wise counsel. Lastly but most importantly, I am indebted to my brother Charles whose belief in me has been unrelenting. I owe him for his words of enthusiasm, his sound

have been This this thesis throughout venture. not would advice and good companyhim. without possible

To

My brother Charles, is who my role model

Table of Contents

8 .......................................................................................................................... CHAPTER 1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING INTRODUCTIONIN MALTA ............................................................................................................. ........................................................................ 13 13 16 20

1.1 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN MALTA 1.2 THE PRESENT SITUATION

........................................................................................... ......................................................................

1.3 THE MALTESE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 1.3.1 Secondary schooling 21

1.4 ENGLISH LANGUAGE SYLLABUS AND METHODOLOGY 1.5 TEACHER EDUCATION 1.6 THE PRESENT STUDY 1.7 CONCLUSION

...............................................

22 23 23 25

...............................................................................................

.................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

CHAPTER 2

STUDENT MOTIVATION

27 .................................................................................................................................. 27 32

2.1 RESEARCH ON STUDENT MOTIVATION: AN OVERVIEW 2.2 THE HISTORY OF L2 MOTIVATION RESEARCH

............................................................

2.2.1 The social psychological period 2.2.2 The cognitive/situated period 2.2.3 The process-oriented period53

32 42

2.3 RECENT CONCEPTIONS OF L2 MOTIVATION 2.4 SUMMARY

............................................................... ..

61 72

...............................................................................................................

CHAPTER 3 TEACHER MOTIVATION ................................................................................. 74 ..3.1 TEACHER SATISFACTION AND TEACHER MOTIVATION ............................................. .. 77

3.1.1 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation 3.1.2 Teacher efficacy 87

81

3.2 ASPECTS WHICH AFFECT TEACHER MOTIVATION: AUTONOMY AND FEEDBACK .............................................................................................................. .. 93

3.2.1 Teacherautonomyand self-determination

94

3.3 THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF TEACHER AFFECT: DISSATISFACTION, STRESSAND BURNOUT ............................................................................................................... 100

3.4 ENHANCHING TEACHER MOTIVATION

105 .......................................................108

3.4.1 Strategies to motivate teachers of English: Shoaib's recommendations

116 3.5 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... CHAPTER 4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT MOTIVATION 118 .................................................................................118

4.1 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT MOTIVATION: AN OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................

4.1.1 Ten commandments for motivating languagelearners:Resultsof an empirical study (Dmyei and Csizer, 1998) 120

1

4.1.2 The use of motivational strategies in language instruction: The case of EFL Teaching in Taiwan (Cheng & Drnyei, 2007) 123 4.1.3 Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the 126

effects of motivational strategieson studentmotivation (Guilloteaux & Drnyei, 2008) 126129 133 136 137...................................... . 139

4.2.1 Motivational strategies 4.2.2 Teacher expectations 4.2.3 Teacher enthusiasm 4.2.4 The motivated teacher

4.3 THE INFLUENCE OF STUDENTS ON TEACHER MOTIVATION

4.4 SUMMARY 141 .............................................................................................................. . 142 CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ .5.1 THE RESEARCH QUESTION ...................................................................................... . 142

5.2 A MIXED METHODS APPROACH TO RESEARCH

........................................................

.

147

5.2.1 Quantitative and qualitative methods in practice 5.2.2 A case for a mixed methods approach to research

148 149

5.2.3 A mixed methodsapproachin the presentstudy5.3 THE SURVEY

150151

...........................................................................................................

5.3.1 The sample

151 153 157

5.3.2 The Student Motivation Questionnaire 5.3.3 The Teacher Motivation Questionnaire 5.3.4 Procedures 158

5.3.5 The pilot study

159160

5.3.6 Ethical considerations

5.3.7 Reliability and validity5.4 THE INTERVIEW STUDY

160161

..........................................................................................

5.4.1 The sample 5.4.2 The interviews

161 163 167172

5.4.3 Analysis of the data using content analysis5.5 CONCLUSION

...........................................................................................................

CHAPTER 6

QUANTITATIVE

ANALYSIS

............................................................................

173173 174

6.1 OVERVIEW OF THE ANALYSIS 6.2 RELIABILITY OF ITEMS

..................................................................................

............................................................................................

6.2.1 Reliability of student items 174 6.2.2 Reliability of teacher items 1806.3 FACTOR ANALYSIS OF VARIABLES ........................................................................... 183

6.3.1 Factor Analysis of student variables 1836.4 THE EFFECTOF SCHOOL TYPE ON STUDENT MOTIVATION ........................................ 185

6.4.1 Student motivation and school type 186

2

6.5 THE LINK BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT MOTIVATION ..................................... 6.5.1 Correlation between teacher motivation variables and student motivation

187

factors

187

6.5.2 Correlation betweenthe teachermotivation variables and student motivation variables 1896.5.3 Comparison between the motivation of the most and least motivated teachers and student motivation factors6.6 LANGUAGE ATTITUDES

192195

...........................................................................................

6.6.1 Studentattitudes toward Maltese speakers of English 199 6.6.2 Partial correlation betweenteachermotivation and studentmotivation 2006.6.3 Analysis of covariance for Attitudes toward Maltese speakers of English6.7 CONCLUSION

202........................................................................................................... 208

CHAPTER 7

212 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 212

7.1 TEACHER MOTIVATION

7.1.1 Teachers' reasonsfor entering the profession 2137.1.2 Teacher satisfaction and motivation 7.1.3 Teacher autonomy 218 7.1.4 Teacher efficacy and challenging tasks 219 232 215

7.1.5 The negative side of teacher affect: Teacher demotivation

7.1.6 Feedback2387.2 MICRO-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ............................................................................. . 239

7.2.1 The school environment7.3 MACRO-CONTEXTIAL

239. 243

FACTORS AND OTHER FACTORS ............................................

7.3.1 Career structure

243

7.3.2 Salary

244 245 246. 248

7.3.3 Societal views of teachersof English

7.3.4 Leaving/Remainingin the teachingprofession7.4.1 Teacher perceptions of student motivation and its causes 7.4.2 Teachers' influence on student attitudes and motivation 7.4.3 Student influence on teacher motivation and behaviour7.5 GENERAL SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 7.6 CONCLUSION

7.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT MOTIVATION .....................

248 253 257. . 262 262

..........................................................................

.........................................................................................................

212 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... .8.1 THE CURRENT STUDY :A BACKGROUND ................................................................ 8.2 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS .................................................................................. . 268 . 265

8.2.1 The main findings: Factorswhich have a direct impact on teacher's motivation 268 276

8.2.2 The secondaryfindings

3

8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 8.3.1

278

............................................................................................... 279 from the General recommendations study emanating

8.3.2 Other recommendations made by teachers during the interviews

284

8.4 THE MAIN STRATEGIES FORMOTIVATINGENGLISHLANGUAGETEACHERS-A SUMMARY 286 ....................................................................................................... 290 292 292

8.5 PROPOSALS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ...................................................................... 8.6 A PERSONAL REFLECTION ....................................................................................... ................................................................................

8.7 THE HEART OF THE MATTER

REFERENCES APPENDIX APPENDIX

.............................................................................................................................. 329 QUESTIONNAIRE 1- STUDENT MOTIVATION ............................................... QUESTIONNAIRE (MALTESE 2- STUDENT MOTIVATION VERSION) 332

298

.......................................................................................................... APPENDIX 3- STUDENT MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................... 336 APPENDIX 4- THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ........................................................................ 339

4

List of Tables

Table 1: Languagesacquired in different Maltese families (Camilleri, 1992)......18 Table 2: Geographical regions of the catchmentareasof the schoolsinvolvedin the study 25 ..............................................................................................

Table 3: Drnyei and Csizer's (1998) final version of the ten commandmentsfor motivating language learners 122 ........................................................... Table 4: Comparison of the rank order of the macrostrategies obtained in Taiwan and in Drnyei and Csizer's (1998) study as in Cheng and

.............................................. ................. ..... Table 5: Geographicalregions of the catchmentareasof the schoolsinvolved in the study.............................................................................. Table 6: Distribution of studentswho took part in the survey according to 152

Drnyei (2007)

124

school type and gender .................................:......................................... 153 Table 7: Distribution of teachers who took part in the survey according to school type and gender ........................................................................... 153 Table 8: Descriptive information of interviewees 162 ................................................

