A Course on Linguistics for Students of English --Su Liqin School of Foreign Languages, Shangrao...

A Course on LinguisticA Course on Linguistics for Students of Engliss for Students of Englis

hh

--Su Liqin --Su Liqin School of Foreign Languages, SSchool of Foreign Languages, S

hangrao Normal Universityhangrao Normal University

The Goals for this CourseThe Goals for this Course

To get a scientific view on language;To get a scientific view on language; To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand some basic theories on linguistics; To understand the applications of the linguistic To understand the applications of the linguistic

theories, especially in the fields of language theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;communication……;

To prepare for the future research work. To prepare for the future research work.

The Requirements for this courseThe Requirements for this course

Class attendanceClass attendance Classroom discussionClassroom discussion Fulfillment of the assignmentFulfillment of the assignment Examination Examination

Reference BooksReference Books

戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊， (2002)(2002) ，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟，胡壮麟， (2001)(2001) ，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。

刘润清，刘润清， (1995)(1995) ，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to LanguageAn Introduction to Language the the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.

Chapter 1. IntroductionChapter 1. Introduction

1. What is language?1. What is language?

Language can meanLanguage can mean what a person says what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions) (e.g. bad language, expressions) the way of speaking or writing the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s languag(e.g. Shakespeare’s languag

e, Luxun’s language)e, Luxun’s language) a particular variety or level of speech or writing a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. langua(e.g. langua

ge for special purpose, colloquial language) ge for special purpose, colloquial language) the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writthe abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writ

ing behavior of a community ing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first la(e.g. Chinese language, first language) nguage)

the common features of all human languages the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studie(e.g. He studies language)s language)

a tool for human communication. (social function) a tool for human communication. (social function) a set of rules. a set of rules. (rule-governed) (rule-governed)

Sapir’s definition (1921)Sapir’s definition (1921)

““Language is a purely human and non-instinctive Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”symbols.”

Hall’s definition (1968)Hall’s definition (1968)

Language is “the institution whereby humans Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”arbitrary symbols.”

Chomsky’s definition (1957)Chomsky’s definition (1957)

““From now on I will consider language to be a From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”elements.”

Language can be generally defined asLanguage can be generally defined as

a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.human communication.

Language is a systemLanguage is a system

Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arraSystematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined anged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. t will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.*bkli, *I apple eat.

Language is arbitraryLanguage is arbitrary

Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen”“pen” by any by any other name is the thing we use to write with.other name is the thing we use to write with.

Language is symbolic in natureLanguage is symbolic in nature

Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare ----Shakespeare

Language is primarily vocalLanguage is primarily vocal

Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all Vocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. than spoken form.

Language is human-specific Language is human-specific

Human-specific---- different from the Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.cries.

The design/defining features of human languagThe design/defining features of human languagee (Charles Hockett)(Charles Hockett)

• ArbitrarinessArbitrariness• Productivity/CreativityProductivity/Creativity• DualityDuality• DisplacementDisplacement• Cultural transmissionCultural transmission

ArbitrarinessArbitrariness

----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between so----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings.unds and meanings.

Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are sOnomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. omewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )

Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. typSome compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…e-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…

Productivity/creativity Productivity/creativity

----Peculiar to human languages----Peculiar to human languages ，， users of language can understand users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the , though it does not describe a common happening in the world.world.

A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. novelty impossible.

The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires alone about people, animals, hopes or desires

Duality (double articulation) Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considered more A communication system with duality is considered more

flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (we (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.dictionary of sentences of that language.

DisplacementDisplacement ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real

or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. places.

A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last yearA gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees

communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.discoveries.

Cultural transmissionCultural transmission

----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; ----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).rather than by instinct).

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.gibbons and bees.

A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.learning, rather than by instinct.

The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.

Functions of languageFunctions of language Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social conPhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social con

tact.tact. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Directive: get the hearer to do something. Informative: give information about facts. Informative: give information about facts. Interrogative: get information from others.Interrogative: get information from others. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startlEvocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startl

e, soothe, worry or please) e, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actiPerformative: language is used to do things, to perform acti

ons. ons.

The origin of languageThe origin of language

The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind. to mankind.

The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together. grunts of men working together.

The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological development.psychological development.

许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学 ,, 至少不够严至少不够严谨谨 .. 他对语言的定义做了如下概括他对语言的定义做了如下概括 :: 语言是一种符号系统语言是一种符号系统 ..

当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候 ,, 它是表它是表达相互反应的中介达相互反应的中介 ;;

当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候 ,, 它是它是认知事物的工具认知事物的工具 ;;

当它作用于文化的时候当它作用于文化的时候 ,, 它是文化的载体它是文化的载体 ..

2. What is linguistics? 2. What is linguistics?

----Linguistics is the ----Linguistics is the scientificscientific study of language. study of language.

----A person who studies linguistics is known as ----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist. a linguist.

Four principles of linguistic studiesFour principles of linguistic studies

Exhaustiveness/adequacy Exhaustiveness/adequacy

Consistency Consistency

Economy Economy

Objectivity Objectivity

The scope or major branches of linguisticsThe scope or major branches of linguistics

Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics1.1. PhoneticsPhonetics2.2. PhonologyPhonology3.3. MorphologyMorphology4.4. SyntaxSyntax5.5. SemanticsSemantics Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics1.1. Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics2.2. SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3.3. PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics …… ……

Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics

Phonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transPhonetics----speech sound (description, classification, transcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditorcription): articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics.y phonetics.

Phonology----sound patterns of languagesPhonology----sound patterns of languages Morphology----the form of wordsMorphology----the form of words Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into

sentence.sentence. Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning oSemantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning o

f language is conducted in the context of language use----Prf language is conducted in the context of language use----Pragmatics)agmatics)

Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics

Applied linguistics----linguistics and language Applied linguistics----linguistics and language teaching teaching

Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, Sociolinguistics---- social factors (e.g. class, education) affect language use education) affect language use

Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and Psycholinguistics----linguistic behavior and psychological process psychological process

Stylistics----linguistic and literature Stylistics----linguistic and literature

Some other applications Some other applications

Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics

NeurolinguisticsNeurolinguistics

Computational linguistics (e.g. machine translatiComputational linguistics (e.g. machine translation)on)

Some important distinctions in linguistics Some important distinctions in linguistics

Descriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive vs prescriptive

Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)linguistic)

Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)grammar)

Synchronic vs diachronicSynchronic vs diachronic

Synchronic study---- Synchronic study---- description of a description of a language at some point language at some point of time (modern of time (modern linguistics)linguistics)

Diachronic study---- Diachronic study---- description of a description of a language through time language through time (historical development (historical development of language over a of language over a period of time)period of time)

Speech vs writingSpeech vs writing

Speech ---- primary medium of languageSpeech ---- primary medium of language

Writing ---- later developedWriting ---- later developed

Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)Langue vs parole (F. de Saussure)

Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.members of the speech community.

Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.

Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.

Competence and performance (Chomsky)Competence and performance (Chomsky) Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the

rules of his language rules of his language

Performance ---- the actual realization of this Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication knowledge in linguistic communication

Chomsky looks at language from a psychological Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.the mind of each individual.

Traditional grammar vs modern linguisticsTraditional grammar vs modern linguistics

Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Latin-based framework

Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework not necessarily Latin-based framework

Chapter 2 PhonologyChapter 2 Phonology

Language is primarily vocal. The primary Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication. human communication.

Phonetics Phonetics

----A branch of linguistics which studies the ----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.

Three branches of phonetics Three branches of phonetics

Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”“how speakers produce speech sounds”

Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”sounds are perceived”

Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by wAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another. hich sounds are transmitted from one to another.

Articulatory phonetics Articulatory phonetics

Speech organs: three important areas Speech organs: three important areas

•Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;

•The oral cavity ---- the mouth;

•Nasal cavity ---- the nose.

The diagram of speech organsThe diagram of speech organs1.1. LipsLips2.2. TeethTeeth3.3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)Teeth ridge (alveolar)4.4. Hard palateHard palate5.5. Soft palate (velum)Soft palate (velum)6.6. UvulaUvula7.7. Tip of tongueTip of tongue8.8. Blade of tongueBlade of tongue9.9. Back of tongueBack of tongue10.10. Vocal cordsVocal cords11.11. Pharyngeal cavityPharyngeal cavity12.12. Nasal cavity Nasal cavity

Orthographic representation of speech sounds Orthographic representation of speech sounds

---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic ---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.

Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ purpose, without diacritics, e.g. clear [ ], [ pit ] ], [ pit ]

Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]

Some major articulatory variables Some major articulatory variables

---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:

Voicing---- voiced & voicelessVoicing---- voiced & voiceless

Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasal

Aspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspirated

Classification of English speech sounds Classification of English speech sounds

---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two ---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:large categories:

Vowels Vowels Consonants Consonants

Note: The essential difference between these two classes Note: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.obstructed.

Classification of consonants Classification of consonants

---- English consonants may be classified ---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:according to two dimensions:

The manner of articulation The manner of articulation

The place of articulationThe place of articulation

The manner of articulationThe manner of articulation

stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];stops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];

fricatives: [fricatives: [], [v], [s], [z], [], [v], [s], [z], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [h];], [h];

affricates: [affricates: [], [], [];];

liquids: [l](lateral), [liquids: [l](lateral), []; ];

nasals: [nasals: [], [], [], [], [];];

glides/semivowels: [w], [glides/semivowels: [w], []. ].


bilabial: [p], [b], [bilabial: [p], [b], [], [w];], [w]; labiodental: [ labiodental: [ ], [v];], [v]; dental: [dental: [], [], [];]; alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r];alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]; palatal: [palatal: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ ], [ ];]; velar: [k], [g], [velar: [k], [g], [];]; glottal: [h].glottal: [h].


1.1. Bilabial;Bilabial;

2.2. Labiodental;Labiodental;

3.3. Dental or interdenDental or interdental;tal;

4.4. Alveolar;Alveolar;

5.5. Palatoalveolar;Palatoalveolar;

6.6. Palatal;Palatal;

7.7. Velar;Velar;

8.8. Uvular;Uvular;

9.9. Glottal.Glottal.

The description of English consonantsThe description of English consonantsPlacePlace

mannermannerVoic-Voic-

ingingBila-Bila-

bialbial

Labio-Labio-

dentaldentalDentalDental

Alveo-lAlveo-larar

PalatalPalatal Velar Velar Glottal Glottal

Stops or Stops or plosivesplosives

VLVL [ p ][ p ] [ t ] [ t ] [ k ] [ k ]

VDVD [ b ][ b ] [ d ][ d ] [ g ][ g ]

Frica-tiveFrica-tivess

VLVL [ [ ] ] [ [ ]] [ s ][ s ] [ [ ] ] [h][h]

VDVD [ v ][ v ] [ [ ]] [ z ][ z ] [ [ ]]

Affri-Affri-

catescates

VLVL ([([] )] ) [[]]

VDVD ([([])]) [[]]

NasalsNasals VDVD [[]] [n][n] [ [ ]]

LiquidsLiquids VDVD [l], [r][l], [r]

Glides Glides VDVD [w][w] [ [ ]]

Classification of vowels Classification of vowels

---- English vowels can be divided into two lar---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:ge categories:

Monophthongs or pure/single vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels

Diphthongs or gliding vowelsDiphthongs or gliding vowels

Monophthongs or pure/single vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels

----According to which part of the tongue is held highest ----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:distinguished as:

front vowels: [front vowels: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []]

central vowels: [central vowels: [], [], [], [], [];];

back vowels: [back vowels: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []. ].

According to the openness of the mouth According to the openness of the mouth

Close: [Close: [], [], [], [], [], [], [].].

Semi-close: [Semi-close: [], [], []; ];

Semi-open: [Semi-open: [], [], [];];

Open: [Open: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [];];

The diagram of single vowel classification by The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned: applying the two criteria so far mentioned:

According to the shape of the lips orAccording to the shape of the lips orthe degree of lip rounding the degree of lip rounding

rounded: [rounded: [], [], [], [], [], [], [];];

unrounded: [unrounded: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], ], [[], [], []. ].

According to the length of the vowels According to the length of the vowels

long:long: [[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []]

short: [short: [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], []. ].

Diphthongs/gliding vowels Diphthongs/gliding vowels

[[], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [].].

Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.as required.

A bilabial consonant: A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad had ladmad sad bad cad pad had lad A velar consonant: A velar consonant: nod god cod pod rodnod god cod pod rod Labiodental consonant: Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patrat fat sat mat chat vat pat An alveolar consonant: An alveolar consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quicknick lick sick tick kick quick A palato-alveolar consonant: A palato-alveolar consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipsip ship tip chip lip zip A dental consonant: A dental consonant: lie buy thigh thy tie ryelie buy thigh thy tie rye A glide: A glide: one war yolk rushone war yolk rush

Underline the words that end with a sound as required:Underline the words that end with a sound as required:

A fricativeA fricative

pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messagecave message

A nasalA nasal

train bang leaf limbtrain bang leaf limb A stopA stop

drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through

tiptip An affricate: An affricate: rack such ridge boozerack such ridge booze

Underline the words that contain the sound as Underline the words that contain the sound as required:required:

A central vowel:A central vowel:

mad lot but boot wordmad lot but boot word A front vowel:A front vowel:

reed pad load fate bit bed cook reed pad load fate bit bed cook A rounded vowel: A rounded vowel:

who he bus her hit true boss bar walkwho he bus her hit true boss bar walk A back vowel:A back vowel:

paid reap fool top good fatherpaid reap fool top good father

Describe the underlined consonants Describe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions: according to three dimensions:

vd/vl place manner vd/vl place manner LeLettttererBroBroththererSuSunnnnyyHoHoppppererItItchchingingLoLodgdgererCaCallllingingSiSingngingingRoRobbbberereieiththerer

PhonologyPhonology

Phonology studies the patterning of speech Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.human languages.

