1. HUE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ------***------ NGUYEN VAN TUANTRANSLATION 1&2 HUE - 2006

2. 1 INTRODUCTIONAn increasing number of universities in Vietnam have added courses in translation to theircurricula; however, the textbooks available for such courses are few. This unit has beenwritten with these courses in mind. The unit is designed to provide the learners with somebasic principles of translation which will be generally useful to translation courses inuniversities and colleges, to help the learners avoid some errors they may encounter when theytranslate a text, to provide the learners with essential English sentence patterns that could bevery useful for the learners in learning and practicing translating and to provide the learners 20assignments related to the theory they have learned.The desire of the author is to make available the principles of translation which have learnedthrough personal experience in translation and teaching translation, and through interactionwith colleagues involved in translation projects in many universities in Central Vietnam.Since it is assumed that the students will be speakers of Vietnamese language, many of theseexercises involve translating from or into their mother tongue. The material is presented in away that it can be used in a self-teaching situation or in a classroom. An attempt has beenmade to keep technical terms to a minimum. When technical vocabulary is used, every effortis made to clarify the meaning of such vocabulary or to provide its meaning in Vietnamese.This has been done so that the unit can be used by any student translator, even though hisexposure to linguistic and translation theory has been minimal.This is an introductory unit. The lessons give an overview presenting the fundamentalprinciples of translation and the rest of the unit illustrates these principles. The overridingprinciple is that translation is meaning-based rather than form-based. Once the learner hasidentified the meaning of the source text, his goal is to express that same meaning in thereceptor/target language. Many examples of cross-language equivalence are used to illustratethis principle. Since the coursebook has been written for the students to learn either by themselves intheir distant learning course or in class with a teacher, there will be a coursebook and 20assignments. By the end of the course, the students will be able to:1. obtain general knowledge of the principles of translation .2. get familiar with and effectively use the English sentence patterns in their translations.On the completion of this coursebook, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Dr. TonNu Nhu Huong for her encouragement. I would also like to be grateful to Dr. Tran Van Phuocand other colleagues of the College of Foreign Languages and the English Department fortheir kind help.Errors are unavoidable in this coursebook. Therefore, I appreciate and welcome any criticismon the course book.Hue, June 24th, 2001Nguyen Van Tuan

3. 2CHAPTER 1: THEORY OF TRANSLATIONLESSON 1: FORM AND MEANING1.What is translation?1.1. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has beenexpressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalencies.(By Roger T. Bell).1.2. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by arepresentation of an equivalent text in a second language. (By Roger T. Bell).The author continues and makes the problems of equivalence very plain:Texts in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partiallydifferent), in respect of different levels of presentation (in respect of context, of semantics, ofgrammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence).However, languages are different from each other; they are different in form having differentcodes and rules regulating the construction of grammatical stretches of language and theseforms have different meanings.To shift from one language to another is, by definition, to change the forms. Also, thecontrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally; there is noabsolute synonym between words in the same language, why should anyone be surprised todiscover a lack synonym between languages.Something is always lost (or might one suggest gain?) in the process and translators canfind themselves being accused of reproducing only part of the original and so betraying theauthors intentions. Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to the translator by the notoriousItalian proverb: Traduttore traditore.Faced by a text in a language, we are able to work out not only the meaning of each word andsentence but also its communicative value, its place in time and space and information aboutthe participants involved in its production and reception. We might take, as a light-heartedmodel of the questions we can ask of the text, the first verse of a short poem by Kipling.I keep six honest serving men;(They taught me all I knew);Their names were What? And Why? And When?And How? And Where? And Who?What? is the message contained in the text; the content of the signal.Why? orients us towards the intention of the sender, the purpose for which the text was isused. (Informing, persuading, flattering, etc.)When? is concerned with the time of communication realized in the text and setting in itshistorical context; contemporary or set in the recent or remote past or future.

4. 3Where? is concerned with the place of communication, the physical location of the speechevent realized in the text.How? refers to whether the text is written in a formal or informal way.Who? refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver.1.3. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the authorintended the text. (By Bui Tien Bao- Hanoi National University) Translators are concerned with written texts. They render written texts from one languageinto another language. Translators are required to translate texts which arrange from simpleitems including birth certificates or driving licences to more complex written materials such asarticles in journals of various kinds, business contracts and legal documents. (Bui Tien Bao-Hanoi National University).1.4. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form toanother, to turn into ones own or anothers language. (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary,1974). Translation is basically a change of form. When we speak of the form of a language,we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms arereferred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of language which isactually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language isreplaced by the form of the receptor/target language. But how is this change accomplished?What determines the choices of form in the translation?The purpose of this lesson is to show that translation consists of transferring the meaning ofthe source language into the receptor language. This is done by going from the form of thefirst language to the form of the second language by a way of semantic structure. It is meaningthat is being transferred and must be held constant. Only the form changes. The form fromwhich the translation is made will be called the source language and the form into which it isto be changed will be called the receptor language. Translation, then, consists of studying thelexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the sourcelanguage text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing thissame meaning using the lexicon, grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptorlanguage and its cultural context.Let us look at an example. Assume that we are translating the Vietnamese sentence Cmn bn gip ti tn tnh. into English. This Vietnamese sentencehas the verb gip tn tnh, but to convey the same meaning in English onewould use a noun phrase: your kind help. To do effective translation one must discover themeaning of the source language and use the receptor language forms which express themeaning in a natural way.It is the purpose of this unit to familiarize the learners with the basic linguistic andsociolinguistic factors involved in translating a text from a source language into a receptorlanguage, and to give them enough practice in the translation process for the development ofskills in cross-language transfer.

5. 42. Characteristics of language which affect translation There are certain characteristics of languages which have a very direct bearing on principlesof translation. First, let us look at the characteristics of meaning components. Meaningcomponents are packaged into lexical items, but they are packaged differently in onelanguage than in another. In most languages there is a meaning of plurality, for example theEnglish -s. This often occurs in the grammar as a suffix on the nouns or verbs or both. InVietnamese, however, plurality is expressed in an isolated word nhng/cc. Manytimes a single word in the source language will need to be translated by several words. Forexample, a projector was called the thing that shows pictures on the wall by the ChiparaBolivia.Second, it is characteristic of languages that the same meaning component will occur inseveral surface structure lexical items. In English, the word sheep occurs. However, thewords lamb, ram and ewe also include the meaning sheep. They include the additionmeaning components of young (in lamb, adult and male in ram and adult and female inewe. In Peru, lamb would need to be translated by sheep its child, ram by sheep bigand ewe by sheep its woman.Third, it is further characteristic of language that one form will be used to represent severalalternative meanings. This again is obvious from looking in any good dictionary. For example,the Readers Digest Great Encyclopedic Dictionary gives 54 meanings for the English wordrun. Most words have more than one meaning. There will be a primary meaning-the onewhich usually comes to mind when the word is said in isolation-and the secondary meaning-the additional meanings, which a word has in context with other words. In English, we can say the boy runs, using run in its primary meaning. We can also say the motor runs, the riverruns, and his nose runs, using runs in its secondary meanings.This principle is not limited to lexical items for it is also true that the same grammaticalpattern may express several quite different meanings. For instance, the English possessivephrase my house may mean the house I built, the house I rent, the house I live in, or thehouse for which I drew up in my plans. Only the larger context determines the meaning.Notice the following possessive phrases and the variety of meanings:my car ownershipmy brother kinshipmy foot part-wholemy singing actionmy book ownership or authorship ( the book I own, or, the book I wrote)my village residence ( the village where I live)my train use

6. 5 (the train I ride on)Whole sentences may also have several functions. A question form may be used for a non-question. For example, the question: Mary, why dont you wash the dishes? has a form of aquestion, and may in some context be asking for information, but it is often used with themeaning of command rather than a real question. A simple English sentence like He madethe bed. May mean either He made (as a carpenter would make) the bed, or He put thesheets, blanket, and pillows in neat order on the bed.Just as words have primary and secondary meanings, so grammatical markers have theirprimary function and often have other secondary functions. The preposition on is used inEnglish to signal a variety of meanings. Compare the following uses of on with thecorresponding form used in Vietnamese.John found the book on the floor. John tm thy cun sch trn snnh.John found the book on mathematics. John tm thy cun sch vit vmn ton.John found the book on Tuesday. John tm thy cun sch voth Ba.John found the book on sale. John tm thy cun schang by bn.Compare also the following uses of by John was stopped by the policeman. John was stopped by the bookstand.In the first, by is used to signal the meaning that the policeman is the agent of the action. Inthe second, by is used to signal that the bookstand is the location.We have seen that one form may express many meanings. On the other hand, anothercharacteristic of languages is that a single meaning may be expressed in a variety of forms.For example, the meaning the cat is black may be expressed by the following: the cat isblack, the black cat, and, the cat, which is black, depending on how that meaning relates toother meanings. In addition, the meanings of Is this place taken? Is there anyone sittinghere? and May I sit here? are essentially the same. Also, the meaning is essentially thesame in the following English sentences:Others blamed John because of the difficulty.Others blamed John for the difficulty.Others blamed the difficulty on John.Others said John was responsible for the difficulty.

