A DECADE OF DEDICATION

A Decade of Dedication: How tissue culture banana has improved

rural livelihoods in Kenya

A Decade of Dedication: How tissue culture banana has improved rural livelihoods in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation International.

© Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation International 2008 All rights reserved

The publisher encourages fair use of this material provided proper citation is made

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Front cover photograph: Esther Gachugu (left) was one of the first Kenyan farmers to adopt TC bananas

A Decade of Dedication: How tissue culture banana has improved

rural livelihoods in Kenya

Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation International (AHBFI)Nairobi • Johannesburg • Washington DC

CONTENTS

Acronyms and Abbreviations iv

Foreword v

About Africa Harvest vi

Acknowledgements vii

Executive Summary viii

1. Banana Background 1

2. Laying the Foundations: Early TC banana work 8

3. Building Banana Businesses: Africa Harvest’s TC banana projects 12

4. Making a Difference: The impact of TC bananas in Kenya 22

5. Reaching Out: Opportunities for up- and out-scaling 33

References 39

iii

A Decade of Dedicationiv

ACRONyMS AND ABBREvIATIONS

ACDI Agricultural Cooperative Development InternationalAESA agro-ecosystem analysisATL Aberdare Technologies LimitedATPS African Technology Policy Studies networkBTA Biotechnology Trust Africa CAADP Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme CEO Chief Executive OfficerCSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial ResearchDONATA Dissemination of New Agricultural Technologies in Africa FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FARA Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa FIPS Farm Input Promotion SchemeGoK Government of Kenya GTL Genetic Technologies LimitedICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and EcologyIDRC International Development Research CentreINIBAP International Network for the Improvement of Banana and PlantainIR imazapyr-resistant ISAAA International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech ApplicationsITSC Institute of Tropical and Sub-Tropical CropsJKUAT Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and TechnologyKARI Kenya Agricultural Research InstituteKEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate ServiceKGT Kenya Gatsby TrustKSh Kenya Shilling NARL National Agricultural Research LaboratoriesNARS national agricultural research systemNEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NERICA New Rice for Africa NGO non-governmental organizationTC tissue cultureTCBEL Tissue Culture Banana Enterprises LimitedUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentVOCA Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative AssistanceWVC whole value chainZEF Zentrum für Ewtwicklungsforschung

A Decade of Dedication vForeword

FOREwORD

The publication of this banana report comes at a time of intense interest in approaches to development in Africa. Many sub-Saharan African countries are struggling to achieve stable economic growth and diversification. Most are yet to show real progress in reducing poverty.

The Board of Directors, management and staff of Africa Harvest are dedicated to the task of grassroots economic development. We have been bold in exploring new strategies, especially in developing the whole value chain (WVC) approach. We value the strong connection we have built with farmers, which has been achieved through hard work, technical capability and a deep understanding of the challenges they face.

In 2006, Africa Harvest decided to undertake a socio-economic impact assessment to mark 10 years of development work since the introduction of tissue culture (TC) bananas in Kenya. The study was conducted by Dr Shabd S. Acharya and Dr Mary Alton Mackey. Dr Acharya is an Agricultural Economist and former Chairman of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices in the Government of India. Dr Mackey is a Health and Nutrition Consultant and also an Africa Harvest Director. This report is based largely on the findings of the socio-economic impact study.

In many ways, the report showcases how a simple technology has had significant impact in improving the living standards of thousands of farmers in Kenya. The report in your hands confirms that there is no quick fix in tackling poverty; it has taken over a decade to begin seeing the real benefits of the TC banana technology transfer from South Africa to Kenya and, by extension, the East Africa region.

The take-away message of this report is that nobody can tackle poverty alone. Africa Harvest has been successful by working with multiple stakeholders who include the private sector, government, community groups and farmers; gaining the confidence of farmers is, perhaps, the most critical ingredient of success. In our experience, development organizations must take a long-term approach to fighting poverty if targeted farmers are to achieve sustainable livelihoods.

We hope that the publication of this report will generate debate, especially amongst our development partners, on the best way to build on the progress made so far in reducing poverty through introducing TC bananas. Since development is a complex process that takes some considerable time, we hope that Africa Harvest’s experience is a worthwhile contribution to the search for better solutions.

Dr Florence Wambugu, Africa Harvest CEOApril 2008

A Decade of Dedicationvi

ABOuT AFRICA HARvEST

Africa Harvest’s vision is an Africa free of hunger, poverty and malnutrition. We believe that winning this fight – through strategic partnerships and the tools of science and technology – is possible. Indeed, since the inception of Africa Harvest five years ago, we have already achieved much towards our goal.

Africa Harvest is strategically positioned to engage its core constituencies – grassroots communities, governments and development partners – at different levels, to create sustainable, life-changing impact and to share its now well-tested models with others.

Africa Harvest has, amongst other things, helped Africa to gain a better understanding of biotechnology through dissemination of factual information and active involvement in the agri-biotechnology debate. We have reached and helped change the lives of thousands of farmers through our highly successful TC banana programme and facilitated the setting up of a farmer-based marketing company. With support from the Government of Kenya, we have helped strengthen private–public sector partnerships, such as the establishment of TC banana and tree nurseries.

Dr Florence Wambugu and Evelyn Mungai plant the first TC banana at the DuPont-funded Chura Community TC Banana Project

A Decade of Dedication viiAcknowledgements

ACKNOwLEDgEMENTS

Africa Harvest is grateful to the many people and organizations that have given their time and provided information and analysis for this report.

Thanks are due to the Africa Harvest Board of Directors, who constantly remind the management to stay connected to the farmers: our most important target group. Thanks also to the Africa Harvest management and field team, who measure their success on the number of farmers they have helped to climb out of poverty.

We also appreciate the efforts of Africa Harvest Director, Dr Mary Alton Mackey, and Dr Shabd S. Acharya in producing a study of the socio-economic impact of TC bananas on Kenyan farmers.

Special thanks are due also to the thousands of TC banana farmers who have opened their homes and farms to us, allowing us to share their challenges and successes. We salute the farmer group leaders and early technology adopters who believed in us from the start. Our appreciation also goes to the thousands of farmers who have remained committed to the projects through both good and bad times.

We salute the many organizations that have been involved in one way or another with the banana sub-sector, particularly DuPont (and its subsidiary Pioneer Hi-Bred), the Rockefeller Foundation and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC).

DuPont – a company that puts science to work by creating sustainable solutions for a healthier life – funded the Chura TC Banana Project. Africa Harvest worked closely with Pioneer Hi-Bred, the leading developer and supplier of advanced plant genetics to farmers worldwide, to develop sustainability strategies for the Chura Project. Part of the strategy was to support a farmer-owned company, Tissue Culture Banana Enterprises Limited (TCBEL).

The Rockefeller Foundation, which helps expand opportunities for the poor and vulnerable to ensure the benefits of globalization are shared more widely, has been involved in supporting the TC banana sub-sector for over 10 years.

IDRC, a Canadian Crown corporation that works with researchers from the developing world to build healthier, more equitable and more prosperous societies, funded some of the early work in TC banana technology transfer from South Africa.