Phonetics & phonologyPhonetics & phonology

Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.

Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.features they have, how they can be classified, etc.

Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. linguistic communication.

Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone, phoneme, allophone

PhonePhone

A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speecA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic coh sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessammunication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. rily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ b[ bt ] & [ bt ] & [ bt ], [spt ], [spt] & [spt] & [spt].t].

PhonemePhoneme

A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit oA phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particulaf distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in r sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pbe represented differently in [pt], [tt], [tp] and [spp] and [spt]. t].

AllophoneAllophone

Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.in different phonetic environments.

Phonemic contrast, complementary Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.distribution and minimal pair.

Phonemic contrastPhonemic contrast

Phonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonePhonemic contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g.mes are in phonemic contrast, e.g.

/b/ and /p/ in [ b/b/ and /p/ in [ bt ] and [pt ] and [pt].t].

Complementary distributionComplementary distribution

Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoComplementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, guish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. e.g.

dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].

Minimal pairMinimal pair

Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical Minimal pair----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.

beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.

Some rules of phonologySome rules of phonology

Sequential rulesSequential rules

Assimilation rule Assimilation rule

Deletion rule Deletion rule


Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combinatioSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k n of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.

If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound mIf a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.ust be a vowel.


If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.

a) the first phoneme must be /s/,a) the first phoneme must be /s/, b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/, c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/. * [ * [ ] never occurs in initial position in English and standar] never occurs in initial position in English and standar

d Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantoned Chinese,but it does occur in some dialects, e.g. in Cantonese: “se: “ 牛肉，我，俄语……”牛肉，我，俄语……”

Assimilation ruleAssimilation rule

Assimilation rule----assimilates one sound to anotheAssimilation rule----assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thr by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix us making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix inin i is pronounced differently when in different phonetic s pronounced differently when in different phonetic contexts:contexts:

indiscreet alveolar [indiscreet alveolar [n]n] inconceivable velar inconceivable velar [[]]

input bilabial [input bilabial []]

Assimilation in MandarinAssimilation in Mandarin

好啊好啊 hao wahao wa 海啊海啊 hai yahai ya 看啊看啊 kan nakan na 唱啊唱啊 chang chang 跳啊跳啊 tiao watiao wa …… ……

Deletion ruleDeletion rule

Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be Deletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. e.g. designdesign, , paradigmparadigm, there is no [g] sound; but the , there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms forms signaturesignature, , designationdesignation, , paradigmaticparadigmatic. .

Suprasegmental featuresSuprasegmental features

Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features thSuprasegmental features----the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments ( larger thaat occur above the level of the segments ( larger than phoneme):n phoneme):

stress stress

tonetone

intonationintonation

Syllable (what is syllable?)Syllable (what is syllable?) Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel Ancient Greek: a unit of speech sound consisting of a vowel

or a vowel with one or more than one consonant.or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Dictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel sDictionary: word or part of a word which contains a vowel s

ound or consonant acting as a vowel.ound or consonant acting as a vowel. The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK, The syllable consists of three parts: the ONSET, the PEAK,

the CODA, e.g. [mthe CODA, e.g. [mn].n]. The peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a voweThe peak is the essential part. It is usually formed by a vowe

l. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apl. But [l], [n] and [m] might also function as peaks as in “ apple, hidden, communism”. ple, hidden, communism”.

StressStress

Word stress Word stress

Sentence stressSentence stress

Word stressWord stress

The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:speech of a word:

verb: imverb: import; inport; increase; recrease; rebel; rebel; record …cord …

noun: noun: import; import; increase; increase; rebel; rebel; record …record …


Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:

compound: compound: blackbird; blackbird; greenhouse; greenhouse; hotdog…hotdog…

noun phrase: black noun phrase: black bird; green bird; green house; hot house; hot dog…dog…


The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of manifested in the combinations of -ing-ing forms and nouns: forms and nouns:

modifier: modifier: dining-room; dining-room; readingroom; readingroom; sleepingbag… sleepingbag… doer: sleeping doer: sleeping baby; swimming baby; swimming fish; flying fish; flying plane…plane…

Sentence stressSentence stress

Sentence stress----the relative force given to the Sentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed. are usually not stressed.

Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.

He is driving my car.He is driving my car. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday. My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.

ToneTone

Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cordthe differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.s.

English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is. ma ma 妈妈 (level)(level) ma ma 麻麻 (the second rise)(the second rise) ma ma 马马 (the third rise)(the third rise) ma ma 骂骂 (the fourth fall)(the fourth fall)

IntonationIntonation

When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.known as intonation.

English has three types of intonation that are most English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:frequently used:

falling tone (matter of fact statement)falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question)rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message)the fall-rise tone (implied message) For instance,For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.” “That’s not the book he wants.”

Grammatical functions of intonationsGrammatical functions of intonations

----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of ----Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.meaning in almost every language, esp. in English.

a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction. a) It may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.


b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into b) It may impose different structures on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units, e.g. “different intonation units, e.g. “John didn’t come because of Marry”John didn’t come because of Marry”

Within one intonation unit, it means: Within one intonation unit, it means: John came, but it had nothing to John came, but it had nothing to do with Marry.do with Marry.

With two intonation units, it means: With two intonation units, it means: Marry was the reason why John Marry was the reason why John didn’t come.didn’t come.

Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:Exercises: Think of the utterance in different intonations:

“ “Those who bought quickly made a profit.”Those who bought quickly made a profit.”


c) It can make a certain part of a sentence c) It can make a certain part of a sentence especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, especially prominent by placing nucleus on it, e.g. e.g.

Jack came yesterday by train.Jack came yesterday by train.


d) Its attitudinal functions.d) Its attitudinal functions. Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement, Falling tone ---- matter-of-fact statement,

downright assertion, commands.downright assertion, commands. Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,Rising tone ----politeness, encouragement,

pleading. pleading.

Note: these can only be very general indications. The Note: these can only be very general indications. The specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be specific attitudinal meaning of an intonation pattern must be interpreted within a context.interpreted within a context.

Chapter 3 MorphologyChapter 3 Morphology

Morphology refers to the study of the internal Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are formed.

Open class word and closed class wordOpen class word and closed class word

Open class words----content words of a language tOpen class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as o which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intmember of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “ernet, “ 做秀，时装秀…” 做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.in Chinese.

Closed class words----grammatical or functional wClosed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and ords, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. pronouns.

Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningMorpheme--the minimal unit of meaning

---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of ---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.

1-morpheme boy, desire1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,

un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityun+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

AffixAffix

Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. others, e.g.

un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc. Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after oSuffix ---- morphemes that occur only after o

thers, e.g. thers, e.g.

-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.

Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme & bound morpheme

Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, bed, tree, sing, dance, eetc.tc.

Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at lBound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by theeast one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, mselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc. “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.

AllomorphAllomorph Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, barSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bar

k, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a k, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are saimorpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be d to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:represented by:

map----mapmap----mapss [s] [s] dog----dogdog----dogss [z] [z] watch----watches [iz]watch----watches [iz] mouse----mmouse----miice [ai]ce [ai] ox----oxox----oxenen [n] [n] tooth----ttooth----teeeeth th sheep----shsheep----sheeeepp Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.

Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme

Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.

Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.never add any lexical meaning, e.g.

a) number: tablea) number: tabless apple appless car carss

b)b) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked

c) case: John/John’sc) case: John/John’s

Some other termsSome other terms

Root Root

StemStem

BaseBase

RootRoot

A root is that part of the word left when all the affixA root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “es (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “ddesire”esire” in “ in “desirable”, “care” desirable”, “care” inin “carefully “carefully”, “”, “nationationn” in “” in “internationalism”internationalism”, “, “believebelieve” in “” in “unbeliev(e)aunbeliev(e)ableble”… ”…

Stem

A stem is part of a word-form which remains wA stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.hen all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesiralbe” in undesirablesg. “undesiralbe” in undesirables

BaseBase

A base is any form to which affixes of any kind A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.termed as a base.

The difference between root, stem & baseThe difference between root, stem & base

A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affiA base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;xes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;

A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesire undesire in in undesirundesirable) able) while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g. while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g. desiredesire in in undesirable;undesirable;

Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desiredesire in in dedesired;sired;

UndesirableUndesirable in in undesirablesundesirables is either a stem or a base; is either a stem or a base; DesirableDesirable in in undesirableundesirable is only a base. is only a base.

Morphological rulesMorphological rules

The rules that govern the formation of words, The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.

unfair unthinkable unacceptable…unfair unthinkable unacceptable… Compounding is another way to form new Compounding is another way to form new

words, e.g.words, e.g.

landlady rainbow undertake…landlady rainbow undertake…

CompoundsCompounds Noun compoundsNoun compounds daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) daybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N) Verb compoundsVerb compounds brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)brainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V) Adjective compoundsAdjective compounds maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) maneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)dutyfree (N+adj.) Preposition compoundsPreposition compounds into (P+P)into (P+P) throughout (P+P)throughout (P+P)

Some points about compoundsSome points about compounds When the two words are in the same grammatical category, When the two words are in the same grammatical category,

the compound will be in this category, e.g. the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…

When the two words fall into different categories, the class When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…

Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…

The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.meanings of its parts.

Chapter 4 SyntaxChapter 4 Syntax

What is syntax?What is syntax?

----a branch of linguistics that studies how ----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. rules that govern the formation of sentences.

Transformational Generative Grammar Transformational Generative Grammar (TG)(TG)

Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20 thth century, some important works: century, some important works:

(1957) Syntactic Structure;(1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;(1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding;(1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers(1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;(1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……(1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……

Criteria on good grammarCriteria on good grammar

Observational adequacy Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it TG differs from traditional grammar in that it

not only aims at language description, but also not only aims at language description, but also its explanation. its explanation.

Chomsky is much more interested in the Chomsky is much more interested in the similarities (language universals) between similarities (language universals) between

languages rather than their differences. languages rather than their differences.

Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework Linguists should attempt to find a grammatical framework which will be suitable for all languages;which will be suitable for all languages;

Linguists should concentrate on the elements and Linguists should concentrate on the elements and constructions that are available to all languages rather than constructions that are available to all languages rather than on elements that actually occur in all languages.on elements that actually occur in all languages.

There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined linguistic elements are combined

Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework (Universal languages share a common framework (Universal Grammar). Grammar).

CategoriesCategories

Category refers to a group of linguistic items which Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) parts of speech)

Word-level categoriesWord-level categories

Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, AMinor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, A

uxi, Conj. uxi, Conj.

The criteria on which categories are The criteria on which categories are determineddetermined

Meaning Meaning Inflection Inflection Distribution Distribution Note: The most reliable criterion of Note: The most reliable criterion of

determining a word’s category is its determining a word’s category is its distribution.distribution.

Phrase categories and their structures Phrase categories and their structures

Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built arounPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such d a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).

The structure: specifier + head + complement The structure: specifier + head + complement Head---- the word around which a phrase is formedHead---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---- the words on the left side of the headsSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the heads

Phrase structure rulesPhrase structure rules The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement

of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structurof elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:e rule, such as:

NP NP (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the (Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.plate, pretty girls.

VP VP (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish (Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.assignments.

AP AP (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimist (Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toic, familiar with, very close to

PP PP (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite n (Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.ear the station.

Specifier X Complement

Head

XP

The XP ruleThe XP rule

Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.for N, V, A or P.

X’ TheoryX’ Theory

XP XP (Specifier)X’ (Specifier)X’ X’ X’ X(complement) X(complement)

X(head) complement

specifier

XP(Phrase level)

X’

Coordination rule Coordination rule Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by

joining two or more elements of the same type with the help joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.

----Coordination has four important properties:----Coordination has four important properties: no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the

conjunction;conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated;a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type;the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the

category type of the elements being conjoined. category type of the elements being conjoined.

Phrase elements Phrase elements

SpecifierSpecifier HeadHead complementcomplement

SpecifiersSpecifiers

---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise th---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically e meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determimark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words ners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.as in AP.

ComplementsComplements

---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide ---- Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is iinformation abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. mplied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentia story about a sentimental girl;mental girl; There can be no complement, one complement, There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, breaappear, break, put…;k, put…; a sentence-like construction may also function as a a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent.I believed that she was innocent. I dI doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” oubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” ThThat/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by coat/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.mplementizers are complement clause.

ModifiersModifiers

---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible ---- Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.properties of heads.

Sentences (the S rule)Sentences (the S rule)

S S NP VP NP VP

S

NPVP

NP

Det N V Det N

A boy found the evidence

S NP infl VP

Many linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence’s tense and agreement.