7. 6Others accused John of being responsible for the difficulty.We have seen that even within a single language there are a great variety of ways in whichform expresses meaning. Only when a form being used in its primary meaning or function isthere a one-to-one correlation between form and meaning. The other meanings are secondarymeanings or figurative meanings. Words have these extended meanings and in the same waygrammatical forms have extended usages (secondary and figurative function).This characteristic of skewing; that is, the diversity or the lack of one-to-one correlationbetween form and meaning is the basic reason that translation is a complicated task. If therewere no skewing, then all lexical items and all grammatical forms would have only onemeaning and a literal word-for-word and grammatical structure-for- grammatical structuretranslation would be possible. But the fact is that a language is a complex set of skewedrelationship between meaning (semantics) and form (lexicon and grammar). Each languagehas its own distinctive forms for representing the meaning. Therefore, in translation the samemeaning may have to be expressed in another language by a very different form.To translate the form of one language literally according to the corresponding form in anotherlanguage would often change the meaning or at least result in a form which is unnatural in thesecond language. Meaning must, therefore, have priority over form in translation. It ismeaning that is to be carried over from the source language to the receptor language, not thelinguistic forms. For example, to translate the English sentence he is cold hearted i.e. Hisheart is cold (meaning he is unfeeling, has no emotional sympathy.) literally into Mambila inNigeria would be understood to mean, he is peaceful, not quick-tempered. And if translatedliterally into Cinyanja in Zambia, it would mean, he is frightened.The nature of language is that each language uses different forms and these forms havesecondary and figurative meanings which add further complications. A word-for-wordtranslation which follows closely the form of the source language is called a literal translation.A literal translation does not communicate the meaning of the source text. It is generally nomore than a string of words intended to help someone read a text in its original language. It isunnatural and hard to understand, and may even be quite meaningless, or give a wrongmeaning in the receptor language. It can hardly be called a translation. The goal of a translatorshould be to produce a receptor language text (a translation) which is idiomatic; that is onewhich has the same meaning as the source language but is expressed in the natural form of thereceptor language. The meaning, not form is retained.The following is a literal translation of a story first told in the Quiche language of Guatemala: It is said that being one man not from here, not known where the his or the he comes where.One day the things he walks in a plantation or in them the coastlands, he saw his appearanceone little necklace, or he thought that a little necklace the very pretty thrown on the ground inthe road. He took the necklace this he threw in his mouth for its cause that coming the oneperson another to his behind ness, for his that not he encounters the one the following thisway in his behindness not he knows and that the necklace the he threw in his mouth this one

8. 7snake and the man this one died right now because not he knows his appearance the snake orthat the he ate this not this a necklace only probably this snake.Now compare the above with the following less literal translation of the same story: It is said that there once was a man not from here, and I do not know his town or where hecame from, who one day was walking in a plantation (or in the coastlands). He saw a littlenecklace, or rather, what he thought was a very pretty little necklace, lying on the road. Hegrabbed this necklace and threw this into his mouth because there was someone coming alongbehind him, and he did not want the other person to see it. He did not know that the necklacehe threw into his mouth was really a snake. The man died in short order because he did notrecognize from its appearance that it was a snake. He did not know that what he had put inhis mouth was not a necklace, but rather a snake.In the first, each quiche word was replaced by the nearest English equivalent. The result wasnonsense. In the second translation, the natural forms of English lexicon and grammar wereused to express the meaning of the Quiche story. Below the story is again rewritten in a moreidiomatic English style.I am told that there once was a stranger from some other town who was walking in aplantation along the coast. As he walked along he suddenly saw a very pretty little necklacelying on the road. He snatched up this necklace and threw this into his mouth because therewas another person walking behind him and he did not want him to see the necklace. Thestranger did not know that the necklace was really a snake. The man died immediately. Hedied because he did not realize that it was a snake. He did not know he put a snake into hismouth rather than a necklace.Anything which can be said in one language can be said in another. It is possible to translate.The goal of the translator is to keep the meaning constant. Wherever necessary, the receptorlanguage form should be changed in order that the source language meaning should not bedistorted. Since a meaning expressed by a particular form in one language may be expressedby quite a different form in another language, it is often necessary to change the form whentranslating.3. NotesForm-based translation: dch da vo hnh thc hay cu trcMeaning-based translation: dch da vo ngha, da vo ni dung cnchuyn tiSource language: ngn ng gcReceptor language: ngn ng dchContext: vn cnh/ ng cnhPrinciple of translation: nguyn tc dch/k thut dchMeaning component: thnh t ngha

9. 8Lexical: (thuc v) t vngSurface structure: cu trc b mtDeep structure: cu trc su/cu trc ng nghaMeaning/ sense: nghaPrimary meaning: ngha chnh/ngha gcSecondary meaning: ngha phi sinhLiteral translation: dch tng t mtOne-to-one correlation: quan h mt i mtFigurative meaning: ngha bngFunction: chc nngIdiomatic translation: dch ng, dch st nghi4. Self-study4.1 Questions for discussion1. What is translation? What definition do you think is the most appropriate? Can you giveyour own definition of translation?2. What is a literal translation? Can you give some examples of literal translations?3. What is an idiomatic translation? Give some examples of idiomatic translations.4. What characteristics of language affect translation?5. What are the secondary meanings? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word usedin a secondary sense.6. What is the primary meaning? Give ten sentences, each of which contains a word used in aprimary sense.4.2 Exercises A. Identify change of meaning versus change of form. Some of the following pairs ofsentences differ in their form. Some differ in meaning. Indicate if the primary change is in theform or in the meaning.Example: They robbed the old man. The old man was dropped by them. Answer: Change of form1. The students like to study translation. The students like studying translation.2. I bought a pair of horseshoes. I bought a pair of leather shoes.3. He saw the bird. He heard the cat.

10. 94. Phillip went walking. Phillip took a walk.5. Go to bed. I want you to go to bed.6. I came; I saw; I conquered. I came, saw, and conquered.7. Two weeks later he came. After two weeks he came.8. There is a table in the book. There is a book on the table.9. The young man had an English grammar book stolen. An English grammar book was stolen from the young man.10. He was awaken by a thunderclap. A thunderclap awakened him.B. List as many grammatical forms as you can which realize the same meaning as the onegiven below. Then put the same meaning into a language other than English in as many formsas you can.Example: the cat is black the black cat the cat, which is black1. the jug water2. John bought a car3. a hot day4. mothers long blue dress5. Peters houseC. All of the following have the same grammatical form. With the change of lexical items,there is a change of meaning which is signaled by that lexical item, apart from the referentialmeaning of the word itself. What meaning is signaled in each of the following possessivephrases? Answer by restating. How can that meaning best be expressed in another languagewhich you speak?Example: The mans car - the man owns the car The mans eye - the eye is part of the man1. the doctors office2. the doctors patient3. the doctors book4. the doctors brother