Table 9: Students' multi-item scalesand reliability 180 ............................................. Table 10: Teachers' multi-item scalesand reliability 182 .......................................... Table 11: Factor analysis results for studentvariables 185 ......................................... Table 12: Independentt-test of studentmotivation (General StudentMotivation and Situated Student Motivation) and school type............ 186

Table 13: Pearsoncorrelation betweenthe four teachervariables and189 the two student factors (N=34) .............................................................

Table 14: Pearsoncorrelation betweenthe four teachervariables and the elevenstudent variables (N= 34 ....................................................................... 190 Table 15: T-test for extreme cases (1 SD above and below average) in student motivation ............................................................................... 194

195 Table 16: Frequencyof languageuse ................................................................... Table 17: Analysis of variance computedfor students'motivation and language 196 use......................................................................................................... 196 Table 18: LSD Post hoc results for studentmotivation and languageuse...........

5

Table 19: Analysis of variance computed for students' attitudes toward Maltese Speakers of English and language use.................................... 198 Table 20: LSD Post hoc results for students' attitudes toward Maltese

199 Speakersof English and languageuse .................................................. Table 21: Partial correlation between the four teachervariables and for Student factors attitudes controlling student motivation toward Maltese speakers of English. The Pearsoncorrelation201 is also given ........................................................................................... Table 22: ANCOVA for Teaching Attitudes toward and student computed Maltese Attitudes Speakers toward of variables. motivational 203 English is the covariant ......................................................................... Table 23: ANCOVA computed for Teacher Efficacy and student

Attitudes Maltese Speakers toward variables. motivationalof English is the covariant .................................................................... 204 Table 24: ANCOVA computed for Attitudes toward School/Staff and Attitudes toward Maltese variables. motivational student 205 Speakers of English is the covariant ..................................................... Table 25: ANCOVA computed for Interaction/Rapport with Students and student motivational variables. Attitudes toward Speakers of 206 English is the covariant .........................................................................

6

List of Figures

Figure 1: Gardner's integrative model (as cited in Drnyei, 2001, p.50)............ 34 41 Figure 2: Tremblay and Gardner's model (1995, p. 510) ..................................... 46 Figure 3: Clement, Drnyei, and Noels' model (1994, p.441) ............................

Figure 4: Willingness to communicatemodel as proposedby Maclntyre 50 et al. (1998, p. 547)............................................................................. 58 Figure 5: Dmyei and Otto's model (1998, p. 48) .............................................. 59 Figure 6: Ushioda's model (2001, p. 118)...........................................................Figure 7: Teacher L2 motivational teaching practice (Drnyei, 2005, p. 112)... 72 Figure 8: The most important strategies to motivate EFL teachers at three distinctive levels (Shoaib, 2004, p. 269) 109 ...........................................

7

Introduction

Very few studies have investigated whether a relationship exists between teacher and student motivation. The extent of this relationship and on what levels it exists do investigation. in This to this the context of English study strives warrant

language learning, and furthermore it offers recommendationsabout how teacher knowledge be through our of this relationship. motivation can enhanced The present study has been inspired by my own teaching English to teenagersfor fifteen years.Throughout this time I have always striven to keep highmy motivation to teach English. I have been compelled to engage in further

research, both for my own professional development, to sustain my constant interest in and enthusiasm for my job and also so that I am able to instigate the

same enthusiasmfor learning English in my students as I believe that this can be contagious.I also soon came to realise that my studentshave been the main source of my motivation. It was very motivating for me when my students collaborated with me and showed a keen interest in what I presented them with. I became interested in the issue of the relationship between teacher and student motivationdelve further into is discovered is This I to the that there a matter. when and wanted

dearth of literature that relates teacher motivation to student motivation. This instigatedme to conduct this study.I have conducted the present study about motivation in English language teaching in Maltese secondary schools for two main reasons, one because of the

importance of learning English at that level in Malta and the other for personal reasons. 8

It is essential for students who are now in the final years of their language English level high have to proficiency as of a as compulsory schooling they their Following their this continue whether with schooling, stage of possible. for in English for job, look are essential qualifications and a proficiency studies or them. English is not only crucial for them in order to be able to have a successful is functional Maltese As Malta fully be for but to them citizens. a also career bilingual country, proficiency in English as the language of wider communication is indispensable. This means any research which can contribute to the improvement level is learning important. I language this teaching English at especially and of believe that teacher motivation is a key contributor to this improvement. This study improving through find teacher to motivation student motivation. of ways seeks On a personal level this study is significant as it should help me both as a teacher of English and as a teacher educator of intending teachers of English. It dynamics between become that the help to of exist my motivation aware me should both. improve I to these to that and work teacher on my students will of and as a insights issue knowledge into be this to the to transmit and gained any able also student teachers who are under my guidance. The main aim of this study is to investigate the relationships that may exist between teacher and student motivation in the English classroom. If such a influences affecting teachers

is established, then the motivational relationship

because of this relationship will be identified. The factors which may hinder such a is both be The to provide ultimately objective examined. relationship will also theoretical insights and practical recommendations that could be implemented by teachers and the relevant institutions to raise the motivation of teachers of English to in Malta. I essential contribution this an think makes study schools at secondary

9

English language teaching as in a time of global recession, budget cuts, classroom

overcrowding, and compulsory high-stakestesting; teachermotivation is more and difficult its kind, is This to more sustain. study one of not only in the field of English languageteaching,but also in that of Educational Psychology.

The thesis is divided into 8 chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: English Language Learning and Teaching in Malta This chapter

brief history a of the developmentof the English languagein provides Malta. It seeksto shed light on the attitudes which have evolved overtime toward the language and toward Maltese speakers of English. It provides also a brief overview of the Maltese educational system with a specific focus on the English language syllabus, English teaching methodology in schools and teacher education. The main aim of this chapter is to place the current study in a context.

Chapter 2: StudentMotivation This chapterreviews the current researchon student motivation in second language (L2) learning. The various conflicting definitions of L2 learning motivation and a history of L2 motivationalhistory This are presented. research spans three periods; the social psychological period, the cognitive-situated period and the process-

oriented period. It includes a chronological overview of the main theories of student motivation in L2 learning. The chapter ends with a review of the recent conceptsin L2 motivation such as the possible self,

10

Drnyei's

self-system, motivation

level, motivational group at

self-

regulation and teacher-controlledstrategies.

Chapter 3: Teacher Motivation

The introduction

of this chapter presents a

definition of the main components of teacher motivation and the rolethey play in teaching. The two-dimensional extrinsic motivation model of intrinsic and

domain third the are presented. This is and

followed by an overview of the issues of teacher autonomy, efficacy, feedback burnout, Finally to teachers. and given and stress for the enhancementof teacher motivation are put recommendations forward.

Chapter 4: The relationship between Teacher and Student Motivation This chapter is literature limited the which available about the relationship presents

between teacher and student motivation in English language learning. Three major studies are described: Drnyei and Csizer (1998), Cheng Guilloteaux (2008). Then Drnyei (2007) the Drnyei and and; and in factors this that act as mediators relationship are examined. possible In conclusion a brief discussion of the influence of student motivationis teacher presented. motivation on

Chapter 5: Research Methodology The methodology employed in this study is is forward in The put this and the question research chapter. presented is discussed. A behind approach rationale using a mixed methods incorporated both design which the research comprehensiveaccount of 11

a survey and an interview study is provided. The description of and commentary on the design includes the selection of the participants, the development of the researchinstruments,the procedure adoptedfor the collection of data, ethical considerations,reliability and validity issues.

Chapter 6: Quantitative

Analysis This chapter presents the analysis of the

quantitative data and the relevant results. The responses from the teacher and student questionnaires are analysed for possible

relationships

and factors that may affect these relationships. The

variables considered are the type of school, language use of students and the students' attitudes towards Maltese speakers of English.