Our grateful thanks are also extended to our partners in Kenya: The Kenya Agricultural Research Institution (KARI), Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) and the AfriCentre of the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA). We also appreciate the private-sector players such as Aberdare Technologies Limited (ATL) and Genetic Technologies Limited (GTL) who have been supplying our farmers with planting materials.

A Decade of Dedicationviii 1. Banana Backgroundviii

ExECuTIvE SuMMARy

Banana is an important crop throughout East and Central Africa in terms of its current and potential contribution to reducing hunger, poverty and malnutrition. Besides being a nutritious and staple food for rural and urban dwellers, bananas provide an income for many small-scale subsistence farmers. The continuous availability of harvestable bunches from a banana orchard contributes greatly to the year-round food and income security of banana growers.

However, bananas are highly susceptible to Fusarium wilt and Sigatoka diseases, viruses, weevils and nematodes. Infestation by these pests and diseases, coupled with poor traditional agronomic practices (lack of inputs and propagation of infected material), has led to a decline in the productivity and production of banana over the past 20 years. In Kenya, this was most marked during the 1990s. Since then research and development organizations have addressed the problem of banana decline through introducing clean planting material propagated by TC.

The first TC bananas were introduced to Kenyan farmers in 1997 in a collaborative project between KARI and ISAAA, with financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation and IDRC. The pilot activities demonstrated the suitability and adaptability of the TC technology and considerably increased the demand for TC plantlets.

Africa Harvest has continued this pioneering work since 2003, with two projects in Kenya’s Central and Eastern Provinces, which are among Kenya’s important banana-growing areas. The first project (Developing a Pro-poor TC Banana Industry in Kenya) was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and aimed to remove bottlenecks to project expansion and create long-term sustainability. The project was implemented by Africa Harvest in partnership with TechnoServe. The second project focused on the peri-urban Chura community, located on the outskirts of Nairobi. Funded by DuPont, the aim was to increase banana yields and incomes. In both projects, Africa Harvest used the WVC approach, which addresses all aspects of the production-to-marketing chain and aims to help farmers move from subsistence farming to running a profitable farm-based business.

Much has been achieved during the 10 years since TC bananas were introduced to Kenyan farmers. To record progress and set recommendations for future work, the Board of Directors of Africa Harvest commissioned an independent socio-economic assessment of TC bananas in Kenya.

The analysis showed that TC bananas are considerably superior to non-TC since they produce higher yields, mature earlier, are free from pests and diseases, and their fruit is of better and more uniform quality. Although the cost of establishing a TC banana orchard is considerably higher than that for non-TC, this cost is more than offset by the higher yields obtained. Gross income, net income and labour income per hectare are higher and unit cost of production per tonne of banana is lower with TC bananas than with non-TC. In short, the TC banana technology has turned around the banana decline and given new hope to banana growers.

The socio-economic impact assessment clearly brings out the significant contribution that TC banana technology has made in improving the lives of small-scale farmers in rural Kenya. Africa Harvest is currently scaling up the projects to new areas in Kenya and has secured support for wider dissemination throughout the East Africa region.

A Decade of Dedication 11. Banana Background 1

1. BANANA BACKgROuND

Banana: an important stapleAgriculture is extremely important to Kenya’s economy. Although only around 20% of the land can support agricultural activities, the sector provides the majority of the country’s food, employment and foreign exchange. However, a high rate of population growth is placing increasing strain on Kenya’s agricultural land and natural resources. Smallholder farmers, who make up 80% of the population, are faced with many challenges, including shrinking landholding sizes, diminishing soil fertility and falling incomes. Without the means to invest in farm inputs or improved management strategies, many seem trapped in a downward spiral of diminishing yields, resulting in increasing levels of poverty, hunger and malnutrition.

One of the principal routes to reducing poverty is to increase yields per unit of land. In Kenya, banana (Musa spp) is a traditional and widely grown agricultural crop that has great potential for increased productivity.

Ripe banana is a good source of vitamin A and contains medium quantities of vitamin B, phosphorus, iron and potassium. Ripe banana also contains sugars and is therefore a good source of energy. Although the protein content of banana is low, it contains lysine, an essential amino acid that is lacking in maize. Banana is therefore an excellent complement to maize-based diets. Compared to an apple, a banana is reported to contain four times the protein, twice as much carbohydrate, three times the phosphorus and five times as much vitamin A and iron.

Each banana pseudostem (the upright growing part) produces a single flower, which matures into a bunch of bananas, comprising 5–20 tiers (hands) with up to 20 fruits (fingers) in each hand. The average yield in Kenya is 12 to 14 t/ha, but varies from 8 to 15 t/ha in different provinces. The potential yield from TC bananas, with good management and inputs, is 40 t/ha.

A Decade of Dedication2 1. Banana Background

Banana has emerged as a major food and cash crop in almost all seven rural provinces of Kenya. For example, banana has replaced coffee as the major cash earner in Central Province due to problems in coffee marketing. Nyanza Province is the main banana-growing province in Kenya, accounting for 42% of the country’s banana-producing area and 51% of production.

The main banana varieties grown in Kenya are Apple Banana, Bokoboko, Cavendish, Golden Beauty, Grande Naine, Gros Michel, Kisukari, Lacatan, Muraru, Pisang Paz, Robust, Shale, Somali Shuttle, Sweet Banana, Valery, William Hybrid and Uganda Green. Generally, all these varieties are either cooked or consumed as fruit. Bananas are also processed into value-added products such as powder, starch, juice, jam, beer and dried banana crisps or chips.

Bananas are grown predominantly by small-scale farmers for home and local consumption. In high-potential areas, over 90% of farmers grow bananas. The crop is traditionally managed as a low-input, low-output crop. However, the continuous availability of harvestable bunches is vital to the year-round food and income security of banana growers. It is interesting to note that banana holdings of less than 0.5 hectares contribute 83.5% of the country’s banana production. Consumption of banana by urban consumers is increasing, indicating a growing market for surplus production.

A story of declining yieldsKenya’s banana producers have seen their yields decline over the past 20 years and the fall was most marked during the 1990s. Yields almost halved between 1992 and 1994 and there was a corresponding fall in the area planted to banana. The decline is mainly attributed to a high incidence of pests (weevils and nematodes) and diseases like banana leaf spots (Black and Yellow Sigatoka), Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) and Cigar end rot.

When plants are well watered, weeded and supplied with organic matter to improve soil fertility, they are better able to resist pest and disease attack, but the majority of smallholders can neither afford this level of management nor see a need for it, since banana is traditionally a low-input crop. Even attempts to plant new orchards were largely unsuccessful, since the traditional way of propagating banana, by taking suckers from nearby mother plants, simply carries the pests and diseases to the new site.

At the time, farmers were unable to access disease-free planting material and were unable to halt the spread of pests and diseases. At the same time, post-harvest handling of bananas was unsatisfactory, resulting in a high loss of edible and saleable fruit. Many farmers simply abandoned banana production, which meant banana-growing families were going hungry and prices in the markets were rising, putting banana out of reach of many rural and urban households. In addition, low productivity began to attract imports of banana from Uganda and Tanzania.