11. 105. the doctors hand6. the doctors houseD. For each pair of sentences, state whether the two sentences are 1. the same in meaning or2. different in meaning.Example: (a) It rained all night. (b) Rain fell all night. (a) There is a book on the table. (b) There is a table on the book.1. (a) John was very surprised when he heard the news. (b) The news very much amazed John when he heard it.2. (a) It was a hot day. (b) The day was hot.3. (a) Peters house (b) The house that belongs to Peter4. (a) He remained silent. (b) He did not say anything.5. (a) I bought cloth to make Mary a new dress. (b) I bought a new dress for Mary.6. (a) I bought vegetables in the market. (b) I bought tomatoes and onions in the market.7. (a) My parents are well. (b) My mother and father are well.8. (a) John is ill: he has a bad case of malaria. (b) John is very ill indeed.9. (a) There are four rooms in the house. (b) The house has four rooms and a kitchen at the back.10. (a) In my opinion, the government is doing well and making many improvements in thecountry. But there are many people who do not agree that this is so. (b) Opinions are divided concerning the government. Some say they are doing well andmaking many improvements in the country. Others do not agree.LESSON 2: KINDS OF TRANSLATION1. Literal versus idiomatic

12. 11Because a given text has both form and meaning, as discussed in the previous lesson, there aretwo main kinds of translation. One is form-based and the other is meaning-based. Form-basedtranslations attempt to follow the form of the source language and are known as literaltranslation. Meaning-based translations make every effort to communicate the meaning of thesource language text in the natural forms of the receptor language. Such translations are calledidiomatic translations.An interlinear translation is a completely literal translation. For some purposes, it is desirableto reproduce the linguistic features of the source text, as for example, in a linguistic study ofthat language. Although these literal translations may be very useful for purposes related tothe study of the source language, they are of little help to speakers of the receptor languagewho are interested in the meaning of the source language text. A literal translation sounds likenonsense and has little communication value. For example:Vietnamese: Mi bn v nh ti chiLiteral translation: Invite friend about house me play.This literal translation makes little sense in English. The appropriate translation would be:Would you like to come to my home?If the two languages are related, the literal translation can often be understood, since thegeneral grammatical form may be similar. However, the literal choice of lexical items may thetranslation sounds foreign. The following bilingual announcement was overheard at an airport( Barnwell 1980:18)Literal English: Madame Odette passenger with destination Domda is demanded on thetelephone.This English version is a literal translation of the French.French: Madame Odette, passager destination de Domda, est demande au telefon.An idiomatic translation into English would be: Miss Odette, passenger for Domda. You arewanted on the phone.Except for interlinear translation, a truly literal translation is uncommon. Most translators whotend to translate literally actually make a partially modified literal translation. They modify theorder and grammar enough to use acceptable sentence structure in the receptor language.However, the lexical items are translated literally. Occasionally, these are also changed toavoid complete nonsense or to improve the communication. However, the result still does notsound natural. Notice the following example from a language in Papua New Guinea:Ro abombo ngusifu pamariboyandi.I my heart fastened-her. (literal)I fastened her in my heart. (modified literal)

13. 12The modified literal translation changes the order into English structure. However, thesentence still does not communicate in clear English. An idiomatic translation would haveused the form: I never forgot her. Or Ive kept her memory in my heart.A person who translates in a modified literal manner will change the grammatical forms whenthe constructions are obligatory. However, if he has a choice, he will follow the form of thesource text even though a different form might be more natural in the receptor language.Literal and modified literal translations consistently err in that they choose literalequivalents for the words, i.e. lexical items being translated. Literal translations of words,idioms result in unclear, unnatural, and sometimes nonsensical translations. In a modifiedliteral translation, the translator usually adjusts the translation enough to avoid the nonsenseand wrong meanings, but the unnaturalness still remains.Idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the receptor language, both in the grammaticalconstructions and in the choice of lexical items. A truly idiomatic translation does not soundlike a translation. It sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language. Therefore, agood translator will try to translate idiomatically. This is his goal. However, translations areoften a mixture of a literal transfer of the grammatical units along with some idiomatictranslation of the meaning of the text. It is not easy to consistently translate. A translator mayexpress some parts of his translation in very natural forms and then in other parts fall backinto a literal form.In one translation, the source text said, Nhiu du khch n-c ngoi giithiu cho chng ti v khch sn H-ng Giang. It was translated, Many foreign tourists have introduced us about Huong Giang Hotel. It would have beentranslated idiomatically, Huong Giang Hotel has been recommended to us by a number offoreign tourists.The translators goal should be to reproduce in a receptor language a text whichcommunicates the same message as the source language but using the natural grammatical andlexical choices of the receptor language. The basic overriding principle is that an idiomatictranslation reproduces the meaning of the source language in the natural form of the receptorlanguage.2. Translating grammatical featuresParts of speech are language specific. Each language has its own division of the lexicon intoclasses such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and so on. Different languages will have differentclasses and subclasses. It will not always be possible to translate a source language noun witha noun in the receptor language. For example, English has many nouns which really refer toactions while Vietnamese prefers to express actions as verbs rather than nouns.In one translation, the source text said, There is a general agreement that the governmenthas given top priority to education. It was translated, C mt s ng chungrng chnh ph dnh nhiu s -u tin cho gio dc. This would

14. 13have been translated idiomatically, Ai cng ng rng chnh ph dnhnhiu -u tin cho gio dc. Similarly, a translator in Papua New Guinea wasasked to translate the Eight Point Improvement Plan for Papua New Guinea. One point reads,Decentralization of economic activity, planning and government spending, with emphasis onagricultural development, village industry, better internal trade, and more spendingchanneled through local and area bodies. Such sentences are very difficult for translatorswho want to translate into the native language of the country. Words such as Decentralization,activity, planning, government spending, emphasis development, trade would have to berendered by verbs in most languages. When verbs are used, then, the appropriate subject andobject of the verb may need to be made explicit also. The form in the receptor language isvery different from the source language form and yet this kind of adjustment, using verbsrather than using nouns, must be made in order to communicate the message. An idiomatictranslation was made which used verbs as in the following.The government wants to decrease the work it does for businesses and what it plans and themoney it spends in the capital, and wants to increase what people and groups in local area doto help farmers and small businesses whose owners live in the villages, and help people in thiscountry buy and sell things made in this country and to help local groups spend thegovernments money.Most languages have a class of words which may be called pronouns. Pronominal systemsvary greatly from language to language and the translator is obliged to use the form of thereceptor language even though they may have very different meanings than the pronouns ofthe source language. For example, if one is translating into Kiowa (USA), the pronouns willhave to indicate a different between singular, dual and plural person even though the sourcelanguage does not make this three-way distinction. Or if a translator is translating intoBalinese, he must distinguish degrees of honor even though nothing in the source languageindicates these distinctions. He will need to understand the culture of the Balinese and thecultural context of the text he is translating in order to choose correctly.In English, the first plural pronoun we is often used when the real meaning is second personyou. The reason for the use of we is to show empathy and understanding. The nurse say to thesick child, Its time for us to take our medicine now. Or the teacher says, Were not goingto shout, quietly to our well walk places. Clearly , the pronouns do not refer to the nurse orthe teacher but to the children whom she is addressing you. In translating these pronouns intoanother language, a literal translation with first person plural would probably distort themeaning. The translator would need to look for the natural way to communicate secondperson and the feeling of empathy carried by the source language.Grammatical constructions also vary between the source language and the receptor language.The order , for example, may be completely reserved. The following simple sentences fromVietnamese is given with a literal English translations: Ch sng u?You live where ?