Chapter 7: Qualitative Analysis This chapter presents the analysis of the qualitative data and related results. The main conceptual dimensions which constitute teacher motivation and other factors on the micro and macro contextual level which influence it are explored. An analysis of the data for possible relationships that teachers make between their own motivation and that of their students is then carried out.

Chapter 8: Conclusion This chapter presents and discusses the overall findings of this study. Recommendations which emerge from the findings and the literature review are listed and proposals for further research are put forward. Finally a personal reflection is made on the impact of this research on the professional development of the researcher.

12

CHAPTER

1

English Language Learning and Teaching in Malta

This chapterprovides a brief history of the developmentof the English Languagein Malta, discusseshow attitudes towards this language have evolved over time anddescribes the present situation. Furthermore it provides a brief overview of the

Maltese educational system. The English syllabus of state secondaryschools, the English teaching methodology implemented in these schools and teachereducation in Malta are also describedbriefly. This should place the discussionand analysis of the researchfindings of this study in their appropriatecontext.

1.1 The English Language in Malta

Since 1934 Malta has had two official languages, Maltese and English. This long history long from For time these of political conflict. a a emerged situation two languages, together with Italian, competed for the position of nationallanguage.

The Maltese languagehas for centuriesexisted in its spoken form and in theislands Maltese inhabitants Maltese the the the spoke of all eighteenth century language (Frendo, 1979). Under the Knights of the Order of St.John (1530-1798), the Italian language became increasingly widespread. In order to be considered literature Maltese language had be in Italian to the as was educated one proficient

very limited. 13

Malta became a British colony in 1800 and after seventy-eight years of

British rule, Italian was still the medium of instruction. By this time though, knowledge of the English languagewas considereduseful and "those who needed did in English learn English taught the to was also so. privately or could affordhad in dislodging diffuse Italian English Even to succeeded so attempt no schools. from its assiduously treasured status" (Frendo, 1979, p. 37). Italian was difficult to uproot since it was essentially the language of the

Sultana (1992), English to the according considered who, classes professional

languageto be a threat, not only to the `cultural capital', but also to the identity of the Maltese people. One must remember that the natives' "budding sense of linked language inextricably (p. identity 42). the with question" was nationalFollowing a long and hard struggle, the English language made headway in Maltese society. According to Marshall (1971), the English language was

introduced as the official language in Government administration during the time of the first British governor in Malta, Sir Thomas Maitland (1813-1824). By 1881, the

highest had in English-speaking Maltese Malta the the proportion of cities main language be Maltese English "could Most that thought the the of population. diffused; few were prepared to accept that it should be imposed" (Frendo, 1979,p. 42). Savona (1865) claimed that another language apart from Maltese was indispensible for the Maltese people to carry out any business and to conduct

language This be had learn Italian. For to this they to was reason correspondence. taught in every school and English was to be taught in the town schools only. As better learn had in higher, to these opportunity a attendance schools was students both languages. 14

The language question was extended to the Maltese language itself. Some

language Maltese Maltese the thought that the only was of the people. of people Others consideredMaltese to be a vulgar dialect and describedit as `the language bias Maltese, kitchen'. The the according to Marshall prejudice against of and (1971), stemmedfrom the fact that Maltese was a `remnant of Arabic' and manywished to forget the Arab rule in Malta as any connection with a people of different be forgotten. fact if The that the Arab rule had possible, origin and religion should,

language before the than centuries seven question arose, proves that ended more be `biasedprejudice' (Marshall, 1971) against the Maltese such attitudes can onlylanguage.

Under the British rule the Maltese languagewas undoubtedly given a higherstatus than it had possessed previously. Frendo (1979) says this was done solely to language. Italian In 1878, Patrick Keenan was sent by influence the of curtail any the British Government to report on the educational establishments of the islands.

Keenan wanted everything within the educational systemto be anglicized as much fact however, included This, the that English should be taught through as possible. the medium of Maltese. In the Keenan Report (1880), importance was given to teaching primary school children how to read in Maltese. The report stipulated that Maltese had to be the medium in which any other language, whether Italian orEnglish, should be taught. Maltese was therefore introduced in the educational system as the language

Maltese for At had Italian English. time the the teaching children and of medium equal opportunities for learning both English and Italian. By the 1890's, parents languages their children ought to to these to were asked make a choice as which of learn. To the delight of thosewho were pro-English, English was the languagemost 15

parents preferred. This choice was offered in the third year of Primary schooling

learnt left This that them many of meant neither most children school. after whichlanguage.

After 1934, when Maltese and English became Malta's official languages,the conflict shifted onto these two languages. Friggieri (1981) and Brincat (2001) refer to the conflict as one of national identity. The language question shifted from the political level to the psychological one. The Maltese language was given many in in but practice people general used Maltese to essentially official advantages,

basis day-to-day English and on a was used for written communicate friction Considerable was generated among various language communication.language. had happened As because to the attributed each prestige of groups with Italian, English as the second language was given a prestigious position. This language from themselves to the that set apart others in society. some used meant This, to some extent, continues to be the case even nowadays.

1.2 The present situation

In the Maltese islands people use both Maltese and English to varying degrees.From a study conducted by Sciriha and Vassallo (2003) among 500 respondents it

is Maltese found 98.6% their native the that that of population claimed was language while 87% claimed to have knowledge of English. A high percentage(78.2%) recognised English to be an important language in Malta. In the same knowledge English it is in that the of past, was study recognised while recent regarded positively definite high indicator ticket to and a education as an of

`overtly becoming is taboo'. Speaking knowledge English today success, sole of

16

for is English sometimes rebuked are at and speakers not scorned solely generally

Maltese, English, is A the tongue. as well as of of good command using native (Sciriha & Vassallo, 2003). for job Maltese a essential when applying particularly is in no danger of being eradicatedby the English language(Sciriha & Vassallo, 2006).According to Brincat (2001) what is important in the current linguistic free language is Maltese to to use according that choose which citizens are situation

to their real needs as now they belong to an independent Malta, which has aEuropean is Union. the of a member and republican constitution

Family backgrounds

Camilleri (1992) maintains that language use among the Maltese people derives from mainly four types of family background. These family types still apply. They languages (see in Table 1). to the are acquired which order vary according Speakers coming from family type A have been brought up with a Maltese

dialect as an LI as this is used at home and in the community. Standard Maltese is taught by parentsand at school, while English is acquired at school. Family type B learn L1 Maltese English Standard their at school while as and members useFamily C members use a mixture of both as an L1. English is an L1 to Family D has being One Standard Maltese to point out that at school. acquired members with by determined is by is language Maltese the context and the chiefly used which domain e.g. Maltese only at home and then Maltese with some English as school (Camilleri, 1995; Caruana, 2007; Micheli, 2001; Sciriha & Vassallo, 2006).

17

FAMILY

TYPE

LANGUAGE

ACQUISITION AND USE A Dialect, StandardMaltese, English

B

StandardMaltese,English

C

Standard Maltese and English

D

English, StandardMaltese

Table 1 Languages acquired in different Maltese families (Camilleri, 1992).

Language and schools

The Maltese language predominates in state schools while English is given more

importance in non-stateschools. According to Micheli (2001) there is a direct link between language background and school type. Non-state schools have more backgrounds from English (Cilia & than speaking state schools. come who students Borg, 1997; Micheli, 2001; Mifsud, 1998; Zammit Mangion, 1992). This means that the English language is a social class indicator in schools implying that non(Mifsud, `elite' than state schools are more schools state 1997; Sultana, 1991).

English languagedominance in the schools which are consideredto be more elite than others tends to be greater. The schools which are consideredto be less elite dominance. In language these degree English in their some of schools of varyEnglish is taught as it is in most state schools, as a foreign language. In schools

is English be taught mostly as a second to the most elite, which are consideredlanguage.

18

Formally, both Maltese and English are given equal importance at the primary level. At secondary level there is a higher number of lessons in English than in Maltese. Informally, as we have seen,English is used more as a means of communication outside the classroom and also during other lessonsin non-state schools than in state schools. In secondary classrooms code switching betweenMaltese and English is common among teachers and learners (Camilleri, 1996).