TC bananas reverse the trendThe main difficulty facing banana farmers over the past 20 years has been a lack of healthy planting material. The dramatic turnaround in the area planted to banana and productivity figures seen during the 1990s was only made possible through the introduction of improved, disease-free planting material produced through TC. Figure 1 illustrates the recovery in banana production following attention from researchers, agricultural extension workers and development organizations.

TC technology enables rapid and large-scale multiplication of bananas (see box). The main advantages of TC plants are that they grow faster, are free from pests and diseases, are uniform, produce fruits earlier than plants grown from

A Decade of Dedication 31. Banana Background

what is tissue culture?

Tissue culture (TC) is based on the ability of many plant species to

regenerate a whole plant from a single shoot tip. In TC, a single shoot

tip is dissected into tiny pieces, which are then placed in a sterile growth

medium containing glucose and other nutrients. Various hormones are

added at different stages to enhance the growth processes of shoot

initiation, multiple shoot formation and rooting induction. Commonly

referred to as a ‘hormonal kick’, these induce vigour and bring the parent

material to a juvenile stage, causing remarkable physiological changes that

influence the agronomic characteristics of the emerging plant.

Within six months, up to 2,000 individual plantlets can be produced

from a single shoot, far more than the 10 or so new plants that can be

produced from an existing banana plant using the conventional nursery sucker method. The TC plantlets are then transplanted into tiny pots

and kept in a humid laboratory atmosphere for 10 days. The relative humidity is decreased gradually, until they are hardy enough to be re-potted

and placed in a greenhouse. The plantlets are ready for the field after two months, at which point they are about 30 cm high. Young TC plantlets

are extremely sensitive to drought and require special attention for at least five months if they are to perform well. Planting out must therefore

coincide with the onset of the long rains unless irrigation is available.

The sterile operational nature of TC procedures excludes fungi, bacteria and pests from the production system, so no Sigatoka, Fusarium wilt,

weevils and nematodes will be transmitted. However, viruses such as those which cause banana bunchy top and some forms of banana streak

virus are not eliminated unless specific measures such as virus-indexing are taken to prevent transmission.

Dr Anne Wangai of KARI shows journalists how TC plantlets are propagated.

Source: Ministry of Agriculture communication to Africa Harvest dated 14.11.2005

Figure 1: Banana Area, Production and yield in Kenya (1992–2004)

Area (ha)

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

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2004

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

200,000

1,200,000

400,000

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

Production (t)

0

0

1992

1993

1994

1995

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2001

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2003

2004

Yield (t/ha)

2

4

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12

14

16


suckers, and the second crop (ratoon) also matures earlier. TC bananas are ready for harvest in 340 days after planting, as against 420 days in the case of plants grown from suckers.

Currently, the TC plantlets are being produced by research laboratories in the public sector, i.e. the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) as well as by the private sector Genetic Technologies Limited (GTL). Plantlets are also imported from South Africa, primarily by Aberdare Technologies Limited (ATL). The plantlets need to be ‘hardened off’ prior to planting in orchards, and hardening is being done by these organizations as well as by the nurseries owned by communities and the private sector.

From Africa Harvest’s analysis, it is clear that from all angles – yield, cash income, net income, labour income and unit cost of production – TC bananas are superior to traditional plants. The profitability of a TC banana plantation is also higher than that of most competing crops. However, to get the most out of their TC banana orchards, farmers have to adopt the whole TC banana technology package, which includes disease-free planting material and a high level of orchard management. This necessitates a complete shift from the traditional way of managing banana as a low-input, low-output crop. The full benefit of the TC banana technology can be derived only if adequate quantities of fertilizer, manure and water are applied and additional labour is given for the care and management of the orchard.

Overview of TC banana projectsThe importance of banana in tackling the problems of food insecurity, malnutrition and poverty in Kenya was recognized by donors over 10 years ago and resulted in several initiatives aiming to address the constraints facing banana

producers. These initiatives were conducted as partnerships involving a large number of research and development institutions – national and international – and scientists, socio-economists and voluntary organizations.

TC banana technology was first introduced into Kenya in 1997 through a five-year collaborative project between the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA) and KARI. The project was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). The broad goal of the project was to make clean and improved banana plantlets available to small-scale resource-poor farmers and thereby to alleviate poverty and hunger. This initiative became the foundation of subsequent projects undertaken by Africa Harvest.

In 2003, Africa Harvest took on and furthered the KARI–ISAAA work by implementing two major TC banana projects in Kenya’s Central and Eastern Provinces, Kenya’s major banana-growing areas. The first was again funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and sought to remove bottlenecks to project expansion and create long-term sustainability. The second was funded by DuPont Pioneer and aimed to increase the yields of banana and incomes of banana growers in the Chura community. Africa Harvest has also received financial support for initiatives and studies that complement the major TC banana projects. A distinguishing feature of Africa Harvest’s work is that its projects are built upon the experiences and lessons of the preceding initiatives.

The Africa Harvest approachWhile the early projects were successful in introducing farmers to the benefits of TC bananas and the need for better orchard management, they failed to address the issue of marketing. Banana marketing in Kenya


is often highly inefficient (see box). Africa Harvest, working in collaboration with both public and private sector partners in Kenya and internationally, has developed a whole value chain (WVC) approach and model that takes a more holistic approach (see box). The key is in changing farmers’ mindsets. Instead of treating banana as a low-input crop, they are encouraged to build a farm enterprise based on quality banana production, post-harvest handling and marketing.

The WVC approach supports all aspects of the banana production and marketing chain.

Banana marketing in Kenya

The current marketing system for bananas is both complex and

inefficient. There are four main marketing channels that carry banana

from the farm gate to the ultimate consumer:1. A simple channel in which banana moves from a small farm to

rural retailers and ultimately to the rural consumer2. Produce goes to a village or other assembler and then to the

wholesale market for onward transmission to urban retailers3. Produce from a relatively large-scale producer goes directly to

wholesale markets and then to the retailers4. Similar to (3) but the bananas are imported (from Uganda or

Tanzania). From the wholesale market, the bananas go to the consumer through open-air retail markets, kiosks, high-end greengrocers or supermarkets.

Bananas are traditionally sold unripe immediately after harvest with

minimal post-harvest handling. In many cases, the farmers sell

their produce in advance. The buyer comes to the fields, inspects

the bunches and takes them away when they are ready. In banana

marketing, transportation is a major cost because banana is a bulk

commodity and requires careful handling owing to its perishability.

Price-spread analysis has revealed that the price received by the

farmer is only around 35% of the price paid by the consumer.

Farmers currently receive only a small proportion of the market price of bananas

It starts with private-sector production of TC banana plantlets and helps build infrastructure for local or regional hardening nurseries. The model encompasses provision of micro-credit and creation of awareness among farmers, as well as providing demonstrations, training and support for better orchard management and post-harvest handling. Finally, this approach supports the development of marketing initiatives to ensure that farmers adopting the technology derive maximum benefits from their investment. The approach was instrumental in making the TC banana technology package an attractive proposition for small-scale farmers in the project areas.


The whole value chain approach

Evans Mbogo was adamant that growing bananas wouldn’t

make him any money. But he soon changed his mind after

being introduced to the Africa Harvest WVC approach. Since

then, his family has enough to eat all year round and his

income has more than doubled. “At first, we thought these

bananas were mahindu (wild),” he says. “But now we know

why they are so good. We have learned so much – about

growing bananas, about running a (farmer) group – and about

making money!”