15. 14 C y th-ng mc o s mi vi silk mu xanh c nh.She often wears a shirt silk blue small.It will readily be seen that understandable translations into English requires a completereversal of the order: She often wears a small blue silk shirt.It is not uncommon that passive constructions will need to be translated with an activeconstruction or vice versa, depending on the natural form of the receptor language. Forexample, Vietnamese people tend to use active constructions to express their ideas whereasEnglish people prefer to use passive constructions.English: Nguyen Du is considered to be a great poet. ( passive)Vietnamese: Ng-i ta xem Nguyn Du l mt nh th v i.(active)English:A: What has happened to all your money after the will was settled and the business wassold? (passive)B: The usual thing, false friends, fast-living style and bad investment.Vietnamese:A: Chuyn g xy ra vi ton b s tin m bn c -c saukhi gii quyt xong chuyn chc th- v bn i c sn nghip. (active)B: Cng l th-ng tnh thi, bn b gi di, n chi hoang nv u t- sai ch.The above translated sentences are only examples to show some types of grammaticaladjustments which will result if a translator translates idiomatically in the source language.Certainly, there will be times by coincidence they match, but a translator should translate themeaning not concern himself with whether the forms turn out the same or not.3. Translating lexical featuresEach language has its own idiomatic way of expressing meaning lexical items. Languagesabound in idioms, secondary meanings, metaphors, and other figurative meanings. Forexample, notice the following ways in which a fever is referred to ( literal translations aregiven to show the source language form):Greek: The fever left him.Aguaruna: He cooled.Vietnamese: He cooled. Or: The fever was no more in him.

16. 15Ilocano: The fever was no more in him.The English translations of all six would be : His fever went down, or His temperaturereturned to normal.All languages have idioms, i.e. a string of words whose meaning is different than the meaningconveyed by the individual words. In English to say that someone is bullheaded means thatthe person is stubborn. The meaning has little to do with bull or head . Similarly, inVietnamese to say that someone is cng u cng c means that the person isstubborn. The meaning has little to do with u or c. Languages abound in suchidioms. The following are a few English idioms using in and into: run into debt, rush intoprint, step into a practice, jump into a fight, dive into a book, stumble into acquaintance, fallin love, break into society. In spite of all these combinations, one cannot say the followingbreak into debt, fall into print, rush into a fight, dive into debt, etc. The combinations arefixed as to form and their meaning comes from their combination. A literal word-for-wordtranslation of these idioms into another language will not make sense. The form cannot bekept, but the receptor language word or phrase which has the equivalent meaning will be thecorrect one to use in the translation. The following idioms occur in Vietnamese. In the firstcolumn is a literal translation from Vietnamese. In the second is an idiomatic translation. Theliteral English is misleading.LITERAL IDIOMATICI dont have my eye on you. I dont remember you.He is as strong as a buffalo. He is as strong as a horse.I have buried my head into my business. I have been busy with my work.Translators who wants to make a good idiomatic translation often find figures of speechespecially challenging. A literal translation of strong as a horse might sound really strange in alanguage where the comparison between a strong person and a horse has never been use as afigure of speech. In Vietnamese it would be more natural to say strong as a buffalo. Similarly,a literal translation of blind as a bat might sound really strange in a language where thecomparison between a blind person and a bat has never been use as a figure of speech. InAguaruma it would be more natural to say blind as a fox. There is a legend in which the sunborrowed the foxs eyes and then returned to heaven taking the foxs good eyes with him andleaving the fox with the suns inferior eyes. That is why they say, when the fox is trying to see,he stretches back his head and looks with his throat. Figures of speech are often based onstories or historical incidents.Names of animals are used metaphorically in most languages. But the comparison is oftendifferent and so the figure will be misunderstood unless some adjustment is made. Forexample, when someone is called a pig in English, it usually means he is dirty or a greedyeater. In Vietnamese, it has different meanings. It could means that the person is stupid or thatthe person is a greedy. Care would need to be taken if pig were used metaphorically or awrong meaning might result in the receptor language.

17. 16Some lexical combinations of the source language may be ambiguous. The meaning is notclear. For example, It is too hot to eat, could mean any of the following: The food is too hotto eat; the weather is too hot for us to feel like eating; the horse is too hot after running a raceand does not want to eat. In the process of making an idiomatic translation, such ambiguitiesmust often be resolved and only the intended meaning communicated.4. ConclusionIt is obvious that translation is a complicated process. However, a translator who is concernedwith transferring the meaning will find that the receptor language has a way in which thedesired meaning can be expressed even though it may be very different from the sourcelanguage form.Considering the complexity of language structures, how can a translator ever hope to producean adequate translation? Literal translation can only be avoided by careful analysis of thesource language: by, first of all, understanding clearly the message to be communicated. Atranslator who takes the time to study carefully the source language text, to write analysis of it,and then to look for the equivalent way in which the same message is expressed naturally inthe receptor language, will be able to provide an adequate, and some times brillianttranslation. His goal must be to avoid literalisms and to strive for a truly idiomatic receptorlanguage text. He will know he is successful if the receptor language readers do not recognizehis work as a translation at all, but simply as a text written in the receptor language for theirinformation and enjoyment.5. NotesForm-based translation : dch da vo hnh thcMeaning-based translation: dch da vo nghaLiteral translation: dch tng t mtIdiomatic translation: dch ng nghaInterference : s can thipMother-tongue interference: s can thip ca ting m To make adjustments: hiu nh/ iu chnhTranslating grammatical features: c tr-ng ng php dchParts of speech: t loiSubclass: nhm nhIndo-European language: ngn ng n-uPronominal system: h thng i t6. Self-study6.1 Questions for discussion1. What are the differences between a literal translation and an idiomatic translation?2. What should you do to translate a text idiomatically?

18. 173. What grammatical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give someexamples to support your ideas.4. What lexical features should be considered when you translate a text? Give some examplesto support your ideas.5. Why do you have to take the time to read the source language text carefully beforetranslating it?6.2 ExercisesA. In each of the following pairs of sentences, which is more idiomatic English, a or b? Howwould the meaning be expressed idiomatically in the language you speak?1.(a) The storekeeper said that we will refund your money. (b) The storekeeper promised to refund our money.2.(a) A certain boy told me this little story at a party. (b) He is one boy. He told the one little story. This is a game he said.3.(a) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform as well. Howmany children have shed hot tears about spelling? (b) An International Alphabet would inevitably bring about a spelling reform ,too. And howmany hot childrens tears have not been shed on spelling?4.(a) He then reported his misfortune to the police, who are searching diligently for the thief. (b) He then his mishap reported to the police, who are the thief searching intensivelyB. Look for literalisms in the following translations into English and underline the words orphrases that do not sound natural in English. Suggest a more idiomatic way of saying it. Allof these examples are from published translated material.1. The third-year students often visit the schools in the city for the attendance of the class.2. Foreign tourists usually at Kinh Do Hotel for their friends have introduced to them verymuch about this hotel.3. Since the USA abolished the embargo against Vietnam, many foreign countries have beeninvesting in Vietnam.4. After saying lies many times, he lost our belief in him.5. Hue is famous about its delicious dishes and beautiful landscapes.6. The participants discussed about the causes of pollution environment.7. Every time my mother goes to work , I feel my house absent anybody.8. One thing makes me proud of my village is a large green field that provides one part of lifefor people.9. A robbery took place of a motorcycle rider at Kampung early yesterday morning.10. I left my village for three years, a time not long but like a century.C. Each of the following are sentences written by some Vietnamese who are not yet fluentEnglish speakers. The forms used shows examples of how their mother-tongue language

19. 18structures have been carried over into English. The same information is then given inparenthesis in idiomatic English. What changes were made in correcting the English? Thesechanges point out some of the differences between Vietnamese and English.1. Sir, the problems of before dont forget. ( Sir, please dont forget the problems we discussed before.)2. If there is any means, send me a letter to Saigon. (If there is any way to do so, send a letter to me in Saigon.)3. I will think you time to time day and day. ( I will be thinking about you often every day.)4. I am very grateful to inform you with this letter. ( I am very happy to be able to send/write you this letter.)5. I am a man who has been to Hanoi for 12 years. ( I have now lived in Hanoi for 12 years.)D. Translate the following Vietnamese sentences as idiomatically as possible.1. Ch may o s mi ny u vy?2. Cha ng ta ung n-c sng Hng, sng , sng Cu Longv sng cht vi sng n-c ny. Cc bn th ngh xem rt tngn ng trn th gii li c s thng nht nh- ting m cachng ta. Trong ting Vit, th n-c (trong sng, trong h,trong bin....) li ng ngha, ng m vi n-c trong ngha t quc qu h-ng.- cha ng: ancestors- thng nht : uniformity- ng ngha : synonym/ synonymous- ng m : homonym- trong ngha : to mean/ to signify- t quc qu h-ng: homeland/ fatherland/ motherland- sng cht: to try hard to protect them/ to spare no pain to protect them3. Lt chim c mt vng t rng trn cao nguyn Lm Vin,xung quanh ton l ni i hng v.- chim c : take up/ to be situated/ to occupy- cao nguyn : plateau- xung quanh: to be surrounded by/ with4. S pht trin kinh t ca Vit Nam phi -c xt trong honcnh chin tranh ko di. Hon cnh chin tranh y gy ra