InflP(=S)

NP VPInfl

Sentences (the S rule)Sentences (the S rule)

Infl realized by a tense labelInfl realized by a tense label

InflP （ =S）NP VP

NP

Det N Infl V Det N

A boy Pst found the evidence

Infl realized by an auxiliaryInfl realized by an auxiliary

InflP （ =S） VPNP

NP

Det N Infl V Det N

A boy will find the evidence

TransformationsTransformations

Auxiliary movement (inversion) Auxiliary movement (inversion) DoDo insertion insertion Deep structure & surface structure Deep structure & surface structure Wh-movement Wh-movement Move Move αα and constraints on transformations and constraints on transformations

Auxiliary movement (inversion)Auxiliary movement (inversion)

InversionInversion Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Inversion (revised)Inversion (revised) Move Infl to C. Move Infl to C.

C

CP

S

Det N Infl V

the train will arrive

NP

Auxiliary movement (inversion)Auxiliary movement (inversion)

CP

SC NP

Infl Det N Infl V

Will the train e arrive

DoDo insertion insertion DoDo insertion---- Insert interrogative insertion---- Insert interrogative dodo into an empty Infl po into an empty Infl po

sition. sition. CP

C

S

NP Infl VPBirds fly

CP CP

C C

SS

Infl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do fly Do birds e fly

Figure-1

Figure-2 Figure-3

Deep structure & surface structure Deep structure & surface structure

Consider the following pair of sentences:Consider the following pair of sentences:

John is easy to please.John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.John is eager to please.

Structurally similar sentences might be very Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures. different deep structures.

Deep structure & surface structureDeep structure & surface structure

Consider one more sentence:Consider one more sentence: Flying Flying planes can be dangerous.planes can be dangerous.

It can mean either that It can mean either that if you fly planes you are if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity engaged in a dangerous activity or or Planes that are Planes that are flying are dangerous.flying are dangerous.

Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. meaning of the sentence.

Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.pronounced or written.

Deep structure & surface structure Deep structure & surface structure

The organization of the syntactic componentThe organization of the syntactic component

The XP rule

Deep structure

transformations

Surface structure

Subcategorization restricts choice of complements

Wh-movementWh-movement

Consider the derivation of the following sentences:Consider the derivation of the following sentences:

What languages can you speak?What languages can you speak?

What can you talk about?What can you talk about?

These sentences may originate as:These sentences may originate as:

You can speak what languages.You can speak what languages.

You can talk about what.You can talk about what.

Wh-movementWh-movement

Wh-movement---- Move a Wh-movement---- Move a whwh phrase to the beginnin phrase to the beginning of the sentence.g of the sentence.

What languageWhat language cancan you you speak speak ??

WhatWhat cancan you you talk about talk about ??

Wh-movementWh-movement Wh-movement---- Move a Wh-movement---- Move a whwh phrase to the specifier phrase to the specifier

position under CP. (Revised)position under CP. (Revised)

CP

VP

V NP

won the game

S

NP Infl

e Pst

NP C

Who

Move Move αα and constraints on transformations and constraints on transformations

Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C positinearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.on.

No element may be removed from a coordinate strucNo element may be removed from a coordinate structure.ture.

Chapter 5 SemanticsChapter 5 Semantics

Semantics----the study of language meaning.Semantics----the study of language meaning.

Meaning is central to the study of communication.Meaning is central to the study of communication.

What is meaning?---- Scholars under different What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. understandings of language meaning.

Some views concerning the study of meaningSome views concerning the study of meaning

Naming theory (Plato) Naming theory (Plato) The conceptualist view The conceptualist view Contextualism (Bloomfield) Contextualism (Bloomfield) Behaviorism Behaviorism

Naming theory (Plato)Naming theory (Plato)

Words are names or labels for things.Words are names or labels for things. Limitations: Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only.1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not e2) There are nouns which denote things that do not e

xist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, pxist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…henix…

3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical obje3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…cts but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…

The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view

The conceptualist view holds that there is no The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. concepts in the mind.

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangleOgden and Richards: semantic triangle

Symbol/form

word/phrase/sentence

Referent/object in the

world of experience

Thought/reference/concept

Ogden and Richards: semantic triangleOgden and Richards: semantic triangle The symbol or form refers to the linguistic The symbol or form refers to the linguistic

elements (words and phrases);elements (words and phrases); The referent refers to the object in the world of The referent refers to the object in the world of

experience;experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Thought or reference refers to concept. The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of

the concept associated with the form of the word the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word. the word.

The contextualism The contextualism

Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Two types of contexts are recognized:

Situational context: spatiotemporal situationSituational context: spatiotemporal situation Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-

occurrence or collocation.occurrence or collocation. For example, “black” in For example, “black” in blackblack hair hair & & blackblack coffee, coffee, or or blackblack

sheep sheep differs in meaning; differs in meaning; “The president of the United “The president of the United States”States” can mean either the president or presidency in can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.different situation.

BehaviorismBehaviorism

Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “ the the situation in which the speaker utters it and the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.response it calls forth in the hearer”.

The story of Jack and Jill:The story of Jack and Jill:

Jill JackJill Jack

S_________r--------s_________RS_________r--------s_________R

Lexical meaningLexical meaning Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of

word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. meaning.

Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.

Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. experience.

Note:Note:

Linguistic forms having the same sense may have Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. differ in sense, e.g. thethe morning starmorning star and and the the evening starevening star, , rising sunrising sun in the morning and in the morning and the the sunsetsunset at dusk. at dusk.

Major sense relationsMajor sense relations

Synonymy Synonymy Antonymy Antonymy PolysemyPolysemy Homonymy Homonymy Hyponymy Hyponymy

SynonymySynonymy Synonymy refers to the sameness or close Synonymy refers to the sameness or close

similarity of meaning. Words that are close in similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.meaning are called synonyms.

1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in 1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline…

2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in 2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;…commence;…

SynonymySynonymy

3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative 3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…e.g.collaborator- accomplice,…

4) Collocational synonyms, 4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …with, rebuke…for; …

5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astou5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…nd,…

AntonymyAntonymy

Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …cold, tall-short, …

Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-deadalive-dead, , male-female, …male-female, …

Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, … employee, give-receive, above-below, …

Gradable antonymsGradable antonyms

Gradable antonyms ----Gradable antonyms ----there are often there are often intermediate forms intermediate forms between the two between the two members of a pair, e.g. members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …short, …

Complementary antonymsComplementary antonyms

Complementary antonyms ----Complementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. other, e.g. alive-deadalive-dead, , male-male-female, …female, …

PolysemyPolysemy

Polysemy----the same one word may have more thaPolysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:n one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:

A piece of furnitureA piece of furniture All the people seated at a tableAll the people seated at a table The food that is put on a tableThe food that is put on a table A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc. …… ……

HomonymyHomonymy

Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identmeanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in ical in sound sound or or spellingspelling, or in both., or in both.

Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …rain-reign, night/knight, …

Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …

Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in botComplete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. h sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …

Note: Note:

A polysemic word is the result of the evolutiA polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the eon of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homtymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincionyms are often brought into being by coincidence. dence.

HyponymyHyponymy

Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more geHyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific worneral, more inclusive word and a more specific word.d.

Superordinate: the word which is more general in Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.meaning.

Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaHyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.ning.

Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinatCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.

HyponymyHyponymy

Superordinate: flowerSuperordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony, Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, chrysanthemum, peony,

narcissus, …narcissus, …

Superordinate: furnitureSuperordinate: furniture Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa,Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa,

… …

Sense relations between sentences Sense relations between sentences

(1) X is synonymous with Y(1) X is synonymous with Y (2) X is inconsistent with Y(2) X is inconsistent with Y (3) X entails Y(3) X entails Y (4) X presupposes Y(4) X presupposes Y (5) X is a contradiction(5) X is a contradiction (6) X is semantically anomalous(6) X is semantically anomalous

X is synonymous with YX is synonymous with Y

X: He was a bachelor all his life.X: He was a bachelor all his life.

Y: He never got married all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.

X: The boy killed the cat.X: The boy killed the cat.

Y: The cat was killed by the boy.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.

If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.

X is inconsistent with YX is inconsistent with Y

X: He is single.X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.Y: He has a wife.

X: This is my first visit to Beijing.X: This is my first visit to Beijing. Y: I have been to Beijing twice.Y: I have been to Beijing twice.

If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.

X entails YX entails Y

X: John married a blond heiress.X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.Y: John married a blond.

X: Marry has been to Beijing. X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Y: Marry has been to China.

Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.meaning of X is included in Y.

If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.true or false.

X presupposes YX presupposes Y

X: His bike needs repairing.X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.Y: He has a bike.

Paul has given up smoking.Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.Paul once smoked.

If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.true.

X is a contradictionX is a contradiction

*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.

X is semantically anomalousX is semantically anomalous

*The man is pregnant.*The man is pregnant.

*The table has bad intentions.*The table has bad intentions.

*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.

Analysis of meaningAnalysis of meaning

Componential analysis Componential analysis Predication analysis Predication analysis

Componential analysisComponential analysis

Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Plus or minus signs are used to indicate semantic features. Plus or minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example,written in capitalized letters. For example,

Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE] Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

Predication analysis---- a way to Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaninganalyze sentence meaning

1)1) What is sentence meaning? What is sentence meaning? TThe meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of ithe meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of it

s component words, e.g s component words, e.g “The dog bites the man”“The dog bites the man” is semantically different from is semantically different from “The “The man bites the dogman bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.” though their components are exactly the same.

2)2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meThere are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality , its gramaning, The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality , its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammmatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. The grammatical meaning does not affect the semantic atical rules of the language. The grammatical meaning does not affect the semantic meaning .e.g.meaning .e.g.

*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Green clouds are sleeping furiously. *Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional selectional

restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

Predication analysisPredication analysis

Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).(British G. Leech).

Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.

An argument is a logical participant in a predication, An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.

A predicate is something said about an argument or it states A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.


According to the number of arguments contained in According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:the following types:

One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, … One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, … Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,… Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,… Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call,

…… No-place predication: It is hot.No-place predication: It is hot.


Tom smokes.Tom smokes. TOM (SMOKE) TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.The tree grows well. TREE (GROW) TREE (GROW) The kids like apples.The kids like apples. KIDS (LIKE) APPLE KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.I sent him a letter. I (SEND) HIM LETTER I (SEND) HIM LETTER

Chapter 6 PragmaticsChapter 6 Pragmatics

---- the study of language in use or language commun---- the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make infereication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. nce about meaning.

---- the study of how speakers of a language use sente---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.nces to effect successful communication.

the scope of pragmatic study: deixis, speech acts, conthe scope of pragmatic study: deixis, speech acts, conversational implicature, politeness principle, presuppoversational implicature, politeness principle, presupposition, crosscultural communicaition etc.sition, crosscultural communicaition etc.

Some basic notions in PragmaticsSome basic notions in Pragmatics

Context Context

Pragmatics vs. semantics Pragmatics vs. semantics

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning

Correctness vs. appropriateness Correctness vs. appropriateness

ContextContext

Context---- a basic concept in the study of Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as the language, what has been said before, the such as the language, what has been said before, the world knowledge in general, situation(time, place, world knowledge in general, situation(time, place, etc.), the knowledge about the speaker and the etc.), the knowledge about the speaker and the hearer, etc.…. hearer, etc.….

Pragmatics vs. semanticsPragmatics vs. semantics

Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration). sentence (without taking context into consideration).

Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g.

““Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation… invitation…

Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning

---- Sentence meaning:---- Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning;Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence;literal meaning of a sentence; Correspond to : Correspond to : What does X mean?What does X mean?----utterance meaning:----utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; intended meaning of a speaker; Correspond to: Correspond to: What did you mean by X? What did you mean by X?

For example, For example, “The bag is heavy”“The bag is heavy” can mean can mean

a bag being heavy (sentence meaning; BAG(BE HEAVY)a bag being heavy (sentence meaning; BAG(BE HEAVY) Utterance meaning: Utterance meaning: an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him

carry the bag;carry the bag; the speaker is declining someone’s request for help. the speaker is declining someone’s request for help. Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence

meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.the sentence.

Correctness vs. appropriatenessCorrectness vs. appropriateness *“*“John play golfJohn play golf”---- grammatically incorrect;”---- grammatically incorrect; ?“?“Golf played JohnGolf played John” ---- logically incorrect; but it migh” ---- logically incorrect; but it migh

t be appropriate pragmatically in certain context. t be appropriate pragmatically in certain context.

Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural communication. If you say something grammatically communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)

DeixisDeixis

Definition: used to indicate the function or prDefinition: used to indicate the function or property that certain words, such as personal anoperty that certain words, such as personal and demonstrative pronouns, place and time add demonstrative pronouns, place and time adverbs and others have in language. verbs and others have in language.

classification: person deixis, time deixis, placclassification: person deixis, time deixis, place deixise deixis

Person deixisPerson deixis person deixis: we, you, him, it etc.person deixis: we, you, him, it etc. e.g. “what are we supposed to do?”e.g. “what are we supposed to do?” the pronoun “WE” has different meaning in different situations. If the sthe pronoun “WE” has different meaning in different situations. If the s

entence is used by a student to ask a teacher, “we” refers to the speaker entence is used by a student to ask a teacher, “we” refers to the speaker only, not including the listener, the teacher, it’s called “we-exclusive of only, not including the listener, the teacher, it’s called “we-exclusive of addressee”. If the sentence is said by a student to ask another student abaddressee”. If the sentence is said by a student to ask another student about what the teacher has asked them to do, “we” refers to both the speakout what the teacher has asked them to do, “we” refers to both the speaker and the listener, it’s called “we-inclusive of addressee”er and the listener, it’s called “we-inclusive of addressee”

e.g. “you have to finish this exercise”.e.g. “you have to finish this exercise”. “ “you” is uncertain without the knowledge of situation and participants. you” is uncertain without the knowledge of situation and participants.