Africa Harvest developed the WVC approach in response

to farmers’ needs. “When I started Africa Harvest, farmers

were calling me, asking for help because they could not get good prices for their bananas,” says Florence Wambugu, Africa

Harvest CEO. “So we developed WVC, which takes a much more holistic approach to production and marketing than most

development programmes.” The WVC approach is a community empowerment implementation strategy, which links all the

components of the supply chain, from provision of planting materials and training in improved agronomic practices to post-

harvest handling, packaging, processing and marketing. “WVC brings in a vertical alliance of partners who collaborate to help

the farmer achieve a more rewarding position in the market”, adds Wambugu.

Farmers like Mbogo, who have tested WVC, have reaped notable benefits, including a better quality crop and higher prices,

more market stability, lower production costs and access to new markets, equipment and technology. Empowerment of

farmers, which builds when they become organized into groups, helps them to demand better treatment and become part of

a much bigger network that includes marketing outlets such as supermarkets. They are also learning how to add value to the

crop and realize a better profit.

“Our experiences in perfecting the WVC approach lead

us to believe that it is scaleable and sustainable and

can be extended to additional crops and regions,” says

Wambugu. While WVC is relatively expensive in terms

of extension support, the investment is worthwhile,

since well-informed, confident farmers will be keen to

pass on their knowledge and experience to others. Such

farmer-to-farmer exchange has real potential to impact on

poverty and hunger across a wide area. The goal of Africa

Harvest is to ensure that the WVC model is replicated

whenever a new project is initiated. In the case of TC

banana, we anticipate that this will cover at least five

countries.

The Chura farmers have been particularly successful in adopting WVC and they have established their own marketing company, TC Banana Enterprises Ltd (TCBEL)

TCBEL distributes plantlets to farmers in addition to ripening and selling banana fruit


Farmers adopting the TC banana technology package are trained on how better orchard management is necessary if they are to benefit from maximum yields. Africa Harvest recommends that they plant the bananas in holes, adding manure, inorganic fertilizer and a nematicide. The plantlets will need to be watered during the dry season and weeded until the canopy is established. Mulching with banana leaves helps to retain moisture in the soil. Suckers should be removed so each plant has only one strong “daughter” to provide the second ratoon crop.

The socio-economic impact of TC bananasIn 2006, Africa Harvest asked two experts, Drs Shabd S. Acharya and Mary Alton Mackey, to undertake a socio-economic impact assessment to mark 10 years of development work following the introduction of TC bananas in Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were:

1. To record the achievements of the various TC banana projects

2. To document specific case studies on the socio-economic effects of growing TC bananas at individual farmers and at community levels

3. To document trends in the development of TC technical expertise and related infrastructure expertise over the past 10 years

4. To give recommendations on the financial,

personnel and infrastructure resources needed to sustain growth in uptake of TC banana technology and to implement possible future TC projects, especially the proposed nationwide rollout plan

5. To identify current and future policy initiatives, regulatory and enforcement requirements, and research and development needs.

The study methodology included desk research, discussion with the Africa Harvest team and focus group discussions individually with different stakeholders. The investigators also visited banana farms, hardening nurseries, village and town markets and supermarkets, and held discussions with farmers, banana graders, farmer group leaders, scientists and Ministry of Agriculture District Agricultural Development Officers. A summary of the report findings is presented in Chapter 4.

A Decade of Dedication8 2. Laying the Foundations

2. LAyINg THE FOuNDATIONS: EARLy TC BANANA wORK

Biotechnology to Benefit Small-scale Banana Producers in Kenya (1997–2003)

This project was instigated and led by ISAAA, under the direction of Dr Florence Wambugu. ISAAA assembled a multidisciplinary team that included biological scientists and socio-economists from several institutions. KARI was identified to host the project because it had a network of research centres throughout the country, the human resource capacity to conduct on-station cultivar evaluations and agronomic studies, and the necessary infrastructure to support extension and advisory services. Funding was provided by IDRC and the Rockefeller Foundation. In addition, the African Technology Policy Studies (ATPS) network provided funds for banana technology diffusion research. See Wambugu and Kiome (2001) for a detailed description and assessment of the project.

Phase I (1997–1999)The first phase of the project aimed to: 1. Systematically introduce the technology to

farmers and support them with training and extension education activities

2. Establish public- and private-sector links to ensure timely availability of TC planting material

3. Carry out a technology diffusion study to guide understanding of and response to any adoption-limiting issues

4. Develop a sustainable production–distribution–utilization system as a basis for better food security and job creation.

At the beginning of the project, KARI and JKUAT had built up some experience with TC

techniques and were distributing small quantities of TC banana plantlets to farmers. However, the plantlets were being distributed in an informal way with no follow-up or evaluation and Kenya lacked the capacity for mass production. Du Roi Laboratories, a South African private sector company with demonstrated experience in TC multiplication, was approached to supply high-quality planting material. GTL, a Kenyan private-sector company with TC experience in other crops, was identified to handle the materials when they arrived in Kenya. Involving the private sector ensured high-quality planting materials and confirmed the feasibility of establishing the necessary commercial infrastructure to ensure the supply of plantlets over the longer term. The Institute of Tropical and Sub-Tropical Crops (ITSC), a South African public-sector institution with relevant experience and human resources, provided technical backstopping. Technical support was also provided by the UK’s John Innes Centre, which investigated the incidence and diagnosis of viral diseases in Kenya.

The project had a number of components, including production of TC plantlets, strategic and adaptive research, creating links with farmers and marketing outlets, extension education and technical backstopping. In field trials comparing TC banana plantlets and conventional suckers as planting material, the TC bananas produced a higher yield both on-station (19% higher) and on-farm (30% higher). KARI also conducted trials of different banana varieties in different agro-ecological zones. While farmers preferred to eat familiar varieties, two of the introduced cultivars – Grand Naine and Chinese Cavendish – were accepted as viable alternatives to one of the most popular local varieties, Gros Michel (which had been devastated by Fusarium wilt). The study also reported that Goldfinger (which has good

A Decade of Dedication 92. Laying the Foundations

resistance to Fusarium wilt and Black and Yellow Sigatoka) was acceptable as a cooking type.

Research on the optimum planting density showed that high yields from TC bananas were obtained with a relatively high planting density (up to 2,222 plantlets per ha). However, increasing the planting density further resulted in a longer crop cycle, smaller bunches and smaller fruits.

Technology diffusion research identified several constraints to widespread adoption of the technology:

Relatively high cost of TC plantlets compared to conventional suckersThe need for more choice of varieties – both local and commercialGender issuesHigher requirement by TC banana plantlets for labour and inputsLimited availability of clean landInefficient and poorly established marketing and distribution systemsLack of irrigation facilities and inadequate water, especially during droughts.

The project also piloted a micro-credit/revolving fund model, primarily to enable participating farmers to acquire planting material and other inputs. BEAM Business Options Limited (a private company with expertise in community mobilization, group organization and capacity building, as well as in the design and management of rural financial services) was commissioned to implement the pilot scheme.