20. 19nhiu thit hi v sinh mng v ti sn cng nh- cc cng trnhcng cng v ti nguyn.- s pht trin kinh t : the economic development- -c xt : to be viewed/ to be considered/ to be taken into account- hon cnh chin tranh ko di : in the context of the long period of war- gy ra thit hi : to cause damage to- ti sn : property- cng trnh cng cng : public facilities- ti nguyn : resources5. Mc d a v ca ph n c nhng b-c tin k diu,nh-ng ng-i ta phi thc hin nhiu chuyn khc ci thintnh trng sc kho, dinh d-ng v gio dc cho ph n.- a v : status- c nhng b-c tin k diu: to be dramatically improved- dinh d-ng : nutrition6. Mng l-i truyn hnh ang xy dng rng khp c n-c.Ngoi nhng i truyn hnh t-ng i hin i, c t lu inh- i truyn hnh H Ni v Thnh Ph H Ch Minh, cn c 25i thuc cc tnh -c thnh lp vo nm 1988. Nhng itruyn hnh ny s truyn nhng ch-ng trnh quan trng ca itruyn hnh trung -ng v pht ch-ng trnh ca i mnh.- mng l-i : network- i truyn hnh : television station- lu i: long-standing- thnh lp : to establish/ set up- truyn nhng ch-ng trnh : to relay the transmissions- pht: to broadcast7. Ngy nay th gii ang -ong u vi nhiu vn nghimtrng cho d c nhiu b-c tin ng k trong lnh vc khoahc, cng ngh v tri thc. Mt trong nhng vn l sbng n dn s, c bit cc n-c ang pht trin. Dn sang tng theo cp s nhn trong lc sn xut hng ho li tngtheo cp s cng.- -ng u : to face- vn nghim trng : serious problem- c nhiu b-c tin ng k : to take great strikes

21. 20- s bng n dn s : population explosion/ population boom- tng theo cp s nhn : to grow in geometric progression- tng theo cp s cng : to grow in arithmetic progression- sn xut hng ho : the production of goods8. Charles Dickens l mt trong nhng nh vit tiu thuyt lnnht th gii, thuc tr-ng phi hin thc ph phn th k 19.iu m chng ta nh gi cao v nhng tc phm ca Dickens ls ph phn v ti c v s t-ng phn gia giu v ngho cax hi t- sn Anh lc by gi. Th gii m ng ta miu t lth gii ca giai cp trung l-u v h l-u Lun n.- nh vit tiu thuyt : novelist- tr-ng phi hin thc ph phn : the school of criticalrealism- nh gi cao : to value/ highly appreciate- s ph phn : criticism- ti c : evil- s t-ng phn : contrast- giu v ngho : wealth and poverty- x hi t- sn Anh : the English boutgeois society- giai cp trung l-u v h l-u : the middle and lower classes9. Hi Lin Hip Ph N Vit Nam -c c i din Quc Hiv ch tch hi -c quyn tham d cc cuc hp th-ng k caHi ng B Tr-ng by t quan im ca Hi v ngh nhngiu l lin quan n ph n.- Hi Lin Hip Ph N Vit Nam : The Vietnams Women Union- c i din : to be represented- Quc Hi : the National Assembly- -c quyn lm g : to have the right to do something- cuc hp th-ng k : regular meeting- Hi ng B Tr-ng : the Council of Ministers- by t quan im : express ones points of view- iu l : regulations10. Gia nh Vit Nam chu nh h-ng r rt ca nn vn minhnng nghip. Do chnh sch m ca, nn vn minh cng nghipang tc ng tng ngy, tng gi vo cuc sng gia nh VitNam.- chu nh h-ng : to be affected by

22. 21- nn vn minh nng nghip : agricultural civilization- chnh sch m ca : the open-door policy- tc ng tng ngy tng gi : to have daily and hourly impact /influence onLESSON 3: STEPS IN A TRANSLATION PROJECTBefore beginning an actual translation, it is important to have in mind the total translationproject and what is involved in producing a good translation. Each of these steps will beelaborated on in more detail in the last section of the book.1.Establishing the projectBefore one considers beginning a translation project, there are a number of matters whichneed to be clearly understood by all who will be involved. These can be summarized underfour Ts- the text, the target, the team, and the tools.The text refers to the source language document which is to be translated. The desirability oftranslating a particular text must be determined. Texts are chosen to be translated for variousreasons. Most often it is to communicate certain information to people speaking anotherlanguage, or it may be to share the enjoyment of the source text. The translator shouldexamine his reasons for choosing the text and the potential for its use by the receptor languageaudience.The target refers to the audience. For whom is the translation prepared? The form oftranslation will be affected by questions of dialect, educational level, age level, bilingualism,and peoples attitudes towards their languages. Will it be used in school, in business, or readorally in a meeting or at home?The team refers to the people who will be involved in the project. If a person is a competentspeaker of both the source language and the receptor language, it may be that the project canbe done completely by one person. But even so there should be other available for evaluationand consultation. Most translation projects require a team, a number of people who are goingto contribute to the translation at some stage in the project. The working relationship betweenthese people needs to be established before the project gets underway. It may, however, alsochange as the project moves along and new factors come into focus.There are certain essentials to any translation project. Not all these need to be found in oneperson. There are various kinds of programs which may be set up depending on the abilitiesand backgrounds of those who will be involved. The team may consist of 1. co-translators,where one is a specialist in the source language and the other a specialist in the receptorlanguage, or 2. a translator with capability to handle both source language and receptorlanguage matters and an advisor or consultant, or 3. a committee working together withspecific responsibilities delegated to each one. Which kind of program is developed willdepend on who is available and qualified to determine the meaning of the source language,who is most skilled at drafting in the receptor language, and who has an understanding oftranslation principles. The team may include the translators, a consultant, testers, andreviewers.

23. 22Tools refer to the written source materials which will be used by the translators as helps.These include, in addition to the document to be translated, any dictionaries, lexicons,grammars, cultural descriptions. etc.. .. of both the source language and receptor languagewhich are available. The team will want as much in formation available as possible whiletranslating. All of these tools should be brought to the translation site in preparation for theproject. For some projects, there will be a wealth of materials that can be used to help ininterpreting the source language text and in finding equivalents in the receptor language. Forother projects, there may be a scarcity of such material, but whatever is available should bethere to make the work easier.2. ExegesisExegesis is used to refer to the process of discovering the meaning of the source language textwhich is to be translated. It is the step which includes the preparation and analysis which mustbe done before anything at all can be written in the receptor language. The text must beunderstood completely. This is the process which takes place in moving from the sourcelanguage form to the meaning of the text.The translator should begin by reading the text several times, then by reading other materialsthat may help in understanding the culture or language of the source text. As he reads the text,he will be looking for the authors purpose and the theme of the text. He will look for thelarger groupings or sections. He may want to outline the text. The purpose is to understand thetext as a whole. Once he has done this, he is ready to work on the material a section at a time.The analysis of the source text will include resolving ambiguity, identifying implicitinformation, studying key words, interpreting figurative senses, recognizing when words arebeing used in a secondary sense, when grammatical structures are being used in a secondaryfunction, etc. It will involve doing the kind of analysis which this book is all about. The goalof exegesis is to determine the meaning which is to be communicated in the receptor languagetext. The translator carefully studies the source language text and using all the available tools,determines the content of the source language message, the related communication situationmatters, and all other factors which will need to be understood in order to produce anequivalent translation.3. Transfer and initial draftAfter a careful analysis of the source language text, as indicated above, the translator beginsdrafting piece by piece, section by section. The transfer results in the initial draft. In preparingthis draft, the translator is transferring from the source language into the receptor language. Ashe does so, he must always keep his target audience in mind.Before any extensive drafting can be done, the key terms must be determined. Every text has aset of words which re crucial to the content and correct communication of the theme. Theseneed to be decided upon and may need to be checked with other speakers of the receptorlanguage.There are two ways of approaching the transfer and initial draft. Some translators prefer to doa quick rough translation so that the material flows naturally. Then they go back and tightenup the details to be sure that there is no wrong information, and no omissions or additions. Inthis way, the receptor language text is more apt to be in the natural style of the receptorlanguage. Others prefer to prepare a proposition-like semantic draft, being sure that all theinformation all the information is accounted for, and then reword it for naturalness; that is,