If the sentence is used by a teacher to a student, “you” refers to the studeIf the sentence is used by a teacher to a student, “you” refers to the student, if sentence is used by a mother to her daughter, “you” refers to the dant, if sentence is used by a mother to her daughter, “you” refers to the daughter.ughter.

Time deixisTime deixis time deixis: today, yesterday, now, then, this week, this yeatime deixis: today, yesterday, now, then, this week, this yea

r.r. e.g. “ I hope you’re going to do well this year.”e.g. “ I hope you’re going to do well this year.” If the sentence is said on the first day of a year, “this year” If the sentence is said on the first day of a year, “this year”

means a whole calendar year, if the sentence is said on the fimeans a whole calendar year, if the sentence is said on the first day of a new semester, “this year” means the school year, rst day of a new semester, “this year” means the school year, if the sentence is said on one’s birthday, “this year” means tif the sentence is said on one’s birthday, “this year” means the period beginning from this year’s birthday to the birthday he period beginning from this year’s birthday to the birthday next year.next year.

e.g. “ do it now”.( “now” means at present time)e.g. “ do it now”.( “now” means at present time) ““he studies in Beijing now”. (“ now” means the period from he studies in Beijing now”. (“ now” means the period from

present to some time later)present to some time later)

Place deixisPlace deixis

place deixis: here, there, left, rightplace deixis: here, there, left, right e.g. the correct understanding of the sentence e.g. the correct understanding of the sentence

“ it’s on your left” depends on the listener’s s“ it’s on your left” depends on the listener’s standing place.tanding place.

Speech act theorySpeech act theory

Speech act theory was first put forward by a philosopher Speech act theory was first put forward by a philosopher John Austin in the late 50s of 20th century. and states that John Austin in the late 50s of 20th century. and states that the speakers use the language to perform action. It show the the speakers use the language to perform action. It show the various function of sentences and explain the nature of various function of sentences and explain the nature of linguistic communication from the philosophical view. E.g. linguistic communication from the philosophical view. E.g.

“ “ would you pass me the salt?” this is an interrogative would you pass me the salt?” this is an interrogative sentence according to the traditional grammar. Yet its sentence according to the traditional grammar. Yet its function is not limited to “ question”, this question can show function is not limited to “ question”, this question can show other meanings depending on the context. It can be a request other meanings depending on the context. It can be a request or a demand. If we study language not from the form of it, or a demand. If we study language not from the form of it, but from the functions, we think that speakers use the but from the functions, we think that speakers use the language to perform action. This is to say, speech is act . language to perform action. This is to say, speech is act .

Austin’s model of speech actsAustin’s model of speech acts

Traditionally philosophers were interested in tTraditionally philosophers were interested in the truth-value of sentences. They believed that he truth-value of sentences. They believed that a statement was used either to state a fact or to a statement was used either to state a fact or to describe a state of affairs. However, Austin exdescribe a state of affairs. However, Austin expressed doubt about this assumption because hpressed doubt about this assumption because he found some sentences were not used to state e found some sentences were not used to state or to describe, rather they were used by the speor to describe, rather they were used by the speaker to do something. Thus he made a distinctiaker to do something. Thus he made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and on between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. “performatives”.

Two types of utterancesTwo types of utterances

Constatives (Constatives ( 叙述句叙述句 ) ---- statements that either state or des) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable;cribe, and are thus verifiable;

Performatives (Performatives ( 施为句施为句 ) ---- sentences that do not state a fa) ---- sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.ct or describe a state, and are not verifiable.

Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.Note: Sometimes they are easy to get confused, e.g.“It is rai“It is raining outside”ning outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, f can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, or by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain. but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.

Some Examples of PerformativesSome Examples of Performatives

““I do”I do” ““I name this ship Elizabeth.”I name this ship Elizabeth.” ““I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.”I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.” ““I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.”I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.” ““I declare the meeting open.”I declare the meeting open.”

Austin’s new model of speech actsAustin’s new model of speech acts ----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be perf----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be perf

orming three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionarorming three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.y act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an acThe locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utt of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); terance);

The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying somethiThe illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker ng: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). while speaking).

The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saThe perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.ying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.

For example,For example,“It is cold in here.”“It is cold in here.” Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning

the weather is clod in here;the weather is clod in here; Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the

window;window; Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the windoIts perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the windo

w or his refusal to comply with the request. w or his refusal to comply with the request.

----Analyze one more example: ----Analyze one more example: “You have left the “You have left the door wide open.”door wide open.”

Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. most concerned with is the illocutionary act. because because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, intention, It attempts to account for the ways by It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. which speakers can mean more than what they say. and linguists are most interested in how a speaker and linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer. recognized by the hearer.

Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:a couple:

----(the telephone rings)----(the telephone rings)

----H: ----H: That’ the phone. (1)That’ the phone. (1)

----W: ----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)I’m in the bathroom. (2)

----H: ----H: Okay. (3)Okay. (3) This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because

the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts: the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts: (1)(1) Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone. (2)(2) A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her

husband to answer the phone instead.husband to answer the phone instead. (3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning (3) Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning

“all right, I’ll answer it.”“all right, I’ll answer it.”

Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)

Assertives/representatives(Assertives/representatives( 陈述陈述 ) ) Directives(Directives( 指令指令 ) ) Commissives(Commissives( 承诺承诺 ) ) Expressives(Expressives( 表达表达 ) ) Declarations(Declarations( 宣布宣布 ) )

Assertives/representatives Assertives/representatives

---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker ---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.believes to be true, e.g.

I think the film is moving. I think the film is moving. I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I’m certain I have never seen the man before. I solemnly swear that he had got it.I solemnly swear that he had got it.

… …

DirectivesDirectives

---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, ---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g. e.g.

I order you to leave right now. I order you to leave right now. Open the window, please. Open the window, please. Your money or your life!Your money or your life!

… …

Commissives Commissives

---- Committing the speaker himself to some ---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.future course of action, e.g.

I promise to come. I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without I will bring you the book tomorrow without

fail.fail.

… …

Expressives Expressives

----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state ----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.about something, e.g.

I’m sorry for being late.I’m sorry for being late. I apologize for the sufferings that the war has I apologize for the sufferings that the war has

caused to your people.caused to your people.

… …

Declarations Declarations

----Bringing about an immediate change in the ----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.existing state or affairs, e.g.

I now appoint you chairman of the committee. I now appoint you chairman of the committee. You are fired.You are fired. I now declare the meeting open.I now declare the meeting open.

… …

Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.strength or force, e.g.

I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer. Note: (2) the same act can be expressed in various Note: (2) the same act can be expressed in various

grammatical forms. E.g. grammatical forms. E.g. In order to get someone open the door, we can In order to get someone open the door, we can

choose one from a variety of the forms in below:choose one from a variety of the forms in below: Could you open the door, please!Could you open the door, please! Can you open the door!Can you open the door! Do you mind opening the door?Do you mind opening the door? Open the door!Open the door! The door please!The door please!

Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)

Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: goes as follows:

Make your conversational contribution such as Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.in which you are engaged.

Four maxims of CPFour maxims of CP The maxim of qualityThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of quantityThe maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current ----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current

purpose of the exchange.purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relationThe maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant). The maxim of mannerThe maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be brief.----Be orderly.----Be orderly.

Conversational implicatureConversational implicature

In real communication, however, speakers do not aIn real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maximlways observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of s can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speathe maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our laker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implnguage becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises. icature arises.

Violation of Maxim of quality Violation of Maxim of quality

----A: ----A: Would you like to go movie with me tonight?Would you like to go movie with me tonight?----B: ----B: The final exam is approaching. I’m afraid I have to The final exam is approaching. I’m afraid I have to

prepare for it.prepare for it.

----A:----A: would you like to come to our party tonight? would you like to come to our party tonight?-----B:---B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight. I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.

----A:----A: Who was that lady I saw you with last night? Who was that lady I saw you with last night?----B:----B: That was no lady, that was my wife. That was no lady, that was my wife.

Violation of maxim of quantity Violation of maxim of quantity

At a party a young man introduces himself by At a party a young man introduces himself by saying saying “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”unmarried…”

““War is war.” War is war.” ““Girls are girls.”Girls are girls.”

----A:----A:When is Susan’s farewell party?When is Susan’s farewell party?

----B:----B:Sometime next month.Sometime next month.

Violation of maxim of relation Violation of maxim of relation ----A: ----A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?----B: ----B: We had a basketball match with class 2 and we We had a basketball match with class 2 and we

beat them.beat them.

----A: ----A: The hostess is an awful bore.The hostess is an awful bore.----B: ----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t

they?they?

----A:----A: What time is it? What time is it?----B:----B: The postman has just arrived. The postman has just arrived.

Violation of maxim of mannerViolation of maxim of manner

----A: Shall we get something for the ----A: Shall we get something for the kids?kids?

----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

exercisesexercises 分析下面这些幽默短信违反了什么会话原则：分析下面这些幽默短信违反了什么会话原则： 1. “1. “ 与你偶遇，慌乱的我不知所措，你含情脉脉的双眸，与你偶遇，慌乱的我不知所措，你含情脉脉的双眸，

我无法回避，我明白你的心。我拼命跑开，你却紧紧相随我无法回避，我明白你的心。我拼命跑开，你却紧紧相随——谁家的狗没人管？”——谁家的狗没人管？”

2. 2. 男士：“你的狗咬人吗？” 女士：“不咬人。” 于是男士：“你的狗咬人吗？” 女士：“不咬人。” 于是男士弯腰去逗躺在地上的狗。突然狗咬了男士。男士说：男士弯腰去逗躺在地上的狗。突然狗咬了男士。男士说：“哎呦！你说过你的狗不咬人！” 女士：“我的狗不咬人，“哎呦！你说过你的狗不咬人！” 女士：“我的狗不咬人，可是咬你的狗不是我的。”可是咬你的狗不是我的。”

3. 3. 姑娘：“ 你虽然相貌堂堂，可是腹中空空。” 小伙：姑娘：“ 你虽然相貌堂堂，可是腹中空空。” 小伙：“ 谁说我腹中空空，来公园之前还吃了顿西餐，喝了三杯“ 谁说我腹中空空，来公园之前还吃了顿西餐，喝了三杯葡萄酒呢！”葡萄酒呢！”

4. 4. 有一老者，因儿媳临产，借宿老友家。友问何故？回答：有一老者，因儿媳临产，借宿老友家。友问何故？回答：“别提了！儿媳妇生孩子把我给挤出来了。”“别提了！儿媳妇生孩子把我给挤出来了。”

Politeness principle (Leech)Politeness principle (Leech) What is Politeness?What is Politeness? Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s public Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s public

self-image or the awareness of other’s expectations that their self-image or the awareness of other’s expectations that their public self-image will be respected. It is presented by Brown, public self-image will be respected. It is presented by Brown, Levinson and Leech. Levinson and Leech.

Relationship between Politeness Principle and Cooperative Relationship between Politeness Principle and Cooperative PrinciplePrinciple

According to Leech, politeness principle is a principle that’s According to Leech, politeness principle is a principle that’s supposed to operate on the same level as and to collaborate supposed to operate on the same level as and to collaborate with CP and its associated maxims. In Brown’s words, in most with CP and its associated maxims. In Brown’s words, in most cases, people are indirect in order to save one’s own or other’s cases, people are indirect in order to save one’s own or other’s face. It is for this reason that PP can be seen not only as face. It is for this reason that PP can be seen not only as another principle added to CP, but also as a necessary another principle added to CP, but also as a necessary principle that can rescue the CP from serious trouble. principle that can rescue the CP from serious trouble.

Politeness Principle(PP)Politeness Principle(PP) The maxims of the PP tend to go in pairs as follows.The maxims of the PP tend to go in pairs as follows. tact maximtact maxim

minimize cost to otherminimize cost to other maximize benefit to othermaximize benefit to other

generosity maximgenerosity maxim minimize benefit to selfminimize benefit to self maximize cost to selfmaximize cost to self

approbation maximapprobation maxim minimize dispraise of otherminimize dispraise of other maximize praise of othermaximize praise of other

modesty maximmodesty maxim minimize praise of selfminimize praise of self maximize dispraise of selfmaximize dispraise of self

agreement maximagreement maxim minimize disagreement between self and otherminimize disagreement between self and other maximize agreement between self and othermaximize agreement between self and other

sympathy maximsympathy maxim minimize antipathy between self and otherminimize antipathy between self and other maximize sympathy between self and othermaximize sympathy between self and other

Politeness Principle(PP)Politeness Principle(PP) people sometimes sacrifice CP in order to obey PP.people sometimes sacrifice CP in order to obey PP. examples:examples: 1.1. ----we’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we?----we’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we? ---well we’ll all miss Bill.---well we’ll all miss Bill. This reply violate the maxim of quantity. B doesn’t mention that “ we miss Agatha” This reply violate the maxim of quantity. B doesn’t mention that “ we miss Agatha”

on purpose. The reason why B doesn’t reply ‘ we miss Bill, not Agatha” is he wants on purpose. The reason why B doesn’t reply ‘ we miss Bill, not Agatha” is he wants to obey the politeness principle ( agreement maxim), so he violated the maxim of to obey the politeness principle ( agreement maxim), so he violated the maxim of quantity so as to save the faces of both speakers and hearer.quantity so as to save the faces of both speakers and hearer.