Availability of micro-credit greatly increased the demand for planting material and the farmers who originally bought a small number of plantlets on credit usually came back for more. The micro-credit scheme substantially increased the equity impact of the project, providing some of Kenya’s poorest people with the opportunity to grow more food and increase their incomes. At the same time, forming micro-credit groups allowed the farmers

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to access information, education and monitoring services.

The Zentrum für Ewtwicklungsforschung (ZEF) of the University of Bonn, Germany carried out an ex ante impact assessment study. This study demonstrated that adopting TC bananas helped grow the average income per acre for small-, medium-, and large-scale farms by 156%, 145%, and 106%, respectively. The study also demonstrated the high profitability of the incremental investments required for the technology package and the general suitability of TC bananas for each farm type. In addition, the study showed that using the TC technology would considerably increase the net return on labour for each of the producer groups.

Bottlenecks identified during the first phase included the following:

Lack of quality control to ensure phytosanitary requirements are met and somaclonal variants are minimizedLack of research and technology to initiate and propagate local genotypes Lack of diagnostic facilities for virus-indexing to ensure that the materials being multiplied in the country are virus-free

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The early TC banana projects focused on the major commercial genotypes of banana like Cavendish. Once this was recognized as a bottleneck to adoption, the laboratories began supplying favourite local varieties as well

A Decade of Dedication10 2. Laying the Foundations

Difference in prices being charged by private- and public-sector laboratoriesLack of market information, which leaves farmers vulnerable to exploitation by middlemen Poor linkages between farmers and TC laboratories.

Phase II (2000–2003)Based on the lessons learnt from Phase I of this project, the focus of Phase II was to establish a sustainable system of large-scale production, distribution and utilization of TC bananas. The specific objectives were to:1. Expand the number of varieties of TC bananas

available 2. Improve linkages among relevant institutions

involved in sourcing, distributing and using TC bananas

3. Strengthen regional and international collaboration in banana improvement through networking

4. Identify policy intervention points for the promotion of rapid TC technology diffusion and adoption in Kenya and Tanzania

5. Identify and assess the potential income and resource distribution effects from widespread production, distribution and utilization of TC bananas

6. Evaluate the structure, conduct and performance of the banana marketing system in order to identify areas of improvement

7. Identify and assess the potential environmental impacts from widespread production, distribution and utilization of TC bananas.

First, a baseline survey of banana production was conducted at all the benchmark sites. Then the project team started 17 farmer field schools with a total membership of 491 farmers. The farmers learned about agro-ecosystem analysis (AESA), land preparation and planting, nutrition and water requirements, weed management, sucker selection, disease and insect pest management, group dynamics, fruit tree nursery management, post-harvest handling and value addition. The main

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banana varieties planted were Chinese Cavendish, Giant Cavendish, N’gombe, Paz, Robusta and Uganda Green.

Project staff also arranged for interested farmers to visit KARI’s National Horticulture Research Centre at Thika and farmers in Maragua who had already adopted the TC technology. The visits helped prospective adopters to learn from both researchers and other farmers. The farmer-to-farmer exchange was particularly useful since it helped farmers understand the potential benefits of TC banana growing.

Sceptical farmers were also encouraged through visiting the project’s on-farm TC banana demonstration sites. These introduced new banana varieties with improved yield, disease tolerance and quality and provided farmers with clean planting material. At the same time, the project team trained farmers in integrated crop and pest management techniques as well as post-harvest handling methods to reduce losses and improve the quality and market value of their produce. Agricultural extension service personnel were welcomed to the demonstration sites, so they could learn how to advise farmers and help disseminate the TC technology package.

One of the constraints identified was lack of availability of TC banana plantlets, so the project team began training farmer groups how to establish a hardening nursery of their own. The training included nursery establishment and management, nursery construction, soil preparation and sterilization, transplanting and general nursery management, minimum standards for TC plantlets, orchard establishment and management, and costing and budgeting. The groups achieved good success rates, with 82–97% of plantlets surviving the hardening process.

Following consultative meetings with farmers’ group leaders, the project helped form a Banana Growers Association to strengthen the links

A Decade of Dedication 112. Laying the Foundations

between existing farmers’ groups and to improve access to market information.

BTA–JKUAT Banana TC Project (1998–2004) This project, coordinated by BTA and JKUAT, aimed to provide farmers with clean banana planting materials produced by TC. The project established regional plantlet nurseries producing more than 300,000 plantlets per year and these were made available to farmers at a subsidized price. Many plantlets were hardened in regional nurseries, managed by self-help or women’s groups, then distributed to other farmers. The majority of participating farmers saw their incomes increase when they adopted TC bananas. The

An expanding banana kitchen

Esther Gachugu has a small farm near Muranga, in Kenya’s Central Highlands. Ten

years ago, along with around 150 other smallholders, she was given TC banana

plantlets for testing and demonstration through the KARI–ISAAA project. She was

amazed when she sold her first bunches of TC bananas for KSh500 (US$8) each,

since the traditional types were fetching only KSh150–200. “These bananas have

exceeded all my expectations,” she says. “Instead of barely growing enough to

eat, I suddenly had plenty to sell and everyone wanted them. After just one year,

I had enough money to build a new kitchen with a fireplace, so we no longer had

to sit in the smoke.” In subsequent years, she has been able to invest in her farm

and in her children’s education, sending all nine children to secondary school

and two to university. She has bought chickens and dairy goats, and last year she

acquired a pickup truck, which she uses to deliver bananas to Nairobi.

Esther has played an important part in helping other families make equally dramatic

improvements in their living conditions. She acts as a trainer and mentor to four

farmers’ groups, encouraging people to come to her farm to see the TC bananas for

themselves. She passes on her knowledge and experience of orchard management and

marketing, and helps to manage the groups’ revolving savings funds. “I encourage them

to invest in their farms,“ she says. “And I help them to get started by supplying them

with banana plantlets if they cannot afford them.”

As more farmers observe the benefits of growing TC bananas – higher yields and

incomes, healthier orchards, better equipped farms, diversified farming enterprises,

home improvements and better farmer organization – the technology is beginning to

spread by itself, offering real potential for impact on poverty, hunger and malnutrition

throughout the banana-growing areas of East Africa.

Esther Gachugu is a knowledgeable and enthusiastic advocate of TC banana biotechnology

Since she began growing TC bananas in 1997, Esther has been able to expand and improve her “banana kitchen” several times

project also identified the major limitations that were preventing farmers realizing the full potential of TC technology at nursery level (Kahangi, 2003).

The second part of the project involved a study of polymorphism in 17 banana cultivars grown in Machakos and Kakamega Districts (Kahangi, 1999). The cultivars were selected by farmers as having good eating quality and high economic and cultural importance. The aim was to characterize these cultivars to enable in vitro production of true-to-type plants in a pilot TC laboratory at JKUAT. The researchers were able to characterize and document the genetic diversity of the cultivars and the germplasm has been conserved and maintained in vitro at JKUAT and in the field.

A Decade of Dedication12 3. Building Banana Businesses

3. BuILDINg BANANA BuSINESSES: AFRICA HARvEST’S TC BANANA PROjECTS

The project used a holistic approach based on a WVC strategy, recognizing the roles of the banana producers and the various stakeholders. One of the key outcomes was the process of mobilizing farmer groups. In total, 46 groups were formed or resurrected during the project. When farmers join a group, they become empowered in many ways and can access a wide range of support services in addition to making the most of the TC banana technology package.