24. 23reword it in the idiomatic form of the receptor language. Either method will lead to anidiomatic translation if careful work is done.It may be necessary to rework the initial draft several times before the team is satisfied that allthe adjustments needed have been made, that no information is wrong or omitted, that the textcommunicates clearly in the receptor language, and that the form chosen will communicate tothe desired audience. While making and reworking this draft, the audience must always bekept in mind. Once the translation team has sufficiently reworked the initial draft, they arrangefor copies to be made so that adequate evaluation.4. Evaluation The purpose of evaluation is threefold: accuracy, clearness, and naturalness. The questions tobe answer are: 1. Does the translation communicate the same meaning as the source language?2. Does the audience for whom the translation is intended understand it clearly? 3. Is the formof the translation easy to read and natural receptor language grammar and style? Thosehelping with the evaluation should be mother-tongue speakers of the receptor language. Thereare a number of kinds of evaluations which need to be done. The translator will want to compare the translation with the source text at several pointsduring the translation process to be sure no additions, deletions or change of in formation havecrept in . Others may help with this work. It is especially advantageous to have a consultantcheck over the material. The translator will want to have receptor language speakers read thetext and then tell back what the text communicated to them. As they read, there will be partsthat are hard to read or hard to understand. Any time there is an indication of a problem inreading , this should be noted for further checking . Another way to check is by askingquestions of those who read the text , or to whom it is read. Questions need to be carefullyformed so that they bring out the theme, the authors purpose , and the relevant facts of thetext. Any wrong understanding should be noted and then checked with others as well. It is bestto have someone who has not worked on the translation, but know both the source languageand receptor language, translate back from the receptor language into the source languagewithout the reference to the original source language text. Does the back translation carry thesame information as the original source language text? Any difference will need to be checkedfurther.It is very important that sufficient time and effort be given to evaluation. If many of the peoplewho will eventually be using the receptor language text can be involved in the evaluationprocess, this will also create interest in the translated material when it is finally published.5. RevisedAfter evaluation is done carefully, there will need to be a revised draft made on the basis ofthe feedback received. Those with whom the translator has checked may have suggested manyrewordings, may have expressed misunderstanding, etc. The translation team now worksthrough this material , honestly accepting the evaluation , and rewording the materialaccordingly. If any key words are changed, the text will need to be checked carefully forconsistency in the change made. If some parts were hard for people to read, they may need tobe made easier by more redundancy( or less redundancy in another language), by adding moreinformation to clarify participants or theme or whatever. How much re-drafting will be neededwill vary depending on the results of the evaluation.6. Consultation

25. 24In many translation projects, there are advisors or consultants who are willing to help thetranslator. The translator(s) will expect that the consultant is interested in threematters:1.accuracy of content 2. naturalness of style, and 3. effect on the receptor languageaudience.It is important that translators check their materials with a trained consultant after completinga section or two of a long document. If they continue , and do large amounts of translationwork without this kind of a check, they will miss out on the training which a consultant cangive as they go over the material together. Asking a consultant to work through the materialwith him will give the translator insights which will not only help his final draft of thematerial being worked on, but will help him do better transfer drafts on the sections of thedocument remaining to be done.7. Final draftThe translator incorporates into the translated text the suggestions made by the consultant,checks them again with mother-tongue speakers to be sure they are warranted, and makes anyother minor changes which have come to his attention. However, before he prepares the finaldraft, decisions about format need to be discussed with the whole translation team, theconsultant, the potential publisher and those who will promote distribution.Some matters may need special testing before the final draft is prepared. If the publication isto include pictures, these will need evaluation. If a special size of print is being recommended,it will need to be tested. A final editing for spelling and punctuation will need to be made.When all matters are cared for, a number of copies should be prepared and distributed forproofreading by various people before the actual printing takes place. Every translator wantshis final copy to be as accurate as possible. The time spent in careful checking and preparationof the final draft will improve quality and will make the translation more acceptable to theaudience for whom it is being prepared.8. NotesTarget: c giTarget language audience: ng-i c bn dchDialect: ph-ng ngEducational level: trnh hc vnBilingualism: song ngTo come into focus: ch / tp trungCo-translator: ng-i cng dchSpecialist: chuyn giaTools: ti liu tham kho khi dchLexicon: t in t vngExegesis: hiu ngha vn bn tr-c khi dchInitial draft: bn tho u tinRevised draft: bn tho d-c hiu nh

26. 259. Self-study9.1 Questions for discussion1. Name and discuss the four Ts of a translation project.2. Explain what is meant by exegesis.3. What are the goals of the translator as he prepares the initial draft?4. What is the purpose of the evaluation?5. What kinds of evaluation checks can be made?6. What is the consultant concerned about when he checks a translation?7. How will the final draft be different from the revision draft done earlier?8. How is the revision draft different from the initial draft?9.2 ExercisesA. Read the English text and answer the questions. DEFORESTATIONPopulation growth is one factor in rainforest destruction. However, it is a myth to assume thatthe expansion of subsistence agriculture to feed more mouths is the main factor. The majorityof deforestation in Latin America, South-east Asia and the Pacific is caused by clearing landto grow cash crops for export and by commercial logging operations, and not by shiftingcultivators or landless peasants. Each year commercial logging eliminates 45000 squarekilometers of forest, much of the timber being exported to the United States and Japan.No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can befound than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted to grazingland because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debt payments. Theseheavy payments, which affect the poor the most, have arisen largely from external loans takenout to finance the purchase of luxury items and arms by military and governing elite. Theestablishment of large ranch-style cattle grazing properties is the principal reason for theelimination of 20000 square kilometers of rainforest each year in Central or South America.The cleared land is mainly devoted to the export of beef for the fast-food industries in NorthAmerica, Europe and Japan- the aptly named hamburger connection.1. What is the authors purpose of writing this text?2. What is the text about?3. How many times have you read the text to understand it completely?4. Do you have any difficulty in finding the Vietnamese meaning of the English words :subsistence agriculture, cash crops, commercial logging operations, shifting cultivators,landless peasants, affluent society, external debt payment, military and governing elites,ranch-style cattle grazing property, hamburger connection ?5. Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent Vietnamese structures of the followingEnglish sentences?a. However, it is a myth to assume that the expansion of subsistence agriculture to feed moremouths is the main factor.

27. 26b. No clearer connection between deforestation and the demands of affluent societies can befound than in Central America and Brazil, where tropical forest has been converted tograzing land because cattle raising offers export earnings that help with external debtpayments.6. Translate the text into Vietnamese.B. Read the Vietnamese text and answer the questions. NON NCCha ng ta ung n-c sng Hng, Sng , Sng Cu Long vtng sng cht vi sng n-c ny. Cc bn th ngh xem rt tngn ng trn th gii li c s thng nht nh- ting m cachng ta. Vit Nam th n-c( trong sng, h, bin.) ling ngha, ng m vi n-c trong ngha t quc quh-ng. Sng n-c v con ng-i y kt hp vi thin nhin vlch s nh- mt khi bt t bt dit bi mt th xi mng tr-ngtn. l lng yu n-c th-ng ni ca dn tc Vit Nam.Trn th gii, c nhiu quc gia t tnh n sang tnh kia nil khng hiu nhau ri. Nh-ng Vit Nam, d bt k u,ng-i Nam k Bc, h gp nhau ln u ni l hiu nhau ngay.1. What is the authors purpose of writing this text?2. What is the text about?3. How many times have you read the text to understand it completely?4. Do you have any difficulty in finding the English meaning of the Vietnamese words : chang, sng cht, s thng nht, kt hp cht ch, xi mng tr-ngtn, lng yu n-c th-ng ni, hiu nhau?5. Do you have any difficulty in finding the equivalent English structures of the followingVietnamese sentences?a. Cc bn th ngh xem rt t ngn ng trn th gii li cs thng nht nh- ting m ca chng ta.b.Nh-ng Vit Nam, d bt k u, ng-i Nam k Bc, h gpnhau ln u ni l hiu nhau ngay.6. Translate the text into English.