2.2. ---John has just borrowed your bike.---John has just borrowed your bike. ---well I like that.---well I like that. What B really implies is ‘ I dislike that”. But in order to obey the generosity What B really implies is ‘ I dislike that”. But in order to obey the generosity

maxim, so he violated the maxim of quality, he used the irony to express his maxim, so he violated the maxim of quality, he used the irony to express his complaint indirectly.complaint indirectly.

exercisesexercises

分析下面的短信违反了什么礼貌原则。分析下面的短信违反了什么礼貌原则。 1.1. 农民赶驴进城，遇到无赖。无赖问：农民赶驴进城，遇到无赖。无赖问：

“吃饭了没有？”农民说：“吃了。”无“吃饭了没有？”农民说：“吃了。”无赖说：“我问的是驴赖说：“我问的是驴 .” .” 农民一听，转身就农民一听，转身就打了驴两个耳光：”城里有亲戚也不说一打了驴两个耳光：”城里有亲戚也不说一声。“声。“

Cross-cultural pragmatic failureCross-cultural pragmatic failure In the course of communication, breakdowns sometimes occur. There are a In the course of communication, breakdowns sometimes occur. There are a

number of possible causes. E.g.number of possible causes. E.g. 1) between a passenger and the bus driver:1) between a passenger and the bus driver: ---Can you tell me when we get to Birmingham, please?---Can you tell me when we get to Birmingham, please? ----It’s a big place. You won’t miss it.----It’s a big place. You won’t miss it. 2) between the hostess and a party guest when it is nearly midnight and 2) between the hostess and a party guest when it is nearly midnight and

most of the guests have left:most of the guests have left: Hostess: It’s really been a long day, Leo. I think Steve can give you a lift Hostess: It’s really been a long day, Leo. I think Steve can give you a lift

back home.back home. guest: Oh, I’m fine. Can I have another cup of coffee, please?guest: Oh, I’m fine. Can I have another cup of coffee, please? 3) between a Chinese learner of English and a native speaker of English:3) between a Chinese learner of English and a native speaker of English: ---Have you had your lunch, Professor Higgins?---Have you had your lunch, Professor Higgins? ---….(surprised, not knowing what to say)---….(surprised, not knowing what to say) Please analyze the causes of breakdown in the above examples.Please analyze the causes of breakdown in the above examples.

Pragmatic failurePragmatic failure Of the three causes of communication breakdowns illustrated iOf the three causes of communication breakdowns illustrated i

n the examples above, the latter two have to do with pragmatic n the examples above, the latter two have to do with pragmatic studies and the technical terms for such breakdown is pragmatistudies and the technical terms for such breakdown is pragmatic failure. pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to usc failure. pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative pure language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the pose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.communication.

Two dimension of pragmatic: pragmalinguistics and sociopragTwo dimension of pragmatic: pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics. The former is related to how the linguistic forms of a lmatics. The former is related to how the linguistic forms of a language are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes. The latanguage are used to serve specific pragmatic purposes. The latter is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a ter is concerned with the customary ways in which people of a particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.particular culture behave to achieve a particular purpose.

Two kinds of pragmatic failureTwo kinds of pragmatic failure Pragmalinguistic failurePragmalinguistic failure E.g. the Chinese use “It doesn’t matter”E.g. the Chinese use “It doesn’t matter” （没关系）（没关系） as a respoas a respo

nse to an expression of thanks in English.nse to an expression of thanks in English. The speaker is transferring a form in his own language to a foreiThe speaker is transferring a form in his own language to a forei

gn language, wrongly assuming that it performs the same commgn language, wrongly assuming that it performs the same communicative function.unicative function.

Socilpragmatic failureSocilpragmatic failure E.g. the way in which speakers of Chinese respond to complimeE.g. the way in which speakers of Chinese respond to complime

nts.nts. ----You speak beautiful English.----You speak beautiful English. ---No,no,no. My English is still very poor.---No,no,no. My English is still very poor. Note: when we learn a language, we do not just learn its vocabuNote: when we learn a language, we do not just learn its vocabu

lary and rules of grammar, we should also learn its rules of use slary and rules of grammar, we should also learn its rules of use so as to avoid pragmatic failure.o as to avoid pragmatic failure.

Chapter 7 Language ChangeChapter 7 Language Change

1. language change is the field of study of historical / diachronic lingui1. language change is the field of study of historical / diachronic linguisticsstics

2. purpose of study:2. purpose of study: look into the nature of language change and the causes that lead to lalook into the nature of language change and the causes that lead to la

nguage nguage reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between lareconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la

nguages that belong to the same language family. ( e.g. 30 language fanguages that belong to the same language family. ( e.g. 30 language families have been established. Four most important language families amilies have been established. Four most important language families are Indo-European family, Sino-Tibetan family, Afroasiatic familyre Indo-European family, Sino-Tibetan family, Afroasiatic family （（非亚语系）非亚语系） , Austronesian family, Austronesian family （澳斯特罗尼西亚语系）（澳斯特罗尼西亚语系） . Englis. English, French and German all belong to Indo-European language family)h, French and German all belong to Indo-European language family)

3. topics to discuss: the nature of language, the historical developme3. topics to discuss: the nature of language, the historical development of english, the causes of language changent of english, the causes of language change

Nature of language changeNature of language change

UniversalUniversal Continuous, constant, gradualContinuous, constant, gradual Regular and systematicRegular and systematic

Historical development of English Historical development of English

major periods in the history of English:major periods in the history of English:

1) old English: dated back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded t1) old English: dated back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxons invaded the british Isles from northern Europe. he british Isles from northern Europe.

Many of the basic terms in the English language originate from old English. E.g Many of the basic terms in the English language originate from old English. E.g mann---man, wif---woman, cild---child, etam---eatmann---man, wif---woman, cild---child, etam---eat

22）） middle English: began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in Emiddle English: began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William the Conqueror in 1066. ngland under William the Conqueror in 1066.

after Norman Conquest, French remained as the language of the ruling classes wafter Norman Conquest, French remained as the language of the ruling classes while English remained as the language of the poor classes, middle English was dehile English remained as the language of the poor classes, middle English was deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. E.g. such terms eply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar. E.g. such terms as “ army, court, prison, tax” came from French.as “ army, court, prison, tax” came from French.

3) modern English: European renaissance movement separated the period of mid3) modern English: European renaissance movement separated the period of middle English from that of modern English.dle English from that of modern English.

the influence of Renaissance movement reached England in the late fifteenth centhe influence of Renaissance movement reached England in the late fifteenth century. It brought a bout the revival of classical art and literature. Latin became the tury. It brought a bout the revival of classical art and literature. Latin became the literary language and enjoyed a prestigious position in education and culture. Maliterary language and enjoyed a prestigious position in education and culture. Many Latin words entered into English language.ny Latin words entered into English language.

Linguistic change of EnglishLinguistic change of English

Sound change Sound change Morphological changeMorphological change syntactic change syntactic change Vocabulary change Vocabulary change Semantic changeSemantic change

Sound changeSound change

Vowel sound changeVowel sound change Sound lossSound loss Sound additionSound addition Sound movementSound movement

Vowel sound changeVowel sound change

the important changes occurred at the end of the important changes occurred at the end of the Middle English period between 1400 and the Middle English period between 1400 and 1600. these changes led to the great difference 1600. these changes led to the great difference between pronunciation and spelling system of between pronunciation and spelling system of the Modern English . this is known as the the Modern English . this is known as the Great Vowel Shift in the history of English. Great Vowel Shift in the history of English. The changes involve seven long vowels.The changes involve seven long vowels.

Change of 7 long vowelsChange of 7 long vowels

Middle EnglishMiddle English Modern EnglishModern English

fivefive Fi:vFi:v faivfaiv

mousemouse Mu:sMu:s mausmaus

feetfeet Fe:tFe:t Fi:tFi:t

moodmood Mo:dMo:d Mu:dMu:d

breakbreak Br :kenBr :ken breikbreik

brokebroke Br :kenBr :ken Br ukBr uk

namename Na:mNa:m neimneim

Sound lossSound loss some sounds simply disappeared from the general pronunciation of Englishsome sounds simply disappeared from the general pronunciation of English

Eg 1. The voiceless velar fricative/x/ existed in Oe, but absent in MODEEg 1. The voiceless velar fricative/x/ existed in Oe, but absent in MODE OE MODEOE MODE nicht/nixt/ night/nait/nicht/nixt/ night/nait/

E.g2. when the /kn-/ clusters is in the word-initial position, in old and middE.g2. when the /kn-/ clusters is in the word-initial position, in old and middle English, both /k/ and /n/ were pronounced, but in modern English the /k/ le English, both /k/ and /n/ were pronounced, but in modern English the /k/ sound is no longer pronounced. Such as “ knight, knee”sound is no longer pronounced. Such as “ knight, knee”

E.g3 . deletion of a word –final vowel segment ( apocopeE.g3 . deletion of a word –final vowel segment ( apocope 词尾音脱落词尾音脱落 )) OE ME MODEOE ME MODE /na:ma:/ /na:m / /neim/ “name”/na:ma:/ /na:m / /neim/ “name” /lufu/ /luv / /l v/ “love” /lufu/ /luv / /l v/ “love”

Sound additionSound addition

to insert a consonant or vowel sound to the mito insert a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word ( epenthesisddle of a word ( epenthesis 插入音插入音 ))

E.g. time----timer---timber glimse---glimpse, E.g. time----timer---timber glimse---glimpse, emty--emptyemty--empty

Sound movementSound movement

involves a reversal in position of two adjoiniinvolves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments ( metathesisng sound segments ( metathesis 语音变位语音变位 ))

e.g. OE MODEe.g. OE MODE bridd birdbridd bird hros horsehros horse as/aks/ askas/aks/ ask the movement of /r/ sound to the right of the the movement of /r/ sound to the right of the

vowel soundsvowel sounds

Morphological changeMorphological change

Affix lossAffix loss

Affix additionAffix addition

Affix lossAffix loss the most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gthe most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of g

ender and case markings. ender and case markings. Old English: synthetic language-----the syntactic relation is rOld English: synthetic language-----the syntactic relation is r

ealized by inflexions.ealized by inflexions. Modern English: analytic language---- the syntactic relation Modern English: analytic language---- the syntactic relation

is realized by functional words.( e.g. conjunctions) and word is realized by functional words.( e.g. conjunctions) and word order.order.

OE is a synthetic language and had complicated inflexions. tOE is a synthetic language and had complicated inflexions. the inflexions can be added to nouns, pronouns, adjectives anhe inflexions can be added to nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs to show the change in gender, case and number. Takd verbs to show the change in gender, case and number. Take nouns for example,in old English, nouns were divided into e nouns for example,in old English, nouns were divided into three gender classes(masculine, neuter, feminine)and four cathree gender classes(masculine, neuter, feminine)and four cases( nominative case, genitive case, dative case, accusative cses( nominative case, genitive case, dative case, accusative case)ase)

Old English gender and case affixesOld English gender and case affixes(singular)(singular)

masculinemasculine neuterneuter femininefeminine

Hund “dog”Hund “dog” Deor “animaDeor “animal”l”

Gief “gift”Gief “gift”

nominativenominative hundhund deordeor Gief-uGief-u

accusativeaccusative hundhund deordeor Gief-eGief-e

genitivegenitive Hund-esHund-es Deor-esDeor-es Gief-eGief-e

dativedative Hund-eHund-e Deor-eDeor-e Gief-eGief-e

Old English gender and case affixesOld English gender and case affixes(plural)(plural)

masculinemasculine neuterneuter femininefeminine

hundhund deordeor giefgief

nominativenominative Hund-asHund-as deordeor Gief-aGief-a

accusativeaccusative Hund-asHund-as deordeor Gief-aGief-a

genitivegenitive Hund-aHund-a Deor-aDeor-a Gief-aGief-a

dativedative Hund-umHund-um Deor-umDeor-um Gief-umGief-um

Affix AdditionAffix Addition The influence of foreign languages triggered many morphologThe influence of foreign languages triggered many morpholog

ical changes in English. For example, some of the most widely ical changes in English. For example, some of the most widely used affixes of MODE came from French.used affixes of MODE came from French.

e.g. the addition of “-able” to a verb, such as “readable”. Initie.g. the addition of “-able” to a verb, such as “readable”. Initially, words ending in “-able”, such as ‘ favourable” were borroally, words ending in “-able”, such as ‘ favourable” were borrowed from French. Then this suffix became a productive rule in wed from French. Then this suffix became a productive rule in English that was used with other verbs to form adjectives. Eg. English that was used with other verbs to form adjectives. Eg. Pay-able, wash-ablePay-able, wash-able

French words such as “ accomplishment, commencement” enFrench words such as “ accomplishment, commencement” enter English language after Norman Conquest. the suffix “-menter English language after Norman Conquest. the suffix “-ment” finally became a productive suffix in English..t” finally became a productive suffix in English..

