590

hampered and rendered ineffective by a respect for vestedinterests and by the frequency with which poisonoussubstances are largely employed for legitimate purposes. In

1868 an Act to regulate the sale of poisons and to alter andto amend the Pharmacy Act of 1852 gave the Pharmaceutical

Society the power to draft regulations for keeping, dis-

pensing, and selling certain poisons which were enumeratedin a schedule. It was further declared to "be unlawful for

any person to sell or to keep open shop for retailing, dis-

pensing, or compounding poisons unless such person shall

be a pharmaceutical chemist or a chemist and druggistwithin the meaning of the Act." A little later in the

Act came the list of exceptions which has done so

much harm indirectly by facilitating the sale of poisons.Clause xvi. states that nothing hereinbefore containedshall extend to or interfere with the business of any

legally qualified apothecary or of any Member of the RoyalCollege of Veterinary Surgeons of Great Britain, nor withthe making or dealing in patent medicines, nor with thebusiness of wholesale dealers in supplying poisons in theordinary course of wholesale dealing. " This clause is

probably to blame for many of the "accidents" which

occur. Many examples could be quoted of poisons whichhave been procured under the plea of a desire to destroyanimals. Our coroners’ courts also afford frequent evidenceof the dangers resulting from patent medicines which

constitute a grave source of risk when improperly em-

ployed through ignorance or design. Many of these must

be labeled "poison" on account of the presence of opiumor of one of its active ingredients but this label does

not check the sale of various nostrums which are largelyadvertised by leaflets and in the daily press.The schedules drafted in 1868 have from time to time

been extended to include additional drugs and preparations ;sometimes these seemed to be necessitated by the introduc-tion of new drugs and occasionally perhaps by some recentevent attracting attention to an oversight. The last

important addition was the inclusion in 1900 of "liquidpreparations of carbolic acid and its homologues contain-

ing more than 3 per cent. of those substances " amongst thelist of poisons within the meaning of the Pharmacy Act,1868. When sold for all ordinary purposes these prepara-tions must now bear the name of the article, the word

"Poison," and the name and address of the seller. Lest

these restrictions should hinder the use of these substances,

exemptions are granted for "any preparation prepared foruse as sheep-wash, or for any other purpose in con-

nexion with agriculture or horticulture, and contained

in a closed vessel, distinctly labeled with the word

’Poisonous,’ the name and address of the seller, and anotice of the agricultural or horticultural purpose for

which the preparation has been prepared." In spite ofprecautions carbolic acid still has to be credited with Ibeing the poison most commonly employed with suicidal

intent and in addition with the responsibility of a

relatively large number of accidental deaths. Classified

lists of cases of poisoning afford very curious reading since

they show that there is usually a reckless disregard for a

period of intense suffering or an ignorance of the amount of

pain likely to ensue. The poisons most commonly used arecarbolic acid, spirit of salts, and oxalic acid, and they are I

probably selected because they are readily at hand, havingbeen legitimately purchased some time previously for neces-sary work. The great difficulty which hinders any effective

legislation lies in the frequency with which poisons are

necessarily used for various purposes in the arts and in

commerce. Every photographer and every entomologist is

probably in possession of an abundance of poison and inthe engrossing preoccupation demanded by his work it maywell be doubted whether care is always taken to surroundthese substances with the vigilant precautions necessary toprevent abstraction for improper purposes.We need not refer in detail to the statutory requirements

connected with the dispensing and retailing of poisons. The

regulations have been carefully constructed and generallythey afford adequate protection against improper purchaseof poison, although they can be evaded by false declarationof the "purpose for which it is stated to be required." All

such provisions can be set at naught by the purchase ofproprietary preparations or of compressed drugs intendedto procure sleep or by the acquisition of small quantities ofsedatives procured from several establishments. This last

method is often facilitated by the possession of an old

prescription and by the absence of a record, stamped uponit, of the dates upon which it has been compounded. This

small precaution might prevent many regrettable incidentsand it would appear to involve less trouble than the inser-

tion of the lengthy index reference to the druggist’s book inwhich a copy of the prescription will be found duly datedand numbered. In spite of all attempts to surround thesale of poisons with regulations designed to check their

purchase with homicidal or suicidal intent the legitimateuse of poisons appears to be so widespread that the framingof further restrictions is attended with very great difficulty.