28. 27LESSON 4: STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATORSThe following strategies have been suggested by translators, commissioners of translations,and others involved in translating as ways to approach difficulties in translations from Englishinto Vietnamese.1. STRATEGY 1 : How to deal with non-equivalence at lexical levelIt is often the case that no direct equivalents can be found in Vietnamese for English words. Itmay be that the concept or idea is new to Vietnamese translators, as in the case of gender,which is, in fact, a relatively new concept in general, and a very difficult concept tounderstand and explain in many languages. It may also be that the concept is known orunderstood but there is no specific word in Vietnamese used to express it. Another difficultyis that, in addition to their concrete meaning, some words have special connotations that arenot conveyed by the Vietnamese word for the same thing. The strategies listed below can beused to handle cases of non-equivalence.1.1 Translating by a more specific wordIn some cases, it may be appropriate or necessary to use a more specific word to translate anEnglish word into Vietnamese. This usually involves choosing among several different words,as there may be many Vietnamese words that correspond to the general category or meaningexpressed by English word. For instance, Vietnamese has many words that mean to carrywith distinction being made depending on the size and shape of the object; its animate ( e.g. achild as opposed to a box); and how it is carried (e.g. in the hand, or in the arms...). Similarly,the English word for rice can be translated by many different Vietnamese words, dependingon whether one is planting it, harvesting it, cooking it, or eating it. In these cases, the Englishword alone is not enough to determine the appropriate Vietnamese translation, and it isnecessary to examine the English context.1.2 Translating by a more general wordIn other cases, it may be appropriate to use a more general word to translate an English wordwith no specific Vietnamese equivalent. For example, English makes distinctions amongmopeds, scooters, and motorcycles, the latter having larger wheels and engines than bothmopeds and scooters. Vietnamese, on the one hand, refers to all two-wheel, motorizedvehicles as xe my. Similarly, the English words paw, foot, or leg may all betranslated by the Vietnamese word chn, which does not suggest any problems ofcomprehension in Vietnamese, as it should be clear from the context which of these words ismeant. Another example can be found in a manual on community development, whichtranslates the word matrix by the Vietnamese word ma trn. However, inVietnamese, ma trn has a specific use in mathematics only, and does not have theadditional sense of a model or a plan according to which something is developed. In thisexample, matrix is better translated bn, which is a more general word used toclassify a written plan or formula.1.3 Translating by cultural substitutionThis strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with one of the differentmeanings but similar impact in the translated text. Because of their self-described respect

29. 28for the original text, most Vietnamese translators object to this strategy and tend to translatedirectly, even though it is in appropriate. For example, a farmers manual that has beentranslated into Vietnamese suggests the planting of different types of fruit trees which are noteven grown in Vietnam. The original manual, which was developed in other parts in Asia, wasnot modified at all for the Vietnamese context. Though some translators argue that it is not theresponsibility of the translator to chance the text in this way, the translator is in fact playingan important role in this task. Translators should be encouraged to consider theappropriateness of the documents they are translating and suggest changes to make them moreculturally appropriate. However, this is not only the burden of the translator, but also of thecommissioners of the translation and the editor.1.4 Translating by using a loan word plus explanationThere is some objection to this strategy in Vietnam, as many translator prefer to coin newwords in Vietnamese rather than borrow English words. However, this strategy is very usefulwhen the translator deal with concepts or ideas that are new to Vietnamese audience, culture-specific items, and proper names of diseases or medicines that are widely known in Englishnames. For instance, HIV and AIDS are two loan words that are frequently used inVietnamese, as they are referred to by their English names in almost every part of the world.Because these words have been in common used in Vietnam for a long time, they are oftenused without any accompanying explanation. Whenever a loan word is used , it is better togive an explanation. Another example is the acronym for oral dehydration salts, or ORS,which is printed on every package and hence easily recognized; this is normally written inEnglish with an explanation in Vietnamese : ORS (mui b mt n-c)1.5 Translating by using a paraphraseThis strategy can be used when we translate an English word or concept that does not exist inVietnamese, or when the Vietnamese term for it does not include all the meanings conveyedby the English term for the same concept. For example, in the sentence: Pregnant womenshould avoid alcohol., the English alcohol includes all alcoholic drinks in its meaning. TheVietnamese word ru does not include beer in its definition, so the Vietnamesetranslation should add the word beer to reflect the full meaning of the source languagesentence. Another example is that the English words abuse and neglect signify a wholerange of behaviors, some of which are not conveyed by the Vietnamese words alone. As aresult, the English sentence: Children should be protected from abuse and neglect. cannotbe translated as simply as tr em nn -c bo v khi s lm dng vl l.. This translation does not account for their full meaning , which must beunpacked for better understanding. This can be done by paraphrasing as a translator hasattempted in the following translation: tr em cn bo v chng li mihnh thc bo lc, gy tn th-ng hay xc phm, b mc hoc xaonhng trong vic chm sc. Back translated roughly into English, this sentencereads, : Children must be protected from all forms of violence causing harm or offense, andfrom abandonment and negligence in their care.1.6 Translating by omissionThough some translators may reject this strategy as too drastic, it is sometimes appropriate toomit words or phrases that are not essential to the meaning or impact of the text. This isespecially true for words that would require lengthy explanations, awkward paraphrases, orliteral and unnatural translations, which would interrupt the flow of the text and could distract

30. 29the reader from the overall meaning. For example, the sentence Much can be done evenwithout being physically present in the meeting. is best translated into Vietnamese by, nhiu vic c th lm ngy c khi khng c mt ti cuc hpwhich omit the word physically in the translation. The difference in meaning between being physically present and being present is so minimal that it does not justify translationinto Vietnamese, which cannot easily express the slight emphasis implied here by the author,and would not do so by emphasizing the physicality of a persons presence.STRATEGY 2 : How to deal with idioms and set expressionsIdioms and set expressions can be dealt with in the ways similar to those mentioned above.With idioms, however, there is another difficulty that the translator may not realize that s/he isdealing with an idiomatic expression, since more idioms may make sense when translatedliterally.2.1 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning and formIt is sometimes possible to find a Vietnamese idiom or expression with a similar meaning toan English idiom or expression, and which is expressed in the same way. One example is theidiom to fight like cats and dogs, which is expressed using the same words in Vietnamese: ci nhau nh- ch vi mo.; another is Better than never., which istranslated : Th mun cn hn khng n. It is ideal if such a match can befound, but this kind of correspondence is not common, and it is usually necessary to use otherstrategies in dealing with idioms and set expressions.2.2 Using an idiom or a set expression of similar meaning but different formIt is possible and easy to find a Vietnamese idiom with a similar meaning for an Englishidiom or set expression. A good example can be found is the translation for to carry coals toNewcastle: Ch ci v rng." ,which is translated as to carry firewood to theforest. The meaning here is clearly the same for both idioms- to bring something to a placethat has an abundance of that thing- but the way in which each language expresses is bound tobe the culture of that language. It is far more cumbersome to translate this idiom literally intoVietnamese with an explanation that Newcastle is a well-known coal-producing city inEngland (as was suggested by some Vietnamese translators), which would unduly interruptthe flow of the text and greatly diminish the idioms impact. By substituting a similarVietnamese idiom, then, the flow and the impact of the source text are retained in thetranslation.2.3 Translating by paraphrasingWhen Vietnamese equivalents cannot be found, paraphrasing may be the best way to dealwith an idiom or set expression in English. A good example can be found in an article onmaternal mortality, which includes the sentence, But before the new estimates replace theold as a way of packaging up the problem, it should be said that a mistake has been made inallowing statistics such as these to slip into easy language. The expression packaging up theproblem caused the problems in translation, as it was misinterpreted to mean assembling orgathering. However, even if this phrase were clearly understood, it would be difficult to finda precise equivalent in Vietnamese. In fact, it would be difficult to restate concisely inEnglish. This phrase is best dealt with by paraphrasing, which in English could be understoodas something like summing up the problem by referring to it simply as a number, which does