Syntactic ChangeSyntactic Change

Change in “agreement” rule Change in “agreement” rule Change in negation ruleChange in negation rule Change in word orderChange in word order

Change in agreement ruleChange in agreement rule

Noun and pronoun agreement: (see page 96 Noun and pronoun agreement: (see page 96 example)example)

Adjective agreement: in OE, the endings of Adjective agreement: in OE, the endings of adjectives must agree with the head noun in adjectives must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender, but in modern case, number and gender, but in modern English, this rule was dropped out.English, this rule was dropped out.

Change in negation ruleChange in negation rule

in old English syntax, one could merely add “nin old English syntax, one could merely add “not” at the end of an affirmative sentence to negot” at the end of an affirmative sentence to negate it. E.g “I love thee not”. “he saw you not.” ate it. E.g “I love thee not”. “he saw you not.”

Now , except for some non-standard English vNow , except for some non-standard English varieties , such as black English, this negation carieties , such as black English, this negation construction is no longer considered acceptable onstruction is no longer considered acceptable by most educated speakers of English. by most educated speakers of English.

Change in word orderChange in word order Old English had a complex case marking system. This allowed Old English had a complex case marking system. This allowed

its word order to be more variable than that of modern Englisits word order to be more variable than that of modern English.. because modern English has a much weaker case marking sh.. because modern English has a much weaker case marking system, its sentences have to follow a basic order of SVO. ystem, its sentences have to follow a basic order of SVO.

In OE, word orders included SVO, VSO, SOV and OSV.In OE, word orders included SVO, VSO, SOV and OSV. e.g. SVO : He geseah pone mann.( he saw the man)e.g. SVO : He geseah pone mann.( he saw the man) VSO: Pa sende se cyning pone disc.( then sent the king the dVSO: Pa sende se cyning pone disc.( then sent the king the d

ish)ish) SOV: He hine geseah.( he him saw)SOV: He hine geseah.( he him saw) OSV: Hine man ne sealde.( him man not gave)OSV: Hine man ne sealde.( him man not gave)

Vocabulary changeVocabulary change

Addition of new words Addition of new words Loss of words Loss of words

Addition of new wordsAddition of new words

coinage(coinage( 创新词创新词 ) ) clipped words(clipped words( 缩略词缩略词 ) ) blending(blending( 紧缩法紧缩法 ) ) acronyms(acronyms( 词首字母缩略词词首字母缩略词 ) ) back-formation(back-formation( 逆构词法逆构词法 ) ) abbreviationabbreviation functional shift functional shift DerivationDerivation compoundingcompounding borrowing borrowing

CoinageCoinage

----A new word can be coined outright to fit some ----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.purpose, e.g.

walkman walkman Kodak Kodak Xerox Xerox Ford Ford Benz Benz Toyota Toyota

Clipped wordsClipped words

----The abbreviation of longer words or ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g.phrases, e.g.

gym—gymnasiumgym—gymnasium memo—memorandummemo—memorandum disco—discothequedisco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator fridge—refrigerator

BlendingBlending

----A blend is a word formed by ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g.combining parts of other words, e.g.

smog—smoke + fogsmog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotelmotel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder camcorder—camera + recorder

AcronymsAcronyms

----Acronyms are words derived from the ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words, e.g.initials of several words, e.g.

CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemCBS---- Columbia Broad casting system ISBN----International Standard Book ISBN----International Standard Book

NumberNumber WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO WTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO

APEC OPEC CAD SARSAPEC OPEC CAD SARS

Back-formationBack-formation

----New words may be coined from already ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.thought to be part of the old word.

edit edit editor editor hawk hawk hawker hawker beg beg beggar beggar baby-sit baby-sit baby-sitter baby-sitter

Functional shiftFunctional shift

----Words may shift from one part of speech to another ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. without the addition of affixes, e.g.

NounNoun verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake… verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake… VerbVerb noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat… noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat… Adj.Adj. verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow… verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow… Adj.Adj. noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible… noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the impossible…

AbbreviationAbbreviation

A shortened form of a word or phrase which A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.represents the complete form.

E.g. TV Dr.E.g. TV Dr.

Derivation and compoundingDerivation and compounding

Derivation: refer to the process by which new Derivation: refer to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words.the roots, stems or words.

compounding: a process of combining two or compounding: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit: blackboard, more words into one lexical unit: blackboard, greenhouse, hotdoggreenhouse, hotdog

BorrowingBorrowing

----When different cultures come into contact, words are ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). in P100-101).

Latin bonus education exitLatin bonus education exit German beer waltz quartzGerman beer waltz quartz Chinese tea kowtow sampanChinese tea kowtow sampan Russian sputnik commissar vodkaRussian sputnik commissar vodka Arabic zero algebra alcoholArabic zero algebra alcohol

Loss of words Loss of words

Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from The following words, taken from Romeo and JulietRomeo and Juliet, , have faded out of the English language. have faded out of the English language.

Beseem Beseem to be suitable to be suitable Wot Wot to know to know Gyve Gyve a fetter a fetter Wherefore Wherefore why why

Semantic ChangeSemantic Change

Widening of meaning Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift Meaning shift

Widening of meaningWidening of meaning

refers to the process in which the meaning of a word refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotationearlier denotation

Holiday: [+specific] holy day Holiday: [+specific] holy day [+general] any rest day[+general] any rest day

Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse Tail: [+specific] tail of a horse [+general] tail of any animal [+general] tail of any animal

Narrowing of meaningNarrowing of meaning

refers to the reverse process in which the meaning of a refers to the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.historically earlier meaning.

hound: any dog hound: any dog a special kind of doga special kind of dog girl: young person of either sex girl: young person of either sex young people of female sexyoung people of female sex deer: any animal deer: any animal a particular kind of animala particular kind of animal meat: food meat: food edible part of an animaledible part of an animal corn: grain corn: grain a particular graina particular grain

Meaning shiftMeaning shift

semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new sometimes related loses its former meaning and acquires a new sometimes related meaningmeaning

inn: a small, old hotel or pubinn: a small, old hotel or pub well-known, nice hotelwell-known, nice hotel nice: ignorant (1000 years ago)nice: ignorant (1000 years ago) good, finegood, fine lust: pleasure lust: pleasure with negative and sexual overtoneswith negative and sexual overtones silly: happy silly: happy naïve, foolish naïve, foolish

Some recent trendsSome recent trends

Moving towards greater informalityMoving towards greater informality

The influence of American English The influence of American English

The influence of science and technology The influence of science and technology

The influence of science and technologyThe influence of science and technology

Space travelSpace travel Computer and internet languageComputer and internet language Ecology Ecology

Causes of the language changeCauses of the language change

Sound assimilationSound assimilation The rapid development of science and technology;The rapid development of science and technology; Social and political changes and political needs Social and political changes and political needs Children’s approximation toward the adult grammarChildren’s approximation toward the adult grammar “ “ Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification;Economy of memory” results in grammar simplification; Rule elaborationRule elaboration Theory of least effortTheory of least effort

Chapter 8 Language and societyChapter 8 Language and society

Sociolinguistics ---- a sub-field of linguistic that Sociolinguistics ---- a sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.structures in which the users of language live.

TThe relatedness between language and society he relatedness between language and society

----There are many indications of the inter-relationship ----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. between language and society.

Language is often used to establish and maintain social Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)relationships. (e.g. greeting)

The use of language is in part determined by the user’s The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)etc.)

Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo) (“snow” for Eskimo)

As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).

Social group,Speech community and speeSocial group,Speech community and speech varietych variety

social groups: are distinguished according to the speaker’s geographicsocial groups: are distinguished according to the speaker’s geographical background, the educational background, the occupation, the gendeal background, the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age, the ethnic background. r, the age, the ethnic background.

Speech communitySpeech community ---- the social group that is singled out for any spec---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community. A speech coial sociolinguistic study is called the speech community. A speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community ( whimmunity is defined as a group of people who form a community ( which may have as few members as a family or as many member as a couch may have as few members as a family or as many member as a country), and share the same language or a particular variety of language. ntry), and share the same language or a particular variety of language.

Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speSpeech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study tech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. hree types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialecregional dialects, sociolects and registers.ts, sociolects and registers.

Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies Macro sociolinguistics (Sociology of languageMacro sociolinguistics (Sociology of language 语言社会学语言社会学 ), we look at soci), we look at soci

ety as whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the ety as whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations.i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;social differentiations.i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;主要研究带有整体性和全局性的社会语言学问题。其出发点在于把语言主要研究带有整体性和全局性的社会语言学问题。其出发点在于把语言问题看作是社会问题的一部分，具体课题包括双语或多语现象，双言问题看作是社会问题的一部分，具体课题包括双语或多语现象，双言现象，语料库，语码转换，语言规划等，主要属于宏观社会语言学领现象，语料库，语码转换，语言规划等，主要属于宏观社会语言学领域域

Micro sociolinguistics(Sociolinguistics properMicro sociolinguistics(Sociolinguistics proper纯社会语言学（社会方言纯社会语言学（社会方言学）学） we look at society from the point of view of an individual member withwe look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it. Here we are more interested in how language functions in the communicin it. Here we are more interested in how language functions in the communication between members of the society.i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in ation between members of the society.i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.use.以拉波夫为代表，主要考察语言变异与社会因素之间的关系。阶以拉波夫为代表，主要考察语言变异与社会因素之间的关系。阶级，职业，年龄和性别等社会因素而形成的社会方言是研究的中心问题。级，职业，年龄和性别等社会因素而形成的社会方言是研究的中心问题。

Varieties of languageVarieties of language Varieties of language Varieties of language 1)users of language--->dialects->regional1)users of language--->dialects->regional socialsocial language and agelanguage and age language and genderlanguage and gender language and ethniclanguage and ethnic idiolectidiolect 2)use of language--2)use of language--registerregister

Dialectal varietiesDialectal varieties Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the samRegional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the sam

e geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.).e geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.

(e.g. Received Pronunciation) (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon) Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----bLanguage and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----b

oombox)oombox) Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elIdiolect---- a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines el

ements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemiements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).ngway, Luxun).

Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English). or segregation (e.g. Black English).

RegisterRegister Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of

language related to one’s occupation.language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, according to Halliday, In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language “language

varies as its function varies; it differs in different situvaries as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”ations.” The type of language which is selected as ap The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.propriate to the type of situation is a register.

Halliday further distinguishes three social variables tHalliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: hat determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse. discourse, mode of discourse.

Three social variablesThree social variables Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation

of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why)(why) and subject matter and subject matter (about what)(about what) of communication. It of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)can be either technical or non-technical.)

Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: in question: whowho are the participants in the communication are the participants in the communication and and in what relationshipin what relationship they stand to each other. they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)(customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)

Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned withconcerned with how how communication is carried out. (oral, communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…) written, on the line…)

Degree of formality Degree of formality

----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos) Intimate: Intimate: Up you go, chaps!Up you go, chaps! Casual: Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.Time you all went upstairs now. Consultative: Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, plWould you mind going upstairs right away, pl

ease?ease? Formal: Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.Visitors should go up the stairs at once. Frozen: Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper fVisitors would make their way at once to the upper f

loor by way of the staircase.loor by way of the staircase. ----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characte----Note: Different styles of the same language can be characte

rized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical arized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).nd phonological(P121).

Comparison between formal and informal Comparison between formal and informal languagelanguage

in phonological level:in phonological level:

Formal languageFormal language informal languageinformal language

Clear articulation Clear articulation

Balanced intonationBalanced intonation

Few contractionFew contraction

Few liaisonFew liaison

Few assimilationFew assimilation

A lot of contraction, assimilA lot of contraction, assimilation and liaisonation and liaison

e.g.“ wouldja( would you), e.g.“ wouldja( would you), gonna (going to), totta (got gonna (going to), totta (got to)”, to)”,

I’ve, we’ll, you’d, they’re”I’ve, we’ll, you’d, they’re”

出门儿，脸盆儿，人影儿，出门儿，脸盆儿，人影儿，侄女儿，咋，甭，仨侄女儿，咋，甭，仨

in lexical level:in lexical level:

Formal languageFormal language Informal languageInformal language

Big,long wordsBig,long words

Single verbs(e.g. inveSingle verbs(e.g. investigate)stigate)

Abstract nouns(e.g. arAbstract nouns(e.g. arrival)rival)

Archaic wordsArchaic words

Words of French, LatiWords of French, Latin, Greek originn, Greek origin

Common wordsCommon words

Verb phrase(e.g. look into)Verb phrase(e.g. look into)

Verb forms(e.g. arrive)Verb forms(e.g. arrive)

Native English wordsNative English words

in syntactic level:in syntactic level:

Formal languageFormal language Informal languageInformal language

Long ,complexed senLong ,complexed sentences,tences,

A lot of parallelism,A lot of parallelism,

Subjunctive mood,Subjunctive mood,

Passive voicePassive voice

Short,simple sentences,Short,simple sentences,

Loose structures often connected bLoose structures often connected by “and”,y “and”,

Many illeptical sentences,Many illeptical sentences,

Many inserted parts like”you know,Many inserted parts like”you know, I mean…” I mean…”

Importance of knowledge in register Importance of knowledge in register in english learning:in english learning:

in classroom teaching: when learning a new word or new grammatical structure, in classroom teaching: when learning a new word or new grammatical structure, tell the students the right situation it can be usedtell the students the right situation it can be used

distinguish the difference betweendistinguish the difference between 1)As he came into the classroom, he found the students looking at him eagerly.1)As he came into the classroom, he found the students looking at him eagerly. 2)Coming into the classroom, he found the students looking at him eagerly.2)Coming into the classroom, he found the students looking at him eagerly. in translation: choose the right words for the right situationin translation: choose the right words for the right situation e.g top-notch ( informal talk) bottoms up ( informal talk)e.g top-notch ( informal talk) bottoms up ( informal talk) scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours 朋比为奸（朋比为奸（ XX））你帮我的忙，我帮你的忙你帮我的忙，我帮你的忙直起身又看一看豆，自己摇头说：“不多不多，多乎哉？不多也。“《孔直起身又看一看豆，自己摇头说：“不多不多，多乎哉？不多也。“《孔

乙己》乙己》 then straightening up to look at the peas again, he would shake his head:” not mthen straightening up to look at the peas again, he would shake his head:” not m

uch! Verilyuch! Verily （真正地）（真正地） , not much, forsooth, not much, forsooth （真实地）（真实地） !”!”（扬宪益夫妇翻（扬宪益夫妇翻译）译）

Standard dialectStandard dialect

The standard variety is language variety used by government, judiciThe standard variety is language variety used by government, judiciary system, mass media, educational institution. Language used by ary system, mass media, educational institution. Language used by any member of a community regardless of his social and geographicany member of a community regardless of his social and geographical backgroundal background

features:features: a. is based on a selected variety of the language. E.g standard Englisa. is based on a selected variety of the language. E.g standard Englis

h developed out of the English dialects used in and around Londonh developed out of the English dialects used in and around London b. is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. b. is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect.