A Chemical Conception of theEther.

Two distinct schools of thought in regard to the natureof the ether would appear to have arisen out of the dis-

covery of radium in particular and of radio activity in

general. That there is a certain amount of antagonismbetween the views respectively held is natural enough butwe should not be surprised if subsequent developmentsshowed that a compromise will ensue and that time will

prove that both schools are, after all, increasing our chancesof arriving at a solution of the mystery. We still have

amongst us the adherents of the emission theory of lightas opposed to the wave theory, and, indeed, the ranks ofthe former have been decidedly strengthened since the dis-covery of radio-activity. What may be considered as the

orthodox view of radio-activity is that which seeks explana-tion in the subdivision of the atom into infinitely smallerparticles, the electrons. This conception of the atom that itis composed of a cluster has become so clear in the minds ofmany that already the phenomena of a screen fluorescingunder the action of radium is spoken of as a bombardmentof electrons. The atom of radium is, so to speak,in a state of disruption, its electrons are projectedwith enormous velocity, giving rise to the phenomenaof light and heat. What Sir WILLIAM CROOKES describedsome years ago as radiant matter or a fourth state of

591

matter is now made more intelligible, according to one

school, by the electron theory and since the electron is

the embodiment of an electric discharge we would appear tobe in the presence of a phenomenon at one time manifest-

ing itself as matter and at another as force. Thus the

borderland between matter and energy would seem to have

been broken down. The theory of electrons amounts to areturn to the emission theory, which disregards the notion ofthe transmission of luminous vibrations through an etherialmedium. The origin of the emanations of radium is still a

mystery, but we may here recall the view that this display of

energy is due to the power which radium has of absorbingunknown energies in space and yielding them again in aform within human perception. This is the wave theory as

opposed to the emission or electron theory of radium’s

activity. The wave theory does not necessarily dependupon the assumption that ether consists merely of a subtle

highly elastic fluid or medium capable of transmittingvibrations with an enormous velocity. On the contrary,attempts have already been made to found a chemical

theory of ether and in this direction the conceptions ofMENDELEEFF, the great Russian chemist who was the first

to perceive the beauty, order, and importance of the periodiclaw of the chemical elements, are of the highest interest.

In a masterly essay recently published upon the subjectMENDELEEFF suggests that the ether is a gas which, likehelion or argon, is incapable of chemical combination. The

recognition of the ether as a gas assumes, of course, that it

belongs to the category of the ordinary physical states ofmatter, gaseous, liquid, and solid. "It does not require,"he says, "the recognition of a peculiar fourth state of

matter beyond the human understanding (CROOKES)" " and"all mystical spiritual ideas about ether disappear."MENDELEEFF thus clearly takes the realistic view and it

is not to be expected that his attitude would be without

the support of well-ascertained facts. His reasoningon the face of it is most cogent. He recognises,in spite of the enormous penetrative power of ether

which enables it to pass through every envelope, that

it would be impossible to determine experimentally its

mass in a given amount of other substances; therefore

he speaks not of the imponderability of ether but of the im-

possibility of weighing it. In short, his propositions are:(1) that the ether is the lightest ultimate gas and is endowedwith a high penetrating power which signifies that its

particles have, relatively to other gases, small weight and

extremely high velocity ; and (2) that ether is a simple bodyor element incapable of entering into combination or reactionwith other elements or compounds although capable of

penetrating their substance, just as belion, argon, and theiranalogues are soluble in water and other liquids. He

even proposes to place ether as an element in the

periodic system at the top of the series of elements

known as the zero group which comprises helion,neon, krypton, and zenon. The existence of elements

lighter than hydrogen is highly probable because the

hydrogen group is preceded by the zero group containingelements of less atomic weight according to the classifica-tion. On abundant reasoning MENDELÉEFF gives the first

1 A Chemical Conception of the Ether. By Professor D. Mendeléeff.London: Longmans, Green, and Co. 1904.

element in his series as "x," the second as "y" " to the dis-covery of which he now looks forward, and the third elementin the group is helion. He then clearly anticipates whatwould be the atomic weight, density, and properties of "x" "

and "y." " He assigns to "x," the ether, an atomic weightof nearly one-millionth that of hydrogen, travelling at avelocity of about 2250 kilometres per second. He thus

regards ether as the lightest of all the elements both

in density and atomic weight, as the most mobile gas, as

the element least prone to enter into combination with

other atoms, and as an all-permeating and penetratingsubstance.