The teachers' choice of language, according to Camilleri (1996) depends on their background family and their own experience as a student. Teachers coming own

from English-speaking families and non-state schools are more likely to use English as a medium of instruction in class. English is taught formally throughout compulsory schooling which extendsfrom age six to sixteen and is taught on a daily basis. At the secondary level lessons long. from Apart 45 English this the medium of instruction minutes are usually of for all subjects, except for Maltese, Religion, Maltese History and Social studies, is English. This, however, is not strictly adhered to, especially in Area State

Secondaryschools as knowledge of English is less and teachersopt to use Maltese too as a means of communication. Most textbooks used in secondary classrooms in English. This means that in English examinations are conducted and most are most of the reading and writing in classis carried out in English (Camilleri, 1996).In Micheli's (2001) study it was revealed that pupils learn English mainly

for instrumental reasons as this is perceived as a language that is useful for further for because it is travel education. The and required studying abroad, work, study of Maltese, on the other hand, is motivated by integrative reasonsas it is seen as a tool for identifying further with the Maltese community. This, however, seems to be changing since Maltese is increasingly being included as an important 19

for higher both education and academic subject and a necessary qualificationemployment (Caruana, 2007). Instrumental and integrative reasons for learning

English and Maltese respectively were confirmed by Caruana(2007).

Language attitudes

The Maltese, in general, have favourable attitudes toward languages (Caruana, 2007; Micheli, 2001; Sciriha, 2001) and they view bilingualism positively (Micheli,

2001). Certain attitudes toward the use of English and Maltese, however, still different Camilleri In 1992, that claimed attitudes existed toward Maltese prevail. She Maltese. distinct English two provided of and/or speakers examples;those whostigmatise users of Maltese and English or English only as `snobs' and those who on the other hand perceive speakers of Maltese only as belonging to a lower social less educated than those who use English as their everyday as class and maybe language. To a lesser extent these attitudes still exist, especially in the case of when Maltese use solely English (Caruana, 2007; Micheli, 2001). They are still

be to snobs as they are seen to prefer to use a more international and considered prestigious languagewhile rejecting their own mother tongue (Micheli, 2001).

1.3 The Maltese educational system

The Maltese educational system is modelled on the British system due to Malta's colonial past. Schooling in Malta is compulsory up to the age of sixteen and has three levels: Primary Education (ages five to eleven), Secondary Education (ages eleven to sixteen) and Tertiary Education (16+). Those studentswishing to pursue

20

tertiary education can choose from various institutions which include a number of

Sixth Form colleges and the vocational college, the Malta College of Arts, Science in Malta is There Technology. which offers students a university one only and degree courses. rangeof undergraduateand graduate

1.3.1 Secondary schooling

Since this study is concerned primarily with secondary schools the information provided here is limited to this sector of the Maltese educational system. At

State level Church to their to send children opt can or parents secondary or Independentschools.State schools are run by the Ministry of Education and are free for all. There Area Secondary Schools two types schools: secondary and Junior of state are Lyceums. Students are automatically transferred to their area state secondary school when they complete their primary schooling. Admission into Junior

Lyceums is controlled by a qualifying entrance examination. Pupils are examined in Maltese, English, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Religious Knowledge. Thisbeing is however, Area currently phased secondary schools out. selective system, being into includes Lyceums Junior college assimilated one which are currently and is distinction Although feeder there their still a currently schools. primary also between Area Secondary School classes and Junior Lyceum classes, eventually these will be merged and students will belong to the same class. Also the qualifying being is for into Lyceums Junior the phased out. entry examination

Church schools are also free but they rely on state aid and financial donationsfrom parentswhich are requestedon a regular basis (Cilia & Borg 1997). 21

Acceptance to some church schools is also controlled by an entranceexamination but most rely on a lottery system. Independentschools,on the other hand, are feepaying and do not have the sameselective processes. Secondary schools are organised in year groups which are called Forms,starting from Form I and ending with Form 5. All secondary schools apart from two Independent schools are single-sex.

1.4 English language syllabus and methodology

According

to the national English Language Syllabus for secondary schools

(Education Directorate, 2007) teachers should adopt an eclectic approach as varied

involves be `This approach used. a reflective, open-minded, should methodologieslearner-centred approach to teaching and learning that uses whatever is good and works for the individual schools, 2007). learner. ' (English Language Syllabus for secondary

The syllabus goeson to say that whichever methodology is used whether it is language teaching, task-based learning approach, the communicative

Presentation,Practiceand Production method (PPP),the lexical approachor the use of Discovery activities, teachersneed to ensurethat the learning outcomes that areset at various levels are reached. It is, therefore, the duty of the teachers to motivate, challenge and engage students, eliciting their responses and making the `learning-to-learn' learning They to also promote experience enjoyable. are whole

skills.

22

1.5 Teacher education

There are two ways in which one can become a teacher of English at secondary level in Malta. The University of Malta, which is the only university and teacher leads four-year in Malta, institution undergraduate course which offers a education for have PGCE degree (Hons) Ed B. students who course to a and a one-year followed a three-year BA (Hons) course in English. Other in-service specialized in level Education Masters Diploma Certificate, courses and courses which offer 2002). (Sultana, times, also offered are, at

The four-year undergraduate B.Ed (Hons) course, apart from the taughtis field made up of component which thesis, placement consists of a credits and during first in the schools year and a weekly teaching observation sessions once for The block the three next years. one-year year every teaching practice six-week PGCE course also includes two six-week teaching practice blocks. Cilia and Borg (1997) note that, inevitably, given the small size of Malta, from the have therefore training the same come and teachers same qualified `mould'.

1.6 The present study

The present study involved twelve state secondary schools; six of which were Area Only Lyceums. Junior state schools were Secondary schools and the other six the first The following for number of students concerns the reason reasons. chosen for the study. Had the church and independent schools been included in the study,

23

the number of participantswould have been too then to achieve representativeness, extensive. This would have shifted the focus of the study too much on to the for (for leaving time component a qualitative more enough quantitative survey, not details, seeChapter 5). Secondly the state system,at the time of the study, provided the researcherwith the opportunity to differentiate betweenhigh-achieving students(those attending Junior Lyceums) and low-achieving students (those attending Area State Secondary schools). Church and Independent schools do not offer such a clear

distinction. Thirdly, a varied school ethos is attributed to Church and Independent it impossible Therefore, to (Sultana, 1991) the group such schools. making schools fact that only state schools were chosen ensuredmore homogeneity. Furthermore, Independent Church and schoolstend to use English as a earlier, as was pointed outlanguage of instruction and of general communication much more than State schools (Caruana, 2007). The present study dealt with Form 4 students (14 to 15 year-old) and their

English teachers. The intention was to study the oldest students in the school.However, since Form 5 students were engaged in the preparation of final exams

it was not possible to work with them. activities and school-leaving The students and teachersinvolved in this study came from six State Area Secondaryschools and six Junior Lyceums; three girls' and three boys' schools from each type. The schools were chosen to ensurea representativesample from this. the different geographicalregions of Malta. Table 2 demonstrates

24

SCHOOL Girls' Area State Secondary I

CATCHMENT Northern

AREA

Girls' Area StateSecondary2Girls' Area State Secondary 3

Outer HarbourSouth Eastern

Girls' Junior Lyceum 1 Girls' Junior Lyceum 2Girls' Junior Lyceum 3 Boys' Area State Secondary I Boys' Area State Secondary 2 Boys' Area State Secondary 3 Boys' Junior Lyceum 1 Boys' Junior Lyceum 2

Outer Harbour Inner HarbourSouth Eastern Outer Harbour Inner Harbour Western Inner Harbour Western

Boys' Junior Lyceum 3

Outer Harbour

Table 2 Geographical regions of the catchment areas of the schools involved in thestudy.