31. 30not reflect its true magnitude or impact. The expression to slip into easy usage isproblematic for the same reasons, and is also best dealt with by paraphrasing, as a literaltranslation into Vietnamese would be meaningless.2.4 Translating by omissionThis strategy could be used when we translate words or phrases that would require lengthyexplanations, awkward paraphrases, or literal and unnatural translation. This strategy has alsobe used when we translate phases which has two meanings one of the meanings may besacrificed for the other. For instance, a book entitled Being Positive-Living with HIV/AIDScauses problems in translate because of the double meaning of being positive. The meaningof the phrase could be that a person is suffering from positive HIV and that s/he should havean optimistic outlook on life. This may be clear to the translator , who may interpret thephrase to mean that this book is for and about people who are HIV positive. However, thedouble meaning should be made clear through collaboration with the commissioner, afterwhich a choice must be made between the two meanings, for it would not be possible totranslate both meanings by one Vietnamese phrase. As the emphasis is on positive outlook onlife but not on the fact of being HIV positive, one translator has suggested the translation:Hy Sng Yu i D Nhim HIV. This translation expresses the notion ofbeing positive about life without mentioning anything about being HIV positive status.STRATEGY 3 : How to deal with voice, number and person2.1 VoiceThe passive voice is used very often in English and poses some problems in Vietnamesetranslation. Passive voice can be translated from English into Vietnamese in the followingways:a. English : A is/was/has been done by BVietnamese: (i) A -c+ ng t+(bi B) A -c/do+(B)+ng t (ii) A b +ng t + bi B A b +(B) + ng tExample: This house was built by Frank in 1930 NgI nh ny do Frank xy nm 1930Tom is given a present by Mary Tom -c Mary tng mt mn qu

32. 31Tom was attacked by a stranger last night Tom b mt k l mt tn cng ti hm quab.English : A is/was/has been done.Vietnamese: (i) A -c+ ng t (ii) A b+ ng t (iii) Ng-i ta/ai + ng t + AExample:Tom has been promoted recently.Tom mi -c bt gn y.The CD has been broken.Chic a CD b v/ Ai lm v chic a CD.The positive and negative connotation is not often conveyed in English, so it is difficult toknow what way used to translate into Vietnamese.Example: The children were given injections.Vietnamese translation : Cc chu -c tim., or Cc chu btim.depending on whether the receiving injection is considered a positive or negative experience.On the other hand, when the positive or negative connotation of the sentence is clear it is moreappropriate to retain the passive voice in Vietnamese.Example: The HMong people do not like to be called Meo. They prefer to be called HMong.Vietnamese: Ng-i dn tc H Mng khng thch b gi l dn tcMo. H thch -c gi l dn tc H Mng.In Vietnamese, there are some cases where one can see the words -c/b but they are nottranslated into English passive sentences at all.Example: - Anh y b ng. : He fell. - Ch Lan b ho. : Lan has a cough. - Hm nay chng ta -c nh chn no n.

33. 32 We had and enormous meal today.2.2 NumberThough both languages have similar notions of number and countability, each language has itsown way to express these notions. In English, number is expressed as a grammar category;that is, there are different grammatical forms for singular and plural nouns. In Vietnamese,however, no such distinction is grammatically made.Example : Ph n: can mean either woman or womenIn Vietnamese, some plural markers such as cc, nhng, tt c,mi" ,mi can be used in addition to the noun. cc generally means all ofthe given category of things, whereas nhng refers only to some of the total number ofthings being discussed. Mi emphasizes the identity of the individual member of thecategory without indicating anything of their totality; mi expresses both theindividuality of the items and the totality of the category. If it is clear from the English contextwhich of these plural markers should be used in the Vietnamese, then the translator shouldchoose accordingly.2.3 PersonParticipants roles and forms of address are expressed in Vietnamese through a verycomplicated system of personal pronouns based largely on kinship terms. Unlike Englishpronouns, Vietnamese pronouns bear a number of semantic components depending on therelationship within a family, age, sex, familiarity, social status, and even ones particularmood or attitude in a given situation. These distinctions are not always explicitly expressed inEnglish and can usually be determined by the context in which the language operates. If it isnot possible to determine the distinctions of the English pronouns, the attention should befocused on the tone and the overall purpose of the text to be translated.Example: A book on health-care contains many sections written especially for children andadults. In the sections for children the pronoun you is translated as em or cc em.In the sections for adults, you should be translated as chng ta .4. STRATEGY 4 : How to deal with non-subject sentences ( Vietnamese- English translation)The following techniques could be used to translate the non-subject sentences in Vietnamesetexts:4.1. Passive voice4.2. It + to be + Adj + to infinitive4.3. There + to be...4.4. Use the subject that is found in the previous sentence(s)Example:Cn y mnh cng nghip ha, hin i ha.

34. 33 Industrialization and modernization should bepromoted. Or: It is necessary to promote industrialization andmodernization Vn ch-a c cch cha khi bnh AIDS.There has been no cure for AIDS.5. STRATEGY 5 : How to deal with newspaper headlinesSome main characteristics of newspaper headlines are asfollows.5.1. Present tense = past events5.2. Present participle = event in progress5.3. To infinitive = future events5.4. Past participle = passive voice5.5. Nouns5.6. Verb + nounExample:1. Chinese Professors Turn To BusinessCc gio s- Trung Quc chuyn sang kinh doanh2. US President Visiting VietnamTng thng Hoa K ang thm Vit Nam3. Oil Price To Rise?Gi du s tng4. Three More Investment Projects Licensed This YearThm ba d n u t- na -c cp giy php trong nm nay5. Investment BoomBng n u t-6. See You In Court Hn gp ti taLESSON 5: PATTERNS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS MADE BY VIETNAMESE TRANSLATORSWhat is mother tongue interference in translation?In the narrow definition, interference in translation takes place when apparently, any featureof the source language notably a syntactic structure, a lexical item, and idiom, a metaphor,

35. 34word order or culture is carried over or literally translated as the case may be into the targetlanguage(TL) text.In a wider definition, interference includes cases when sentence length, punctuation, propernames, culture words are evidently transferred in the translation in fact all cases where thelanguage of the translation is manifestly affected whether appropriately or not by the languageof the original.When the mother tongue interference is an error, a false friend, a sign of the translatorsignorance, a mark of the effect of the source language (SL) or the SL culture, it can becategorized as follows.1. LINGUISTIC ERRORSThe linguistic errors can be divided into the following groups:

36. 351.1 Lexical ErrorsLexical interference traps are common enough but more invidious are innocent lookingcollocations which appear to make sense until one asks oneself what they mean in particularcontext.E.g. in English to cook an account translated as nu s sch is meanigless and itmust be translated as gi mo s sch. Lexical interference is very dangerousbecause it can distort the meaning of a sentence.1.1.1 ContextThe context itself determines the meaning of words. Therefore, their meaning should besolved in the context. It is commonly known that a word may have equivalents andaccordingly the analysis of its meaning has to be made carefully in order to pick out the mostappropriate word. There are many ways of translating of some nouns related to professions,classes, fields in society. For example, in a text written about Buddhism in which there aretwo words clergy and death. Some translated transferred clergy as gio s anddeath as ci cht for Buddha. It sounds strange and funny. In fact, clergytranslated as gio s for Catholicism but gii tng for Buddhism. Theword death is normally translated as ci cht but vua bng h inKings death and as for Buddhism this word should be translated as vin tch.When translators are asked to translate these sentences into Englisha. Kha Lun B tm ra Tn th gii vo nm 1842.b. Ti ang tm cun sch.c. Michael Faraday tm ra my pht in. Obviously, there are many equivalents in English for the word tm such as seek,look for, search for, find, find out. In addition, there are two more words related toth