Bearing these properties in mind uranium, thorium, andradium (the elements possessing the highest atomic weights)may be looked upon, according to MENDELÉEFF, as suns"endowed with the highest degree of that individualisedattractive capacity, a mean between gravity and chemical

affinity, which is seen in the absorption of gases and in the

phenomena of solution." According to this conception thesubstance of the ether or gas must naturally accumulatefrom all parts of the universe towards the medium or massof the sun just as the gases of the atmosphere accumulatein a drop of water. And the lightest of gases "x" willalso accumulate about the heaviest atoms of uranium and

thorium and radium and perhaps change its form of motionlike a gas dissolved in a liquid. If, however, such a specialaccumulation of ether atoms about the molecules of uraniumand thorium be admissible it seems to us that these elements

ought to exhibit radio-activity to the same degree, whereasradium is several thousand times more active than is thorium

or uranium, though its atomic weight is not very different.

The well-known experiment which shows how readily theemanations from radium affect substances as soon as its

salt is placed in communication with them appeals to

MENDELEEFF as "an emissive flow of something materialfrom the radio-active substance and in a sense seems

comprehensible if we assume that a peculiar rarefied

ether gas capable of exciting luminous vibrations enters

and passes off from the radio-active substance." " The

equilibrium of the ether atoms, it is suggested, may be

destroyed in the case of the radio-active bodies by the"massiveness" of the atoms of uranium and thorium,"just as the luminosity of the sun may be, I think, due toits great mass being able to accumulate ether in far

larger quantities than the planets." We fail to see howI massiveness" can be a factor in the way described, sincethe degree of radio-activity of these three elements differsenormously. In further support of his chemical con-

ception of the ether MENDELEKFF places a remarkable

interpretation upon the phenomena proceeding at excessivelylow temperatures, at which the phosphorescence of manysubstances, and especially of paraffin, becomes more intenseat the temperature of liquid air. His explanation is that

paraffin and such like substances have a great capacity for

condensing the atoms of ether at very low temperaturef-in other words, the solubility or absorption of the ether insome bodies increases in extreme cold. According to thisview phosphorescence in these circumstances becomes

more intense, for the vibrations of light are then set up inthe plosphorescent substances, not only by their own atomsbut also by the atoms of ether which condense in these

592

bodies and start a rapid state of interchange with the sur-

rounding medium.To sum up, it is clear that MENDELEEFF adopts a

distinctly realistic and charmingly simple view of the

ether and we cannot but admire the ingenuity with whichthis great master of chemical science has marshalled so

many facts in favour of his conceptions. All scientific

men will listen with the greatest respect to the teachingof the elaborator of the periodic law, though they may not

agree with him, that ether is a highly penetrative and anelastic gas, a real chemical entity which is at the bottom

of the marvellous phenomenon of radio-activity. It is a

bold thing to maintain against a powerful school con-

taining men such as CROOKES, RAMSAY, LODGE, LOCKYER,SODDY, and RUTHERFORD that any conception of the

division of the atoms into electrons is contrary to the

scientific teaching of the present day. Yet that is what

MENDELEEFF confesses to be his attitude until some one

demonstrates either the actual transformation of ordinarymatter into ether, or the reverse, or else the transforma-

tion of one element into another." It will be interestingto see, now that helion has been shown to appear as a

product of radio-activity and of the slow breaking down ofradium, how far the eminent Russian philosopher will con-sider it expedient to modify his tenets.

Annotations.

THE METROPOLITAN STREET AMBULANCEASSOCIATION.

" Ne quid nimiø."