1.7 Conclusion

The status of the English languagein Malta has evolved over the years from the language of administration under British rule in the nineteenth century to the has it is It international therefore today. that tool communication of essential becomeimperative for the Maltese to learn English in order to function fully in the bilingual context of Malta. Together with the Maltese language, a considerable Maltese in the the of people. speech switching exist code amount of variations and These come with varying attitudes which have evolved through the years. Such abilingual context influences the teaching and learning of English in Malta and the motivation behind both.

25

This chapter sought to contextualisethe current study. A brief review of the development of the English language in Malta and its current position especially Maltese developed have toward -vis people who use the attitudes which visEnglish for everyday use was given. A summary description of the Maltese language English the syllabus of state and educational system was provided described. is implemented This that the were methodology secondary schools and in Malta. description brief by teacher followed education of a was

26

CHAPTER

2

Student Motivation

This chapter, the first of three which constitute the literature review of this research work, reviews the main theories underlying studentmotivation in secondlanguage(L2) learning. This is quite an extensive overview as it was deemed important to

full develop in influences to the theories these a understanding of all order considerwhich contribute to student motivation.

2.1

Research on student motivation:

An overview

Motivation is the key to successful language learning as without it very little can be

"however (2008) Ushioda Yet, claims, commonsensicalthis general as achieved. its be, the of empirical verification has exercised pursuit observation might language acquisition scholars for decadesand generatedan enormous amount of has been in Extensive (p. 22). the area of student conducted research research"from examining what triggers motivation and what constitutes ranging motivation,

it, to the identification of factors which sustain and hinder motivation. In anoverview article, Spolsky (2000) highlights the versatility of the notion of

behaviour. both be to students' and manipulate used explain motivation, which can The ultimate aim, at least of the dedicated teacher, has always been to seek toheighten further this as much as then to and and maintain motivate students

in language linked has been the to High success motivation always possible.b). & Furthermore 1993a (Dmyei, 2005; MacIntyre, Gardner & and classroom interestingly, Lamb (2001) considers motivation as teaching material per se rather

27

is him learning. For to something that than as a medium motivation successful how learn be to motivate themselvesrather than wait that taught so students should for the teacherto come up with incentivesto arousetheir interest. Ideally this chapter would start with a definition of motivation so that it isdiscussing from However, by is the term this when such a outset. clear what meant literature indeed, be human the this and, suggests possible may not notion complex that there is no such thing as a definite definition of motivation (Drnyei, 1999; Maclntyre, 2002; Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Pintrich, 2002). Instead, the various

in defining field L2 be the especially motivation, when will encountered challengesdefinitions. be This followed by together of examples will some a with considered, chronological survey of L2 motivation research, which comprises three major

periods: the social psychological period, the cognitive/situated period and the process-oriented period.

The chronological survey of L2 motivation will then be followed by a `possible the the such as notion of self and the concepts, considerationof recent basis Drnyei's Furthermore, forms the in this of self-system. which way level, be how it be the self-regulated at group can examined motivation will also it by implementing how motivational teachers control and enhance actually can and be discussed at the end of this chapter. will strategies

Definitions of motivation

If one were to ask what `motivation' is, the most probablereply would point to the have One the right environment, drives toward that to can a goal. energy one work the right tools but if there is no inclination to `do', to act, then the goal or result will 28

determination do has is determined be Once this to something, got one not attained. to last, rather than merely being present at the start of an activity. It has to be an

lengthy is if the goal a process,such as of ongoing processespecially achievement learning a language.There are endlessreasonswhy one can be motivated towards a influences from individual there to and are also various another, one goal, varyingheighten motivation. mar or which can unsurprising problematic. Motivation theories try to explain human thought and behaviour. This, in that producing an ultimate In the light of this complexity, definition of motivation it is

has been

itself, is a daunting task and so we should not expect a complete and fullexplanation (Drnyei, 1999,2005; Maclntyre, 2002). On the other hand,

Pennington (1995) contends that the problem is due to the fact that motivation cannot be directly observed and that the properties of each individual'sdiverse different behaviour and vary under circumstances. In fact are motivational

differ in that what constitutes motivation, Pintrich professionals whilst claimingand Schunk (2002) say that, motivation, in its complexity, "has been

inner forces, behavioural including in traits, ways enduring varied conceptualised definition beliefs (p. 5). This to and affects" and sets of presents responses stimuli, is difficulty An that the effects of added of variables. an assortment with usdifferent motives, at times, positively interact, whilst at other times they are in Boraie Kassagby Schmidt, in Moreover, to and many studies, according conflict.

(1996), it is not clear whether successful learning is the result or the cause ofhas believes (1996) Dodick that the of motivation explanation perfect motivation.

has been definition be discovered indeed, to motivation of agreed yet and, no single upon at present(Pintrich & Schunk,2002). 29

In 1985, Gardner defined motivation as a multi-faceted construct that learning language if desire the goal toward and positive attitudes combines effort, definition be is This learning L2 to the of motivation generatedseveral achieved. of be integrative (this its because orientation will main concern was problems language implied the later in the a situation where which chapter) explainedlearners were in contact with the target language community. Often this is not the

language (Dmyei, have the target learners of speakers with no contact case and1990; Ryan, 2005).

Gardner's definition does not take into consideration that motivational levels fluctuate over time. The idea of time was included in Crookes and Schmidt's (1991) expandeddefinition of motivation. For them language learning motivation featuresboth internal and external aspects.The internal aspectsinclude an interestin the L2, relevance of learning the L2 to personal needs, expectancy of success or failure and rewards. The external aspects include the decision to engage in language learning, perseverance over time and maintaining the activity at high

levels. Drnyei (1998) also presents a more dynamic definition of motivation tolearn, highlighting Dmyei, the fact that motivation needs to be sustained over time. For

"L2 motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate the learning

behaviour and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning in L2 factors involved is, the that acquisition other all process; 1). (Drnyei, 1998, to p. some extent" motivation presuppose

Both Chambers (2001) and Drnyei (2001) highlight the multifaceted being time They over and changing as motivation. see motivation nature of influencedby the surrounding context. They identify numerousfactors which affect 30

human behaviour and which are, therefore, related to motivation. Both authors

draw upon Drnyei and Ott's (1998) definition of motivation which takes all of these factors into consideration; "The dynamically changing cumulative arousal in directs, terminates, initiates, that and evaluatesthe amplifies, coordinates, a person desires initial and are selected, wishes cognitive and motor processeswhereby (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out" and prioritised, operationalised(Drnyei & Otto, 1998, p. 64). According to Maclntyre (2002), any explanation of language learning

motivation requires one to answer three questions:

(a) (b)

directed toward a specific goal? is the expended performance why devoted intensity toward the or effort of amount establishes what achieving the goal? and

(c)

learning differ in have do their the same situations people who why motivational levels? In respect of the last question, Maclntyre (2002) focuses on the fact that

individual differences are of extreme importance when it comes to studying Crookes, Schmidt, he several authors, as such acknowledges motivation and Drnyei, Oxford and Sherain, who actually promote this in their definition of by differences is Masgoret individual to This also given sameattention motivation.and Gardner (2003). Masgoret and Gardner (2003) define the motivated individual as someone who:

hand, to the task is at expandseffort, persistentand attentive has goals, desires, and aspirations, enjoys the activity, disappointment from and success experiences reinforcement from failure, makes attributions concerning successand/or 31

failure, is aroused, and makes use of strategies to aid in achieving goals (p. 173).

The same notion of motivation as being goal-directed is presented byPintrinch and Schunk (2002). They claim that "Motivation (p. direction for 5). impetus to action" and provide an Motivation is a complex concept that seems to defy a comprehensive involves goals that

definition. Furthermore,from this compilation of definitions one can conclude that, in order to gain a better understanding of motivation, further diverse research efforts are required.