In all, 1691 participating farmers planted 83,474 TC plantlets (56 ha), an average of 50 plantlets per farmer. Africa Harvest staff were careful to ensure that even farmers with very small holdings were included, since they are the most vulnerable to malnutrition, poverty and hunger.

Africa Harvest helped set up new satellite nurseries to make plantlets available in closer proximity to the farmers at a subsidized price. For example, as part of Wangu Investments, four farmer entrepreneurs established plantlet nurseries with a holding capacity of between 3000 and 5000 seedlings in Kandara, Maragua, Meru and Murang’a.

The project established 28 demonstration plots (one for each new group formed) and trained the farmers in orchard establishment, good agronomic practices and integrated pest management. The farmers also received advice on how to harvest and handle the bananas to ensure the fruit was brought to market in the best condition. Training on how to recognize different quality grades of bananas helped them to get better prices for their fruit. Each new group also established their own revolving fund, providing credit facilities to each member of the group in turn. Selected farmers (26 in all) were trained in extension skills so they could pass on their newfound knowledge to

While the KARI–ISAAA project had a successful outcome in disseminating the TC banana technology to a large number of farmers, by 2002 there were two major constraints limiting further progress. Firstly, farmers found it difficult to access TC planting materials, which were too costly and not produced in large enough quantities or close enough to the farming communities. Secondly, they had trouble marketing their fruit, since the quality and quantity produced was unreliable, they lacked information on where they could sell it, and it was difficult to organize delivery to distant urban markets.

Africa Harvest was able to secure funding to continue the TC banana work and has built all subsequent initiatives on the experiences and lessons already learned. The ultimate goal is to achieve a sound project model with long-term sustainability that can be scaled up within Kenya and scaled out to other countries in Africa, thereby having a wide impact on poverty, hunger and malnutrition.

Developing a pro-poor TC banana industry (2003–2006)The first project initiated by Africa Harvest was again funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. While Africa Harvest provided overall leadership and coordination, TechnoServe joined as an important collaborator. The project’s first phase ran from 2003 to 2006, with its main objectives being to:

Subsidize the cost of TC plantlets to first-time buyers Organize farmers’ groups and train them how to improve fruit quality and quantityImprove market information and access Develop small-scale regional nurseries to enhance seedling availability and affordability.

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A Decade of Dedication 133. Building Banana Businesses

others. TechnoServe was instrumental in many aspects of the training (see box on p. 15) and successfully introducing the half-ripe banana (as opposed to the fully ripe banana) to the Nairobi market. The half-ripe banana is easier to transport and has a slightly longer shelf-life.

Networking with other development partners has given the farmer groups access to additional project outputs, e.g. the Dairy Goat Association of Kenya, Pioneer hybrid varieties of maize, Neem tree products via the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and soil fertility improvement through the Farm Input Promotion Scheme (FIPS).

In April 2006, the team organized a special field day to recognize 10 years of support from the Rockefeller Foundation for the banana industry in Kenya. The event brought together a wide group of stakeholders, including all the farmers who participated in the 2003–2006 programme. The idea was to promote farmer-to-farmer exchange and reward those who had excelled. In all, 1700 farmers, two members of parliament, 65 guests from the public sector, government institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and donor organizations, and more than 20 exhibitors participated. The event created wide recognition of the potential of TC bananas to reduce poverty and promote food security.

Activities to raise awareness of the TC banana technology outside the project boundaries made use of trade fairs, newspapers, radio and TV. For example, the project was promoted at four district-level fairs in Central Province organized by the Ministry of Agriculture and TC bananas were featured on several radio programmes. An estimated 3 million people watched an episode of the show Sauti ya Mkulima on Citizen Television featuring the Ngararia farmers’ group. As a result of these activities and private-sector advertising, an additional 2000 households have been reached. Private-sector partners have set

up hardening nurseries in Eldoret, and Kiambu, Laikipia and Nyeri Districts.

Africa Harvest staff also worked with Ministry of Agriculture extension personnel, training them how to transfer the TC banana technology package to farmers. The tactic was helped by the current government strategy of empowering rural agricultural communities by forming common interest groups. A number of these groups were linked to Africa Harvest by extension field workers.

Capacity building of scientists and Africa Harvest field extension staff was undertaken to provide a sound base for future expansion of the TC banana technology dissemination activities. The training included:

Training on TC banana technology – micro-propagation and laboratory processes, Africa Harvest, TechnoServe and GTL 2003Banana hardening nursery management, Aberdare Technologies Limited (ATL) – GTL, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 2003Group mobilization and credit management training – BEAM Business Options 2004Integrated pest management training – Tengeru Research Station, Tanzania 2005.

Emerging issuesThe project duration (3 years) was too short to permit adequate group formation, technology transfer, change in agronomic practices and follow-up. This resulted in some groups (21%) failing to mature and farmers who joined late were unable to benefit fully from training activities. Farmer trainers also gained only limited experience.

Ripening abnormalities were investigated by KARI researchers, who found the problem was related to a deficiency of potassium in the soil. Although the magnitude of the problem is unknown, it represents a constraint to some farmers and underlines the importance of mapping soil fertility status before introducing TC bananas into a new area.

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Availability of TC planting material is an ongoing issue since demand continues to outstrip supply. For example, farmers in Meru paid JKUAT for their plantlets in advance, but were put on a waiting list. In the first year of the project, Africa Harvest placed an order for 40,000 plantlets but only 6000 were procured. JKUAT and KARI laboratories are important sources of materials but they cannot meet the demand. There is a need for additional private-sector partners who can produce the plantlets at a price that farmers can afford.

The project has focused on dessert bananas but there is also a need for good quality TC cooking bananas. Cooking varieties that are certified disease-free are not available in commercial quantities in Kenya. TC cooking bananas are available in Uganda, but the lack of a virus-indexing facility in East Africa prohibits their importation. There is therefore an urgent need to introduce a virus-indexing facility.

Strict quality control standards and quality assurance management is essential to limit the somaclonal variations (mutations) that can occur in TC bananas. For farmers, obtaining mutant planting material is a significant financial loss even if the planting material is replaced. There is a need to put in place regulations, standards, guidelines and enforcement mechanisms to ensure that TC laboratories producing plantlets for sale meet the commercially acceptable standard of less than 2% somaclonal variation.

Lessons learnedAny project intended for scaling up must have strong in-built sustainability components. This project paid attention to building the capacity of Ministry of Agriculture extension staff, mobilizing groups through a comprehensive group formation and training process, training farmer-trainers, establishing hardening nurseries, linking with supply sources, developing entrepreneurial skills and forming partnerships with other agencies. In addition, improving access to markets was

a fundamental component of the project’s sustainability strategy.

Subsidies and revolving funds were vital. Without them, the farmers could not afford to buy TC banana plantlets. Keeping in view the high cost of establishing a TC banana plantation, provision for group revolving funds or access to more formal credit facilities should be an essential component of up-scaling efforts.