It is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialectIt is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialectss

c. has some special functions. c. has some special functions.

Pidgin and CreolePidgin and Creole A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is useA pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is use

d by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. d by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Eg. Tok Pisin is a very active and widely used pidgin English in New Guinea. Eg. Tok Pisin is a very active and widely used pidgin English in New Guinea. characteristics:characteristics: As a simplified language, a pidgin has As a simplified language, a pidgin has reduced vocabularies. reduced vocabularies. The grammatical features such as case, tense, mood and voice are absent in pidginThe grammatical features such as case, tense, mood and voice are absent in pidgin

s. s. Forms of copula verb “ to be “ are often entirely lacking. Forms of copula verb “ to be “ are often entirely lacking. Propositions are often limited to a small set. Propositions are often limited to a small set. rule-governed. Eg. They have strict rules for determining word orders to compensrule-governed. Eg. They have strict rules for determining word orders to compens

ate for the lacking of case endings on nouns.ate for the lacking of case endings on nouns. When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is aWhen a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is a

cquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is saicquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.d to have become a Creole.

Bilingualism and Diglossia Bilingualism and Diglossia

In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.

A typical example is Canada, where both French and English are recognized as offiA typical example is Canada, where both French and English are recognized as official languages. So is Belgium, where French and Flemish Dutch are both recognizecial languages. So is Belgium, where French and Flemish Dutch are both recognized as official languages. Other countries and regions in the world which are bilingual d as official languages. Other countries and regions in the world which are bilingual include Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, Pakistan, Uganda, and part of U.S.A.include Australia, Singapore, Switzerland, Pakistan, Uganda, and part of U.S.A.

According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar tAccording to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation o bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two vtwo varieties of a languagearieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each havin exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. g a definite role to play.

the examples are Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole. Each of the examples are Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole. Each of these languages has two varieties: the high variety and the low variety. these languages has two varieties: the high variety and the low variety.

High and low varietyHigh and low variety

One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialiOne of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the apprzation of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations.opriate language for certain situations.

high variety: a more standard variety, which is used for more fhigh variety: a more standard variety, which is used for more formal or serious matters. Such as speeches made in governmeormal or serious matters. Such as speeches made in government, the media, school or church.nt, the media, school or church.

2) low variety: a non-prestige variety, which is used in colloqu2) low variety: a non-prestige variety, which is used in colloquial and other informal situations. Such as conversations with faial and other informal situations. Such as conversations with family or friends, or instructions given to servants , waiters or wmily or friends, or instructions given to servants , waiters or workmen.orkmen.

Chapter 9 Language and cultureChapter 9 Language and culture

What is culture?What is culture?

In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. life of the human community.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.

There are generally two types of culture: material and There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.spiritual.

The relationship between language and culture The relationship between language and culture A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent

similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s asimilar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, points of views and ways of life.ttitudes, beliefs, points of views and ways of life.

Language symbolizes cultural reality.Language symbolizes cultural reality. The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historicaThe culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historica

lly and metaphorically.lly and metaphorically. The relationship of language to culture is that of part to whole. CulturThe relationship of language to culture is that of part to whole. Cultur

e is a wider system which includes language as a subsystem.e is a wider system which includes language as a subsystem. To sum up, it’s extremely difficult to separate language and culture.on To sum up, it’s extremely difficult to separate language and culture.on

the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates ithe one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses n his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of cand embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses rulture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.eflect the cultural changes in return.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesisSapir-Whorf hypothesis

Definition: a view put forward by Edward Sapir and Definition: a view put forward by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf and is concerned with the Benjamin Whorf and is concerned with the interdependence of language and thought. Through interdependence of language and thought. Through their studies of American Indian languages, Sapir their studies of American Indian languages, Sapir and Whorf proclaimed that the structure of the and Whorf proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.known as linguistic relativity.

Strong version & weak version Strong version & weak version Strong version believes that the language patterns determine Strong version believes that the language patterns determine

people’s thinking and behavior;people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter. Weak version holds that the former influence the latter. ----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two ----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two

important insights:important insights: There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code,

reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.people think.

More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.encoded in the language.

Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesLinguistic evidence of cultural differences

Denotative meaning ---- a meaning that can be Denotative meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.found in a dictionary.

Connotative meaning ---- a meaning or idea Connotative meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.

Iconic meaning ---- the image or icon invoked in Iconic meaning ---- the image or icon invoked in mind by a word.mind by a word.

For example, For example, “rose”.“rose”.

Some cultural differences in language useSome cultural differences in language use

Greetings and terms of address Greetings and terms of address Thanks and compliments Thanks and compliments Color wordsColor words Privacy and taboos Privacy and taboos Rounding off numbers Rounding off numbers Words and cultural-specific connotations Words and cultural-specific connotations Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor

The significance of cultural teaching and learningThe significance of cultural teaching and learning

Learning a foreign language is inseparable from Learning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.learning its culture.

We need to learn enough about the language’s We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the language properly to achieve not only the linguistic linguistic competencecompetence but also the but also the pragmatic or pragmatic or communicative competencecommunicative competence as well. as well.

Cultural overlap Cultural overlap

Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such asherself by means of kinship terms, such as

“ “Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”

Cultural diffusionCultural diffusion Through communication, some elements of culture A enter Through communication, some elements of culture A enter

culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as known as cultural diffusioncultural diffusion. .

One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.of loan words.

The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.accepting concepts from other cultures.

The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)

Intercultural communicationIntercultural communication

Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)enough to alter the communication event.)

In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.

Chapter 10 Language acquisitionChapter 10 Language acquisition

Language acquisition----refers to the child’s Language acquisition----refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. language of his community.

Theories of child language acquisitionTheories of child language acquisition

A behaviorist view of language acquisition (SkinnerA behaviorist view of language acquisition (Skinners) s)

An innatist view of language acquisition (Chomsky) An innatist view of language acquisition (Chomsky) An interactionist view of language acquisition An interactionist view of language acquisition Cognitive factors in child language development Cognitive factors in child language development

A behaviorist view of language acquisitionA behaviorist view of language acquisition

Theory: Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believTheory: Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit forme that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.ation.

Imitation Imitation Recognition Recognition Reinforcement Reinforcement Process: a.) a child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people arouProcess: a.) a child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people arou

nd him, b) people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attend him, b) people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently. C) the child repeats the right sounds ompts by responding differently. C) the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward.r patterns to get the reward.

The child learns the language gradually in the same way as habit-forThe child learns the language gradually in the same way as habit-forming. So imitation and practice are very important to language develoming. So imitation and practice are very important to language development in this theory. The chief exponent of the behaviorist view is B.pment in this theory. The chief exponent of the behaviorist view is B.F.Skinners. this view was prevalent before the 1960s, after that it was F.Skinners. this view was prevalent before the 1960s, after that it was under criticism for its deficiencies discovered.under criticism for its deficiencies discovered.

Argument against:Argument against: children do not imitate adults’s speech in the same way as parrots do.children do not imitate adults’s speech in the same way as parrots do.

They imitate words selectively according to their own understandin They imitate words selectively according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns. gs of the sounds or patterns.

children pick out patterns and generalize them to new contexts. children pick out patterns and generalize them to new contexts. children can create new forms or new utterances with complexed strchildren can create new forms or new utterances with complexed str

uctures. Eg.g. reinforcement caanot be used to explain how children uctures. Eg.g. reinforcement caanot be used to explain how children acquire complex language system, it also cannot explain how, in certacquire complex language system, it also cannot explain how, in certain language, the disappearance of certain words and expressions aftain language, the disappearance of certain words and expressions after a certain period of learning..er a certain period of learning..

To sum up, the behaviorist theory of child language acquisitiTo sum up, the behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some on offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language, but how dof the regular and routine aspects of the language, but how do children acquire more complex grammatical structures of to children acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different explanation.he language requires a different explanation.

An innatist view of language acquisitionAn innatist view of language acquisition

Main idea:Main idea: human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the

language develops in the child just as other biological functions such language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walkingas walking

the innate ability to learn language is called language acquisition the innate ability to learn language is called language acquisition device( LAD). LAD is a set of general rules which can be used to all device( LAD). LAD is a set of general rules which can be used to all the languages in the world. Later Chomsky called LAD as Universal the languages in the world. Later Chomsky called LAD as Universal Grammar (UG).Grammar (UG).

Language environment is important to the functioning of LAD.. Language environment is important to the functioning of LAD.. children need to get samples of a natural language to activate the children need to get samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by LAD, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of grammar rules to that particular matching the innate knowledge of grammar rules to that particular language.language.

Language acquisition process is the period of transition from UG into Language acquisition process is the period of transition from UG into grammar of particular language.grammar of particular language.

Argument against:Argument against:

wolf child: if the child was born with LAD, when wolf child: if the child was born with LAD, when the wolf child was put back into language the wolf child was put back into language environment, he can use the LAD to acquire environment, he can use the LAD to acquire language, he could learn to speak, but in fact, he language, he could learn to speak, but in fact, he couldn’t.couldn’t.

foreign language learning: if we are born with foreign language learning: if we are born with LAD, we can use it over and over again. We can LAD, we can use it over and over again. We can use it to acquire foreign language. But in fact, we use it to acquire foreign language. But in fact, we have to take painstaking efforts to learn foreign have to take painstaking efforts to learn foreign language.language.

An interactionist view of language acquisitionAn interactionist view of language acquisition

The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interThe interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which thplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims te child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his hat the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. (motherese)language acquisition. (motherese)

the modified speech such as motherese or caretaker talk shares the following characthe modified speech such as motherese or caretaker talk shares the following characteristics:teristics:

slow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structslow rate of speech, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary. The topic of such talures, frequent repetition, paraphrasing and limited vocabulary. The topic of such talk is closely related to the “ here and now” environment.k is closely related to the “ here and now” environment.

These kind of modified speech can provide comprehensible language samples to cThese kind of modified speech can provide comprehensible language samples to children. Children are capable of processing the language and learn the language struhildren. Children are capable of processing the language and learn the language structures, thus they can acquire the language.ctures, thus they can acquire the language.

Argument against:Argument against:

wolf child: when he was brought back into sowolf child: when he was brought back into social interaction, still he couldn’t acquire the lcial interaction, still he couldn’t acquire the language, only utter a few words.anguage, only utter a few words.

Foreign language learners living in language Foreign language learners living in language spoken country have got social interaction wispoken country have got social interaction with native speakers, still they can’t acquire natth native speakers, still they can’t acquire native speakers’s languageive speakers’s language

Cognitive factors in child language development Cognitive factors in child language development

1) Language development is dependent on both the 1) Language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. (the acquisition of perfect tense their language development. (the acquisition of perfect tense and the concept of present relevance)and the concept of present relevance)

2) The cognitive factors determine how the child makes 2) The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses. (the acquisition meanings the child perceives and expresses. (the acquisition of negative form)of negative form)

Language environment Language environment & the critical period hypothesis & the critical period hypothesis

Two important factors: Two important factors: the linguistic environment children are exposethe linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.d to and the age they start to learn the language.

In behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in pIn behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and necessary feedbackroviding both language models to be imitated and necessary feedbacks.s.

The innatist view emphasizes more on children’s internal processing oThe innatist view emphasizes more on children’s internal processing of the language items to be learnt. The environment functions as a stimf the language items to be learnt. The environment functions as a stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the maulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the materials provided by the linguistic environment around the children.terials provided by the linguistic environment around the children.

The interactionist view calls for the quality of the language samples aThe interactionist view calls for the quality of the language samples available in the linguistic environment, only when the language is modivailable in the linguistic environment, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they prfied and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items. ocess and internalize the language items.