2.2 The history of L2 motivation research

With the developmentof the various L2 motivation models, different phasesin L2Drnyei (2005) divides history time. the over evolved research of motivational

languagelearning motivation researchinto three periods: the social psychological period. period, the cognitive-situatedperiod and the process-oriented

2.2.1

The social psychological period

The main aspect focused upon during the social psychological period is the contact integrative L2 toward them; motivation. The namely attitudes speakers and with main exponents of this are Robert Gardner, Wallace Lambert, their students and factors by is language Their is that social affected such as associates. main premise

32

language attitudes and cultural stereotypes and these, in turn, affect language learning (Drnyei, 2005). Two major theories were developed by Gardner in this period, one of L2 (1985) developed Gardner L2 the also a tool acquisition. of other motivation and which measures L2 motivation, the Attitude/Motivation discussed below. Test Battery. These are

Gardner's motivation model: Integrative Motivation and Integrativeness

Gardner (1985) featured integrative motivation as the key component of his sociodiscussion lengthy integrative For the revolved period, around a model. educational Drnyei, 1997b; Gardner, (e. 2001; Lamb, 2004; in L2 g. motivation component Maclntyre, 2002; O'Reilly Cavani & Birks, 1997). The integrative goal, which

Gardner terms as integrative orientation, refers to the desire to be similar, on some level or another, to the target language group. This could stem from a sympathy from just being few to that range able utter a towards could and community, language structures in order to feel closer to this group, to being completely immersed in the target language group so as to become part of it, rejecting one's language be This target to language the wish associated with community. own integrative Integrative leads degree, type to motivation. to of an whatever group, integrativeness, is (1985), Gardner the to of combination motivation, according below). 1, Figure (see learning the toward situation and motivation attitudes The term integrativeness "refers to a broader concept representing an interest in the target language group, which subsumes the orientation and supports it with positive attitudes and interest" (Maclntyre, 2002, p. 3). With regard to the

33

learning "attitudes the toward the this situation", the model, second aspect of

learning situation comprisesthe course and the teacher. In this model, motivation learn desire L2, the effort expended to the to the three components; consists of learn the language(motivational intensity) and attitudes toward the L2.

Integrative Orientation

Interest in foreign languages

Attitudes towards L2 community

Desire toINTEGRATIVENESS learn the L2

MOTIVATIONATTITUDES

Motivational intensity (effort)

TOWARDS THELEARNING SITUATION Attitudes towards learning the L2

Evaluation of the L2 teacher

Evaluation of the L2 course

Figure 1 Gardner's integrative model (as cited in Ddrnyei, 2001, p. 50).

Gardner's (1985) theory of motivation has frequently been criticised forfor is integrativeness. The this that too criticism on reason much emphasis placing in the research on which the model is based, integrativeness was the major factor

influencing motivation, while instrumental motivation, which is associatedwith following found be discussed in benefits (this the section), was will more concreteto be the second major type. Despite this criticism, integrativeness actually proved in by Hungary 1999 both later in 1993 the conducted and studies of significant

Dmyei and Csizer (2002). These findings, therefore, unambiguously confirm

34

Gardner's (1985,2001) motivation.

key in integrativeness L2 that plays a role constant claim

A further major criticism of the integrative model concernsthe context on Chambers (1999) framework. Both bases its theoretical the and model whichDrnyei (2001) point out that the Canadian context is one where learners do have is for L2. This the the a common not scenario of speakers with some contact language learner. The majority of the time the context is not conducive to English

learned as a second language (ESL) but rather to English learned as a foreignlanguage (EFL). In an ESL situation, the learners are exposed to English outside

the classroom, and many times have direct contact with target languagespeakers.In an EFL situation the learners have no or only limited contact with the target

language speakersand the only exposure they get to English is that found in thefound is in Schmidt 's (1996) EFL One et al. scenario study which such classroom. in Egypt. English based Egyptian of students on was

In some contexts both EFL and ESL situations prevail. Such is the casein Malta. Some students acquire and use English as a second language as they friends family in (Caruana, English 2007). their and mostly communicate with Other studentslearn English as a foreign languageas they hardly have any contact with English outside the classroom.

Integrative, instrumental and other orientations

Gardner's (1985) seminal work initiated a theoretical dichotomy in the field of described is, in Motivation as either many cases still motivation. was, and integrative or instrumental. Integrative orientation, as stated earlier, refers to the 35

actual reasonsor goals for learning a languagethat convey a desire to be close to the target language group at least on the languagelevel. Instrumental orientation, on the other hand, refers to practical reasons or goals such as passing an examination and finding a job. Many, including Gardner himself (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994), havedisputed the existence of such a dichotomy in motivation, as in different contexts the distance between integrative and instrumental orientations is small and in

do instances the two or overlap orientations not exist at all. For example, in certainhis discussion concerning the integrative-instrumental dichotomy, Dodick (1996)

concludesthat the two orientations are impossible to isolate and are not `mutuallyexclusive'. In Dodick's (1996) own study and several others (e.g. Dmyei, 1997b; Drnyei, 2005; Lamb, 2004) neither integrative nor instrumental orientation seems to be of any significance. Lamb (2004) also draws attention to the fact that as concepts, integrative and instrumental orientation are difficult to separate. This is

English is for because Thus, the status which assuming. of global reasons so learning English such as travelling, using computers, meeting foreigners and falling are combined and abroad not seen studying as separately or under working integrative or instrumental orientations. Ozek and Williams (2000) and Drnyei (2005) point in the same direction, in that English is no longer perceived as alanguage of a particular country or countries as in the case of other foreign

languages,therefore, integrative goals seem to melt together with instrumental ones. Studentsof English who are not close to any Anglophone community, want to identify with a more global community in order to become `world citizens'. Yashima (2004) terms this as `international posture' which Dmyei (2005) assimilatesto an `international orientation'. This global community is also more 36

technologically advanced and thus represents more opportunities for professional for instrumental learning integrative In this reasons and a advancement. sense language overlap. Kaylani (1996), for example, was surprised to discover that Jordanian male integrative far English they orientation when so an were possessed students of She fact language from English this to the that attributed speaking group. any away the students wanted to be part of the international community. The same result was by Williams Ozek and obtained English. (2000) in their study of Turkish learners of

The emphasis in the L2 motivation literature however goes beyond integrative and instrumental orientations. Many studies have identified other typesof orientations (Clement & Kruidenier, 1983; Noels, Pelletier, Clement &

Vallerand, 2003) prevalent among the learners which they were studying. These include travel, friendship, international, sociocultural and knowledge orientations. In fact, according to Noels et al. (2003), the desire to be in some way part of the target language group is not essential in certain sociocultural contexts. The same Hummel's for Belmechri be and said can orientation was absent and other study (1998) in which integrative such as travel, friendship,

orientations

identified. instrumental orientations were and understanding A further study where various other orientations came into play, other than integrative and instrumental, was conducted by Cheung (2001) in Hong Kong. According to Cheung, in Hong Kong the government has placed emphasis on the English language schools because it is a means of communicating with the world language life. English The to gives and a means of acceding a western way of

37

Hong Kong a competitive edge in international economic transactions. This has considerable effect on student motivation as, according to Chambers (1999),

The pupils'

perception of a subject's usefulness is

dependent on its status in society and on the schoolcurriculum; the more enhanced this status, the more likely by feel to parents at home; this leads encouraged pupils are in turn to a more positive experience (p. 32). attitude to the in-school

This notion is reinforced by Ozek and Williams (2000) who point out that influenced by only are not external reasons (Chambers, students' orientations 1999), but also by the fact that they perceive English as an easy languageto learn.These instances suggest that various other orientations do exist. However, according to Masgoret and Gardner (2003), motivation does not rely entirely on orientations. For example, one might be integratively oriented but

language is learn This in conflict with desire target the the to of group. show no (1985) Gardner claims, that orientations are the equivalent to goals. In this what from differs Gardner mainstreammotivational psychology and the practice respectGardner's However, by L2 defining claim motivation. was supported certain of

by in Belmechri (1998) Quebec Hummel City that out carried and as such studiesin demonstrated it that to that they orientations motivation are related was where

had findings Their `precursors' what already been motivation. of upheld are by Kruidenier in in the city, study, conducted same and established an earlier Clement (1986).