WE puuiisnect in our issue or J.1eo. ocn, p. ott, a Drier

account of this association which has now got seriously towork. In view of the approaching London County Councilelections on March 5th all medical men whose work lies inthe metropolis are invited to send in their names as soon aspossible to the honorary secretary of the association, Dr.Arthur W. James, 69, Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W. In

this way candidates for municipal honours may see that themedical profession in London is of one mind as regards thenecessity of the Council providing an efficient street

ambulance service for London. Medical men joining theassociation will find themselves in good professional com-pany. Several hundred members have already been enrolled,amongst them being the President and many of the

Council of the Royal College of Physicians of London ;the President, an Ex-President, two Vice-Presidents, and16 members of the Council of the Roval College of

Surgeons of England; the Vice-Chancellor of the Universityof London, and members of the staff of all the London

hospitals, among whom may be mentioned Sir Thomas

Barlow, Sir T. Lauder Brunton, Sir William H. Bennett,Sir Alfred Cooper, Sir Anderson Critchett, Sir R. DouglasPowell, Sir E. Cooper Perry, and Sir Thomas Smith. The

Metropolitan Street Ambulance Association has already senta communication on this subject to every county council can-didate, inclosing a postcard for a reply to the followingquestion: "If elected to the London County Council will youinterest yourself in securing the establishment by the Councilof an efficient street ambulance service for London?" A greatmany satisfactory answers have been received and it appearscertain that candidates will do what is wanted if the

medical profession will point out to them the urgency of the

matter. Neither those responsible for the local governmentof the metropolis nor the London public understand that ourenormous capital has virtually no ambulance provision what.ever. There are certain ambulances generously placed by Mr.H. L. Bischoffsheim at the public disposal, the police have afew stretchers, and the St. John Ambulance Association a

few litters at its stations ; but considering the populationconcerned there is virtually no provision in London for therapid and safe conveyance of the victims of street accidentsto the hospitals. The chances that a man with, say, a

broken leg will reach a hospital in grievous anguish and atconsiderable risk of increased damage in a four-wheeled cabare very great, and this example alone is sufficient to bringbefore medical men the importance of a systematised schemefor supplying London with ambulances. We advise ourreaders to follow the example of the presidents of the RoyalColleges and other prominent members of the medical

profession and to join the Metropolitan Street AmbulanceAssociation.

___

THE VENTILATION OF RAILWAY TUNNELS.

A SERIES of articles on the advantages of the Saccardosystem of ventilating railway tunnels has recently appearedin successive numbers of the Engineer, commencingwith that of Jan. 15th. The difficulties presented byatmospheric vitiation in tunnels are exemplified by theconditions which accompanied increase of traffic in thatof the St. Gothard. The difference of ordinary atmo-

spheric pressure prevailing at opposite extremities of thistunnel usually suffices to create a decided natural draughtthroughout its length and for the first one and a half yearsduring which the trains were run it was supposed thatnatural ventilation would be sufficient. Even when it hadbeen for nearly eight years open for traffic-namely, in

March, 1889 -the chief engineer stated in a report that thereexisted at all times a natural air current so that, althoughthe tunnel employés and trainmen were affected by thesmoke, the vitiation of the air did not prevent them fromworking. At that time there were about 42 trains a day butwhen more trains were put on the air became worse. In the

summer of 1897 there were 61 trains a day. Moreover, fromthe middle of September, 1897, up to the end of the year theatmospheric pressure at both ends of the tunnel was so

nearly alike that the smoke from the locomotives simplyremained in the tunnel without escaping by either entranceowing to the feebleness of the natural ventilation. The

atmosphere then became injurious to the tunnel employesand the number of trains had to be reduced till the air wasrendered just tolerable. The trainmen also were inconveni-enced by the fumes, although their suffocation never wentto the stage of syncope, as had often happened before-andhas happened since-in tunnels of very much shorter lengthbut constructed on steeper gradients, wherein doubling andtrebling of the locomotives are necessary. Various schemeswere now proposed to prevent the loss of traffic caused

by the enforced diminution of trains, but nothing was doneuntil in April, 1898, the directors determined to adopt theSaccardo system of forced ventilation which had since July,1894, been employed with fair success on a main line of theItalian Adriatic Railways in the Apennine tunnel near

Pracchia. This method of mechanical ventilation, inventedby Marco Saccardo, is in principle very simple. A cone-

shaped ring of sheet iron, large enough for the trains to passthrough but of less diameter than the tunnel, is placed con-centrically with the latter and the vacant space betweenthem is closed at the end next the mouth of the tunnel butremains open at the further end. Two air channels leadingfrom this interspace communicate with two fans or venti-lators by means of which air can be either forced into thetunnel or withdrawn from it. The length of the tunnel