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) ---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biologi---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biologi

cal functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated cal functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for lat the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.anguage acquisition.

The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acqThe strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be abuire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.le to learn from subsequent exposure.

The weak version holds that language learning will be morThe weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victoe difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases) r’s and Genie’s cases)

Stages in child language developmentStages in child language development

Phonological development Phonological development Vocabulary developmentVocabulary development 1) Under-extension1) Under-extension 2) Over-extension2) Over-extension 3) Prototype theory 3) Prototype theory Grammatical development Grammatical development 1) Telegraphic speech (2)1) Telegraphic speech (2) 2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5)2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5) Pragmatic development Pragmatic development

Atypical developmentAtypical development

Atypical or abnormal language development occurs due tAtypical or abnormal language development occurs due to trauma or injury. Atypical language development incluo trauma or injury. Atypical language development includes:des:

Hearing impairmentHearing impairment Mental retardationMental retardation autismautism stuttering stuttering AphasiaAphasia Dyslexia and dysgraphia Dyslexia and dysgraphia

Chapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition ---- formally established itself as a discipline aroSecond Language Acquisition ---- formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a secound the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. nd language subsequent to his native language.

Distinguish second language & foreign languageDistinguish second language & foreign language second language: the language plays an institutional and social role in the commsecond language: the language plays an institutional and social role in the comm

unity . that is, it functions as a recognized means of communication among meunity . that is, it functions as a recognized means of communication among members who speak some other languages as their mother tongues. Eg English as mbers who speak some other languages as their mother tongues. Eg English as a second language is learnt in the United States, the United Kingdom and countra second language is learnt in the United States, the United Kingdom and countries in Africa such as Nigeria and Zambiaies in Africa such as Nigeria and Zambia

foreign language: takes place in setting where the language plays no major role foreign language: takes place in setting where the language plays no major role in the community and is primarily learnt only in the classroom. E.g. English is lin the community and is primarily learnt only in the classroom. E.g. English is learnt in china or Japan. earnt in china or Japan.

Target language(TL), native language (NL), L1, L2, FLTarget language(TL), native language (NL), L1, L2, FL

Connections between first language acquisition Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisitionand second language acquisition

The first language study has served as a backcloth fThe first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about secor perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewood, 1986).ond language learning (Littlewood, 1986).

SLA is different from first language acquisition. the SLA is different from first language acquisition. the second language learners generally fail to attain natisecond language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. The language they produce is cve-like competence. The language they produce is called interlanguage(IL) (Selinker)alled interlanguage(IL) (Selinker)

InterlanguageInterlanguage

definition: learners’ independent system of thdefinition: learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the nate second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a cive language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native lontinuum or approximation from his native language to the target languageanguage to the target language

characteristics: systematicity, permeability, fcharacteristics: systematicity, permeability, fossilizationossilization

fossilizationfossilization definition: a process occurring from time to time in which indefinition: a process occurring from time to time in which in

correct linguistic features become a permanent part of the wcorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a languageay a person speaks or writes a language

causes of fossilization:fossilization has become one of the mcauses of fossilization:fossilization has become one of the main features of interlanguage. According to Selinker, it may ain features of interlanguage. According to Selinker, it may be caused by the following:be caused by the following:

1) native language interferences: the interferences can appea1) native language interferences: the interferences can appear in all levels, in pronunciation, words, grammar etc. r in all levels, in pronunciation, words, grammar etc.

e.g. He is doctor ( lack of article)e.g. He is doctor ( lack of article) He on the third floor. (lack of copula “be”)He on the third floor. (lack of copula “be”) The price of the coat is very expensive. (word collocation)The price of the coat is very expensive. (word collocation) Mispronounce /l/for /n/, or /e/ for /ae/ etc.Mispronounce /l/for /n/, or /e/ for /ae/ etc.

Causes of fossilizationCauses of fossilization 2) transfer of training: learners may have wrong understanding of the lan2) transfer of training: learners may have wrong understanding of the lan

guage due to the teachers’ unidiomatic use of the language. The wrongly guage due to the teachers’ unidiomatic use of the language. The wrongly use of the teaching material may also cause mistakes.use of the teaching material may also cause mistakes.

e.g in talking to foreigners, ask about the privacy such as salary, age, me.g in talking to foreigners, ask about the privacy such as salary, age, marriage status , religious beliefs etc because these forms appear in the teaarriage status , religious beliefs etc because these forms appear in the teaching materials.ching materials.

How are you and the reply can be found in most of the textbooks. But How are you and the reply can be found in most of the textbooks. But “ how are you doing” or “what’s up”seldom appear in the teaching mate“ how are you doing” or “what’s up”seldom appear in the teaching materials, and teachers seldom use them in class. So learners don’t know how rials, and teachers seldom use them in class. So learners don’t know how to reply when they hear these in real communication.to reply when they hear these in real communication.

3) learning strategies: learners tend to simplize the target language, espe3) learning strategies: learners tend to simplize the target language, especially simplizing the syntactic structures. cially simplizing the syntactic structures.

e.g the subjunctive mood is difficult to learn and understand. So learners e.g the subjunctive mood is difficult to learn and understand. So learners tend to rely on other simpler structures to avoid using it. So in real comtend to rely on other simpler structures to avoid using it. So in real communication, once the native speaker use the subjunctive mood, it will camunication, once the native speaker use the subjunctive mood, it will cause misunderstanding. use misunderstanding.

4) use of communicative strategies: at a certain level, learners 4) use of communicative strategies: at a certain level, learners will leran to use certain strategies like avoidance, simplificatiowill leran to use certain strategies like avoidance, simplification etc to achieve successful communication. The learners will n etc to achieve successful communication. The learners will be satisfied with their present level and learning motivation is be satisfied with their present level and learning motivation is weakened, except for leaning some new words, the learners haweakened, except for leaning some new words, the learners have no intention to learn and use the complex sentence structureve no intention to learn and use the complex sentence structures. In the long run, learners caa’t use the complex language fors. In the long run, learners caa’t use the complex language forms and fossilization may occur.ms and fossilization may occur.

5) overgeneralization of target language: learners tend to overg5) overgeneralization of target language: learners tend to overgeneralize the grammatical rules and cause mistakes.eneralize the grammatical rules and cause mistakes.

e.g. His parents suggested him to go abroad after graduation. e.g. His parents suggested him to go abroad after graduation. ( influenced by the structure” ask…to do, “ “ tell …to do”, “a( influenced by the structure” ask…to do, “ “ tell …to do”, “advise …to do”)dvise …to do”)

Contrastive analysis (CA) (1960s)Contrastive analysis (CA) (1960s) definition: is an approach that compares the forms and meanings across the mothdefinition: is an approach that compares the forms and meanings across the moth

er tongue and target language to find the differences so that people could predict ler tongue and target language to find the differences so that people could predict learners’ difficulty.earners’ difficulty.

the native language was regarded as the major cause for learning problems that ththe native language was regarded as the major cause for learning problems that the learners face. e learners face.

Positive transfer----If the learners can transfer the rules of native language to the Positive transfer----If the learners can transfer the rules of native language to the second language in a positive way , the native language can facilitate target langusecond language in a positive way , the native language can facilitate target language learningage learning

Negative transfer----If the transfer is a negative one, the native language would inNegative transfer----If the transfer is a negative one, the native language would interfere or hinder target language learningterfere or hinder target language learning

It is believed that The similiarity between languages will facilitate learning whereIt is believed that The similiarity between languages will facilitate learning whereas differences between the native language and the target language would pose dias differences between the native language and the target language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.fficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.

*To touch the society .*To touch the society . *There are more people come to study in the states.*There are more people come to study in the states. *I wait you at the gate of the school. *I wait you at the gate of the school.

Shortcomings of CAShortcomings of CA

The CA was soon found problematic, for many of the The CA was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative or inaccurate. Predicted errors did be either uninformative or inaccurate. Predicted errors did not materialize in learner language while errors did show up not materialize in learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. “differences” that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. “differences” and “difficulties” are not identical concepts. and “difficulties” are not identical concepts.

Error analysis (EA)Error analysis (EA)

definition: an approach that involves objectively describing the learners interlangdefinition: an approach that involves objectively describing the learners interlanguage, then a comparison between the interlanguage and the target language is folluage, then a comparison between the interlanguage and the target language is followed to find out the differences. Different from contrastive analysis, error analysiowed to find out the differences. Different from contrastive analysis, error analysis gave less consideration to learners’ native language.s gave less consideration to learners’ native language.

mistakes and errors:mistakes and errors: mistakes: students’ performance errors , e.g slip to tongue or spelling mistakes etmistakes: students’ performance errors , e.g slip to tongue or spelling mistakes et

c. caused by distraction, carelessness, interference etc. after making the mistakes, c. caused by distraction, carelessness, interference etc. after making the mistakes, if their attention is drawn to the mistakes, the students can realize them and self-cif their attention is drawn to the mistakes, the students can realize them and self-correct them. orrect them.

Errors: those mistakes that students make due to their imperfect knowledge of tarErrors: those mistakes that students make due to their imperfect knowledge of target language. It’s also called competence errors. Often the students cannot realize get language. It’s also called competence errors. Often the students cannot realize them and self-correct them.them and self-correct them.

Two main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors & intralingual errorsTwo main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors & intralingual errors

Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors

----Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-lingui----Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonolostic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For exgical, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,amples,

a. Substitution of [t] for [d] and [] for [t]: threea. Substitution of [t] for [d] and [] for [t]: threetretree, thise, thisdis.dis.

b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepb. Shortening of long vowels: sheepship, meetship, meetmitmit

Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors

----The intralingual errors result mainly from faulty or ----The intralingual errors result mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.of the native language.

Two types of causes have been well exploited: Two types of causes have been well exploited:

overgeneralization & cross-associationovergeneralization & cross-association

OvergeneralizationOvergeneralization

Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations. strategies in new situations.

Walked, watched, washed…Walked, watched, washed…

*rided, *goed, *doed, *eated…*rided, *goed, *doed, *eated… Jane advise me to give up smoking.Jane advise me to give up smoking.

Jane told me to give up smoking.Jane told me to give up smoking.

*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.

*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.

Cross-associationCross-association

Cross-association refers to the phenomenon that the close Cross-association refers to the phenomenon that the close association of the two similar words often leads to association of the two similar words often leads to confusion, e.g.confusion, e.g.

Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite…Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite… It may alsoIt may also occurs at all levels of language from occurs at all levels of language from

phonological to syntactic, e.g.phonological to syntactic, e.g.

The coffee is too hot to drink.The coffee is too hot to drink.

*The apricot is too sour to eat it.*The apricot is too sour to eat it.

The role of native languageThe role of native language in 2nd language learning in 2nd language learning

Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism)Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism) Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language

transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.process.

Three interacting factors in determining language transfer:Three interacting factors in determining language transfer: A learner’s psychologyA learner’s psychology Perception of native-target language distancePerception of native-target language distance Actual knowledge of the target languageActual knowledge of the target language

2nd language learning models and input hypothesis2nd language learning models and input hypothesis

Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and poBehaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;sitive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;

The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings equipped innately with languby stressing that human beings equipped innately with language acquisition device, are capable of language learning proage acquisition device, are capable of language learning provided with adequate language input. vided with adequate language input.

The social interactionists argue that language and social inteThe social interactionists argue that language and social interaction cannot be separated.raction cannot be separated.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning. He put forward that learners advance their language learninHe put forward that learners advance their language learnin

g gradually by receiving comprehensible input.g gradually by receiving comprehensible input. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” : “ “i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next

stage is an “i + 1”.stage is an “i + 1”. Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.

Individual differencesIndividual differences

Language aptitude Language aptitude Motivation Motivation Learning strategies Learning strategies Age of acquisition Age of acquisition Personality Personality

Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude

Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. John related to a learner’s general intelligence. John Carroll identified some components of language Carroll identified some components of language aptitude:aptitude:

Phonemic coding abilityPhonemic coding ability Grammatical sensitivityGrammatical sensitivity Inductive language learning abilityInductive language learning ability Rote learning abilityRote learning ability

MotivationMotivation

Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong iand affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. mpact on his efforts in learning a second language. Generally four types of motivations have been identiGenerally four types of motivations have been identified:fied:

Instrumental motivationInstrumental motivation Integrative motivationIntegrative motivation Resultative motivationResultative motivation Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation

Learning strategiesLearning strategies Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented anLearning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented an

d problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiend problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), three typcy. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), three types of strategies have been identified:es of strategies have been identified:

Cognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and internalizinCognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.g what has been learned.

Metacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and evalMetacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.uating one’s learning.

Affect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with oAffect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with other speakers.ther speakers.

Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning strateCohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning strategies and language using strategies.gies and language using strategies.

Age of acquisition Age of acquisition

The Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period Hypothesis

Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms of learning achievement and grammaticality the of learning achievement and grammaticality the younger learners outperform the adults.younger learners outperform the adults.

Personality Personality

In terms of communicative ability rather than In terms of communicative ability rather than grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammgrammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical rules, the personality traits such as extroatical rules, the personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence version, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second language leacan be found in successful second language learners rners ( as in the case of Liyang: Crazy Englis( as in the case of Liyang: Crazy English).h).

SLA & its pedagogical implicationsSLA & its pedagogical implications

Chapter 12 Language and BrainChapter 12 Language and Brain

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