38

Clement 's social context model

Clement's (1980) model of secondlanguagelearning places emphasison the social is in L2 that the contact with community seen as particularly important. context, The more the learners interact with the L2 speakers, the more they gain selfconfidence, which serves to enhance their language learning. The self-confidence construct in this model is a secondary motivational process (MacIntyre, 2002),

language in high involves the proficiency and low language anxiety which(Masgoret, Bernaus & Gardner, 2001).

Clement's model was criticised mainly for the fact it was basedon languagelearning situations where there is contact with target language speakers. As was discussed earlier, this is most often not the case. However, Clement, Drnyei and Noels (1994) present a number of studies that suggest self-confidence may be language in in second achievement even in contexts a role significant playing L2 but direct is there contact with speakers where the L2 is seen as a no where

is kind language there some of exposureto it (Masgoret et and where prestigious al., 2001).

Tremblayand Gardner's model

Tremblay and Gardner (1995, see Figure 2) expanded Gardner's (1985) socioeducational model so that the language attitudes which influence motivational

behaviour consist of three variables:

39

1. Goal salience: influenced by attitudes as learners are bound to develop language if toward the learning their language attitudes are goals specific 1995). & Gardner, (Tremblay positive 2. Valence: refers to the values attached to the learning of the L2. Valencelanguage. learn desire the to the comprises 3. Self-efficacy: refers to the learners' judgement of their capabilities to learn English. It involves expectations with regards to performance minus the

be low it includes However that could self-efficacy anxiety component. from in differs latter is It the that self-confidence anxiety. elements of bases during itself testing, whereas self-efficacy on perceived as proficiency in future (Tremblay believes & individual the the can achieve s/he whatGardner, 1995). Higher self-efficacy leads to enhanced motivational

behaviour. In fact, in this model, which was tested among Canadian learners language dominance French language together French, with attitudes of

influence motivational behaviour which, in turn, affects achievement. What is referred to as languagedominancein this model includes `adaptiveattributions'. Attributions, which will be explained in more detail under the

learners to theory, a particular success or ascribe which reasons are attribution failure. Adaptive attributes refer to attributes that are linked to high self-efficacy is to that ability. attributed success means which

Gardner and Tremblay's model of motivation is an interesting deviation as it does not contain any integrative motivation but rather focuseson new cognitiveinto be Gardner's the new wave of motivational It to to get attempt aspects. seems

did to this Gardner however, his later In refer model again not writings, research. but rather returnedto the integrative motivation concept.

40

GOAL SAIJBNIE 3 7 8 ma-mm ATMUES 9 5 VA BCCE 4 MOWAIKNOL BEFKACR

ACAFME ATIREXA S

Figure 2 Tremblay

and Gardner's

model (1995, p. 510).

Gardnerand Tremblay's model of motivation is an interesting deviation as it does not contain any integrative motivation but rather focuses on new cognitive into be Gardner's to the new wave of motivational It to attempt get aspects. seemshowever, did Gardner his later In not refer to this model again writings, research. but rather returned to the integrative motivation concept.

41

2.2.2 The cognitive/situated

period

Two main trends define this period: Focuson cognitive aspectsof motivation that were explored in motivational psychology.Focus on the learners' immediate learning situation such as the classroom, thus "linking motivation to contextual factors" (Drnyei, 2005, p. 75). The first trend concerns the cognitive aspect of this period, while the second gave rise to the situated approach.

In the 1980s, several cognitive theories were presented in educationalL2 (Drnyei, These to explain motivation soon used were psychological research. 2003). Gardner's work was heavily criticised for ignoring these developments and language to teachers and the context being falling use practical thus of any short of the learning language takes classroom. namely place, where

In the 1990s,therefore, motivational researchbecamemore concernedwith dealt L2 The in motivation, which macro perspectiveof what occurs the classroom.dispositions to shifted a micro a community, within with general motivational perspective within the classroom. This `situated approach' focused on the

immediate language learning situation that surrounded the learners and the way in less learn L2. Teachers to the concerned were which this affected their motivation how but L2, learning the the rather with their the were students why reasons with (Maclntyre, in language the dealt tasks classroom the presented with students 2002). The situated approach analysed how the methodology, assessment and relations with teachers and the group affected students' motivation.

42

Researchers therefore combined the cognitive aspects of some educational

(2005) Drnyei According this to theories approach. with a situated psychology illustrated by two theories; the self-determination theory and the was well field. L2 the theory within attribution

Self-determination theory: Intrinsic/Extrinsic

motivation

Deci and Ryan (1985) contend that an individual's reasons for learning a language depend on how free or constrained the learner is. If the individual decides freely then we can say that the decision is self-determined. The self-determination theory from forward the most to orientations which motivational range a variety of puts the least self-determined. The more self-determined the orientation the more the chances for success (McIntosh & Noels, 2004). Orientations that are self-

determined contribute to an intrinsic type of motivation, while those reasons which Intrinsic to `controlled' motivation. extrinsic motivation refers to the contribute are

by itself the the and activity enjoyment pleasure of solely positive effects gained (McIntosh & Noels, 2004). In an extrinsic motivation situation, the activity is done for the sakeof material or other rewardsthat are not intrinsically related to learning(Husman & Lens, 1999). Extensive research has been conducted on both intrinsic and extrinsic have 1999) Lens, & 2005; Husman (see Dmyei, Some shown studies motivation.

that extrinsic motivation hinders and diminishes intrinsic motivation, which is learning. language However, for be best lasting type to the and most considered Deci and Ryan (1985) argue that, extrinsic rewards if self-determined and internalised by the learner, can actually lead to intrinsic motivation. Moreover,

43

do in teachers (2001) without extrinsic Lamb cannot most cases, argues that,

incentives to motivate their students as these have a more immediate effect. However, these could be detrimental to intrinsic motivation as the studentsmight lose any interest in performing the activity for its own sake. Lamb (2001) cautions long-term handled the be "Extrinsic to always with and carefully that rewardsneedlearners from i. to intrinsic developing motivating moving e. motivation, of goal helping learners motivate themselves" (p. 86). When teachers teach their students how to motivate themselves the effects are more long lasting Based on their research among university students at the University of

Ottawa, Canada, Noels et al. (2003) put forward an expanded theory of selfdetermination consisting of three categories of orientations; intrinsic motivation,latter is The to there refers when no reason, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. intrinsic or extrinsic, for performing an activity (Goldberg & Noels, 2006), what Drnyei (2001) refers to as a `there is no point' feeling. Noels et al. 's (2003) study learning found L2 to and more appealing more pleasurable that students revealed

learn if to they an L2 autonomously, and the were encouraged their self-concept feedbackgiven enhancedtheir senseof competence.Wu (2003) also arrived at the directly he theory the within self-determination examined same conclusion when intrinsic Here, language motivation soared when autonomy and the classroom. were enhanced. perceivedcompetence

Attribution Theory

Attribution theory was the main model in student motivation research in the 1980s.

This theory concernsthe reasonswhich learnersattribute to their successor failure

44

in language learning. These reasons are based on past experiences, and once these are processed the expectations for learning the new language can be understood. Attribution theory proposes that these expectations are based on whether the

learners see themselves as the main cause of success or failure. A further important consideration is whether this attribute is fixed or can be changed. If the latter is the case, it needs to be considered whether the learner is in control of changing or whether the change depends on external factors (Williams & Burden, 1999). This also means that "the causal attributions one makes of past successes and failures (i. e. inferences about why certain outcomes have occurred) have consequences on future achievement strivings" (Drnyei 2001 a, p. 22). Therefore, if past failure was attributed to uncontrollable factors such as ability, then future failure is inevitable, or the activity will not be attempted at all. On the other hand, if past failure is attributed to factors that can be controlled and changed then future success is possible. In this regard, as Ushioda (1996,1998,2001) confirmed, positive

motivation is attributed to success which in turn is ascribed to personal ability, and failure to problems which cannot be overcome.

Attributions seem to be based on a combination of "internal feelings, the developmental stage, external influences and social context. One has to note that such external influences include the way teachersteach, teachers'aims and theirbeliefs about learning and the nature of education" (Williams & Burden, 1999, p. 199). The teacher, therefore, plays a very important role in the learner's be

expectations of success and failure in their language learning. This will discussed further in Chapter 4.