As banana moves from being a subsistence to a commercial crop, it is essential to consider the gender dynamics (see Chapter 4).

A second phaseThe project success and remaining challenges prompted Rockefeller to fund a second phase (2007–2008). The aim is to increase the number of TC banana adopters with a target number of 5500 farmers. In its first year, the project had unprecedented success. The proportion of farmers contacted who adopted the technology rose from 15% in Phase 1 to over 50% in Phase II (6616 farmers were reached and 3050 adopted). A total of 71,247 plantlets have been planted on 48 ha.

The increased rate of adoption has been attributed to the strong marketing pull now exerted by the TechnoServe–Africa Harvest partnership (see box). Because fruit marketing centres already exist in most of the target districts, the farmers know they will have a market for the crop and the chance to negotiate a good price.

Chura Community TC Banana Project (2004–2006)Chura Village is located in Wangige, about 20km west of Nairobi in Kiambu District. The 10,000 families in this peri-urban area are mostly resource-poor small-scale farmers whose main agricultural crops are maize and leafy vegetables,


Africa Harvest and TechnoServe: working together to clear the marketing roadblocks

From the beginning in 2002, it was clear to Africa Harvest

that the TC banana technology would not have a large-

scale impact on poverty unless the growers were linked

more productively to the markets and could benefit

from better prices. “At that time, there was no banana

industry,” says Henry Kinyua, Senior Business Adviser

for TechnoServe Kenya. “On one side, the growers were

asking: where is the market? And on the other, the buyers

wanted to know: where are the bananas? It was a bit like a

leaking pipe: the profit in banana enterprises was being lost

through inefficiencies all along the chain.”

TechnoServe was founded by US businessman Ed Bullard

in 1968. His work was guided by two core principles,

revolutionary at the time: the power of private enterprise to transform people’s lives, and the lasting value of providing a hand-

up rather than a hand-out. Today, TechnoServe focuses on developing entrepreneurs, building businesses and industries, and

improving the business environment. Its work revolves around helping the poor to identify and capitalize on good business

opportunities that have potential to transform their lives, by generating jobs and markets for their products and services.

While TechnoServe has been active in Kenya since 1975, the partnership with Africa Harvest began in 2003. The collaboration

supports the aims of both organizations by bringing a more integrated approach to market chain development. “Building

partnerships is not easy but if you focus on the key objectives it helps all partners to build on their strengths,” says Kinyua.

While Africa Harvest focuses on bringing farmers together to form cohesive

groups, through which they learn good agronomic practices and can access TC

plantlets, TechnoServe builds on this work by providing the mobilized groups

with training in preparing the fruit for market, negotiating with buyers, selecting

markets, and maintaining sales records and bank accounts. TechnoServe staff

introduce buyers to the groups and oversee price negotiations. TechnoServe also

helps farmer groups to explore different credit options, including commercial

banks, micro-finance providers and sources of venture capital. “We don’t keep the

groups to ourselves either,” says Kinyua. “We link them to other developmental

NGOs so the farmers can get help to address additional aspects of their farming

enterprises such as installing a shallow well or acquiring a dairy cow.”

Kinyua sees the future of the fledgling banana industry in Kenya as very bright.

He believes that involving the private sector is the key to making banana

enterprises sustainable. And that the Africa Harvest–TechnoServe partnership

has developed a working model that can now be scaled up to have real impact on

poverty, hunger and malnutrition throughout the region.

Lack of water is a major constraint to increasing TC banana production. TechnoServe links farmers to other developmental organizations, such as those helping farmers to install shallow wells.

The TechnoServe–Africa Harvest partnership helps farmers to forge more productive links with their markets so they can benefit from better prices.


grown for home consumption and income generation. Landholdings are small, ranging from 0.08 to 0.73 ha and decades of poor agronomic practices and lack of inputs have adversely affected the soil fertility.

Prior to the project, the Rotary Club of Nairobi had been providing temporary relief in the form of food donations, since the families were finding it difficult to grow enough food to eat and their income from vegetable sales was becoming increasingly unpredictable. Pests and diseases had taken their toll on bananas too and, as a result, the area planted to banana in Chura had fallen from 136 ha in 2002 to 117 ha in 2004.

With funding from DuPont, the Chura project was designed to demonstrate how public–private partnerships can help fight hunger, malnutrition and poverty in a peri-urban community. The goal of the project was to undertake sustainable community development for the alleviation of hunger and poverty by increasing banana production.

Africa Harvest again adopted a holistic WVC approach by establishing demand, adapting the response of the supply side and linking producers with the market. The specific objectives of the project were to: 1. Enhance the farmers’ access to TC banana

plantlets 2. Organize farmers into groups to access

knowledge, materials and plantlets 3. Enhance market access for the banana

produce in an organized and sustainable banana marketing system

4. Empower farmers through a banana growers’ and marketing association for long-term project sustainability.

The project team first undertook a baseline study of the community. They observed that the majority of the able-bodied men were travelling to Nairobi every day to work, leaving the women in charge of

growing food and cash crops such as cauliflower and coriander. Community members did not believe that banana was a viable alternative, since a banana orchard ties up the land for many years and, in their experience, yields and income from banana were insufficient to support a family. The project team therefore had to plan their approach carefully.

They began by creating awareness through public seminars and opportunities for the Chura farmers to talk to other farmers who were already “sold” on the idea. Exchange visits helped the farmers to see for themselves the improved yields obtained from TC bananas. Comparative analysis of total production costs and returns (gross margins) for TC banana versus other crops also helped prospective adopters to “buy in” and make an informed decision about adoption.

The team then helped the farmers set up their own groups (145 were formed). The members benefited from all the advantages of group formation experienced in the Rockefeller-funded project, described above. Each group established its own revolving fund, which enabled the farmers to save money for TC banana plantlets. Good quality plantlets were made available at an affordable price through a 60% subsidy and three satellite nurseries were established with a capacity of 5000 plantlets.

A total of 135 demonstration sites were set up on local farms and the team used these to raise awareness and educate prospective adopters how to manage the TC bananas for maximum yield and income. In total, 3712 farmers established TC banana orchards, planting 70,785 TC plantlets on 42.5 ha (approx. 1666 plants per ha). All adopting farmers received training in orchard establishment and management and post-harvest handling. Some attended additional sessions on integrated pest management.

Seven graduates from the community were hired as interns and given training in TC banana


agronomy; they then provided five weeks of hands-on services to the farmers. Farmers (105 in total) were also trained as trainers and provided with training handouts and booklets. They are now able to support other farmers in the group for a nominal fee.

Africa Harvest addressed the issue of marketing right from the start of the project by forming TCBEL, a farmer-owned marketing company (see box), and establishing seven bulking and collection centres on the farms. The farmers learned how to increase their incomes by selling by weight rather than by the bunch, and by introducing variable pricing for different grades of bananas. Some farmers have been trained as graders, and they work with TCBEL to identify banana bunches with the correct maturity for marketing and to assist with grading for a set fee per bunch.

Outreach beyond the project area was achieved through various media. Three articles have been

published in two daily newspapers and the Chura story was featured on two TV programmes. In addition, a TV documentary describing the WVC was aired on all Kenya’s local TV networks. Advertisements for TC banana plantlets have appeared on local radio stations.