45

The cognitive-situated models of motivation

The cognitive-situated period incorporates the Clement et al. (1994) model of L2 framework, Willingness (1994) the Dmyei's to motivational motivation, Communicatemodel and task motivation.

Clement, Drnyei and Noels' Model

Clement et al. (1994) proposed a tripartite model of L2 motivation (see Figure 3)

linguistic integrative includes self-confidence and appraisal of motivation, which the classroomenvironment. The results of the study, which fed this model, proved that in the classroom setting, L2 motivation is more complicated and does notsimply deal with `social and pragmatic' aspects (Dmyei, further. take the to step a models previous appear 1996). This would

IntegrativeMotivation Linguistic Self-Confidence Appraisal of Classroom EnvironmentFigure 3 Clement, Ddrnyel, and Noels' model (1994, p. 441).

Foreign Language Behavior and competence

The integrativeness component' in this model comprises the positive

it learnt, language being the the toward speaks which community and the attitudes knowledge of this language. Some components, pertaining to instrumentalIn Clement et al. 's article, the authorsrefer to this as integrative motivation, however, `integrativeness'is a more precisedescriptionof the construct they actually found.

46

included in knowledge and small were relatively were orientation, motivation and the integrative motivation construct.

Linguistic self-confidence is crucial, in that studentswho are confident of their abilities to be successfulin the secondlanguageand who do not undergo anyharrowing language learning experiences are more likely to be motivated to learn. This automatically implies a lack of anxiety. The distinction between the selfin Clement's (1980) in the earlier and mentioned model component confidence in latter is foreign here is language discussed the that the that context of model

learning, so there is no direct contact with the L2 community. Self-confidencewas still predominantas a main component. In this model the classroom environment is analysed for groupcohesiveness, competence, motivation, the teaching style of the teacher, and the

language course itself in terms of "attractiveness, relevance and, difficulty"(Drnyei, 1996, p. 75). The results of Clement et al. 's (1994) study confirmed teachers' assertions that what happens in the classroom influences the students' 1996). (Dmyei, affective predispositions

Drnyei 's Motivational framework

Dmyei's (1994) framework incorporates previous factors from different models into one. Based on the previous model by Clement et al. (1994), it conceives the

learner level level, levels; language the three the and the on motivational system learning situation level. At the languagelevel the focus is on the L2, broadly defined by integrative learner's level the learner instrumental The comprises selfand motivation. 47

language issues competence, perceptions of of anxiety, perceived appraisal such as Two motivational components are essential at and self-esteem. past experiences

this level, the need for achievementand self-confidence (Drnyei, 1994). Finally three components: the learning situation level encompasses 1. Course-specific motivational components: anything related to the courseitself such as the course book, the syllabus and the teaching method. 2. Teacher-specific motivational components: the direct influence of the drive to please the teacher, authority

teacher which includes the "affiliative

type, and direct socialization of student motivation (modelling, taskfeedback)" (Drnyei, 1994, 280). p. presentation, and

3. Group-specific motivational components:goal-orientedness, norm andreward system, group cohesion and classroom goal structure.

Willingness to communicate model (WTC)

This model is concernedwith how willing learners are to engagein conversationOriginally L2. the using communication the model focused on Ll use, relying on previous and social

experiences, personality

traits (such as anxiety)

behaviour. found These were also of communication psychological characteristics to affect L2 WTC, and consequently the model was expanded to cover L2 conversations (Maclntyre, Clement, Drnyei & Noels, 1998; MacIntyre, Baker, L2 WTC one's level of

Clement & Donovan, 2002). When dealing with

be L2 in to the considered are competence proficiency and communicativemodifying variables (Drnyei, 2005).

48

Educationally,

this is a very important model as the ultimate aim of

in L2. However, it the is language teaching communication actual communicative is known that though some learners are highly proficient in the L2 they do not seek to use it in any kind of communication. This could be attributed to personality traits fact, in interaction. In disposed to than such earlier others as some people are more did importance factor WTC trait this not place any and on concentrated on studies, interaction. latter The the influence the surely the situation surrounding of influences the interlocutors. In fact, Maclntyre et al. (1998) researched WTC from distinction WTC The they makes model presented a a situated point of view. between enduring influences (for example, personality traits, relations between the (for influences topic number example, of people present, situational and group) knowledge, and so forth). The WTC model is based on a six-layered heuristic pyramid model (see Figure 4) where the ultimate goal is L2 use which lies at the apex of the pyramid (Layer I), while the underlying layers consist of psychological and linguistic individual is (Layer VI) the base The the and context; social pyramid of variables. latter individual intergroup the to the former to the personality relations, the refers traits. The fifth layer (Layer V) subsumes affective variables such as an

integrativeness construct, fear of assimilation and motivation to learn the L2, with a has L2 the community. with one measure of experience It also includes the

focus Here, is the competence. cognitive context which concerns communicative Baker, Clement & (Maclntyre, than actual competence more on perceived, rather Donovan, 2003). The fourth layer (Layer IV) comprises motivational propensities, intergroup interaction "based of the contexts these are on affective and cognitive and ultimately leads to state self-confidence and a desire to interact with a

49

diminishing This 550). 1998, (Maclntyre means anxiety p. particular person" et al., as much as possible. The third layer (Layer III) relates to the situated antecedents of

desire incorporate to communicate with a particular the which communication difference between (the state and person and state communicative self-confidence trait dispositions is explained under Task Motivation). All of thesevariables lead tointeraction (Layer L2 I) WTC (Layer II), actual which, as stated generating a earlier, is the main aim of this model.

Layer I/ Use

`Communication

Behaviour

Layer II

Willingness to Communicate

t3ehaVouralIntention

Layer In

Desire to Conn municate with a SpeclAc Person 56

34

state Communicative Self-Confidence 7

Situated Antecedents

Layer N

Interpersonal Mothetion

Intergroup MotKetion

L2 SelfConfidence

I Propensities

Layer V/ AtWgw titudes

I Situation (Competeicatj%e nce

\

A11acti (. ognitie Context

Layer VI

Intergroup Climate

Personality

Social and IndWual Context

Figure 4 Willingness

to communicate

model as proposed by Macintyre

et al. (1998, p. 547).

With regards to this model, Drnyei (2005) claims that whilst it shows a

behavioural intention the the of variables supplying comprehensiverepresentation behind WTC, it does not show what the weighting of the variables is and how theyhave do The to to attempted which of several studies each other. results are related so have concluded that WTC is related closely to anxiety. The WTC model was compared to Gardner's integrativeness construct in

his socio-educationalmodel. As integrativenessrefers to a desire to interact with 50

the target language group it was, therefore, assumed that the higher

the

integrativenessof learners and the higher their L2 motivation the more they are willing to interact with the target language speakers using the L2. However,Maclntyre et al. (2002) explain that although integrativeness is a factor in L2 WTC,

the link is indirect, and motivation is more likely to take the shapeof the perceivedcompetence and anxiety components. As we have seen L2 motivation contributes to WTC while, in turn, the from WTC, enhances the students' L2 motivation. interaction, results which actual This cyclical by Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide proposed model was and Shimizu

(2004).

Task motivation

A learning task is "a complex of various goal-oriented mental and behavioural during between the the teacher's initial task that period perform students operations

instructions and the completion of the final task outcome" (Drnyei, 2002, p. 139). Motivation directed toward such a task distinguishes between state and trait Tremblay, Goldberg Gardner (1995). Statemotivation to and according motivation, refers to fixed and lasting dispositions, whereastrait motivation refers to unstableand temporary dispositions. This distinction is important when talking about task language learning tasks evoke a variety of reactions from motivation since various learners. This is evidenced by the fact that students convey differing degrees of interest and commitment toward diverse learning tasks (Dmyei, 2001 a). Julkunen (2001) insisted that students' reactions to tasks are a result of a combination of state and trait motivation. As he argued, students are affected both by the stable and

51

general motivation which they bring with them to the classroom, and the new dispositions or attitudes that are evoked by the task itself.

Drnyei (2003) goes beyond this state and trait dicho