Capacity building of Africa Harvest staff included the following:

Training in farming as a business – Agricultural Cooperative Development International and Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI/VOCA) 2004 Post-harvest and quality enhancement of commercial bananas – KARI (Thika) on several occasions in 2007 and 2008Horticultural competitiveness – TechnoServe 2006Value addition and solar drying – Kiburi Food Processors 2006Commoditizing the banana fruit – TCBEL 2005Chura Community Tissue Culture Banana Project – DuPont/Pioneer 2004

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Banana is traditionally a women’s crop, often providing women with an income of their own. The tendency for the men to take over once an orchard begins to make good money has implications for the wellbeing of some families. Here, six women from Chura share their stories with Julia Kagunda from Africa Harvest (right) and Sue Parrott from Green Ink (second right)


Biotechnology media issues – Ministry of Agriculture 2004/5Investing in the stock exchange: financing agro-processing – Nairobi Stock Exchange 2006Travelling workshop to Tanzania 2006

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Agro-processing stakeholders’ consultative workshop – KARI 2006Consultative workshop on implementation of the National Agricultural Extension Policy Framework – KARI 2006.

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Linking the chain: a farmer-owned marketing company

Africa Harvest is constantly looking at new ways to address

the challenges thrown up by the TC banana projects. In a

novel approach to bringing farmers closer to the market and

ensuring they receive a fair income, the project staff have

helped and financed the Chura farmers to start their own

marketing company, TCBEL.

TCBEL is predominantly farmer-owned, with farmers

represented on the Board of Directors. The current Chairman

of the Board is a farmer who is rated the best banana farmer

in Chura. The company’s stated mission is to ”Market

banana fruits derived predominantly from tissue culture, and

to produce and distribute related products to farmers, while

incorporating farmers as shareholders and increasing the value of investment for the shareholders.”

“We are the only company in Kenya dealing with bananas in an organized way,” says Julius Nyabicha, TCBEL General Manager.

“Our competitive edge is based on quality and a shorter market chain.” The company hopes to attract further private investment

that will allow it to expand. It will also develop new strategies to address the Kenyan banana market’s currently disaggregated and

inefficient pricing structure that exploits the farmers, who receive only a minute proportion of the ultimate market price.

TCBEL purchases bananas from the farmers and markets the produce through various channels. Bananas are harvested and the

farmers take them to designated collection points where they are de-handed, clustered, washed, graded and packed into crates to

be collected by the company. Africa Harvest has trained the farmers to do all these activities by themselves. TCBEL is expanding

its sales to three different market segments: a) low-value mass market, e.g. open-air market stalls; b) middle or institutional

market, e.g. schools and hospitals; and c) top end, e.g. supermarkets and hotels. Branding the bananas as “TCBEL” is helping to

create customer loyalty, since the TC bananas tend to have a longer shelf life and sweeter taste than non-TC fruit.

Currently, TCBEL’s efforts are concentrated around the Chura TC banana farmers, but the ultimate aim is to roll out its

operations to national level. This entails the involvement of TCBEL in establishing market linkages with top-end markets such

as supermarkets, institutional buyers, catering companies, service providers and retail outlets. The company is already involved

in organized product aggregation and the setting up of bulking centres; proper handling, grading and transporting processes;

ripening and warehousing facilities; and setting industry standards and regulations.

Julius Nyabicha (General Manager) and Josephine Njeri (Office Administrator) outside the offices of TCBEL in Wangige, near Nairobi. Africa Harvest currently subsidizes staff salaries in TCBEL but hopes the company will be fully self-funding from January 2008


Emerging issuesLack of water emerged as one of the most pressing concerns in Chura community. TC banana plantlets need water to become established after planting and this should not present a problem if they are planted at the onset of the rainy season. However, recent erratic and delayed rainfall patterns have prevented some farmers from investing in the plantlets. Some who have access to cash or credit have invested in simple water pumps to extract water from shallow wells.

Improved orchard hygiene has helped most farmers to control incidences of diseases such as Cigar end rot and Butt rot. Thrips occurred in the very dry months on 200 farms of higher elevation. Africa Harvest sought expert advice when needed from pathologists in Tanzania and from CSIR in South Africa.

Off types (mutants) were observed in 1% of the plants and resulted in poor quality produce

or even complete failure to produce fruits. It is therefore necessary to put in place a strict quality control mechanism for certification of plantlets.

Maintenance of soil fertility has been a major challenge, particularly because the banana plants take nutrients from the soil and farmers are traditionally not accustomed to applying manures or fertilizers to bananas. The farmers need to be persuaded continuously to use recommended doses of inputs.

Poor fruit quality is due primarily to poor harvesting skills, inappropriate transport systems and lack of robust ripening facilities. Farmers’ training on these aspects is very important.

TC banana laboratories and nurseries in Kenya mainly carry the Cavendish dessert type of banana, but farmers also want cooking varieties in their orchards. There is a need to produce more TC plantlets of cooking varieties.

Being part of a group has made a big difference to the Chura farmers, helping them to access sources of credit and education as well as development support from agencies other than Africa Harvest


Lessons learnedExperience gained while implementing the Chura project has yielded several lessons. One is that water conservation, management and harnessing should be incorporated as an essential component in the strategy for scaling-up the programme. This apart, a longer project cycle is needed to develop strong groups, support and encourage farmers in good agronomic practices and to provide the technical backup needed to address the issues and concerns of TC banana farmers. Farmers are being asked to make significant changes in their management of bananas, such as applying fertilizer and manure,

managing and selecting suckers, and applying water, while pests and diseases present an ongoing challenge.

Good post-harvest handling has been identified as an essential component of ensuring the fruit that goes to market is of the highest quality. Strong support throughout the value chain is therefore important. The use of farmer-trainers is an important concept, however, farmer-trainers need support through several value chain cycles to build their confidence and hands-on skills. For a crop like banana, the ideal project cycle appears to be five to seven years.

Zipporah’s story

Zipporah Warira Muchai remembers well the day her first TC

banana flowered. “It was in April 2005, less than a year after

I planted it, and I was so excited,” she says. Zipporah is 56

and, since her husband died, she has been the family’s main

breadwinner. She acquired her bananas through the Mwirimiri

Mugunda banana growers group, based in the area around

Gathiga village in the Chura community. Although she was

sceptical initially, she decided to invest in TC bananas after

hearing about the profits others were making. “I bought 67

plantlets immediately to take advantage of the subsidized

price,” she said. “God is faithful and I had money at hand

from our women’s merry-go-round savings group.”

Zipporah’s first banana harvest brought in KSh10,300 (US$147). “Now I am happy since every month I have a consistent

income of about KSh3,400 (US$50) from my bananas, which are sold through TCBEL,” she says. “The beauty of banana

farming as a business is that I don’t fear being conned by a broker, as has happened in the past with my vegetables.”

Zipporah’s vision is to use her banana profits to expand her cowshed to accommodate her three dairy cows and to resume

construction on her new stone house, which has remained unfinished since her husband died. “I will not live in a shanty

all my life,” she declares. She also hopes to educate her grandchildren up to university level and to invest in further farm

enterprises, starting with organic poultry.

Zipporah’s success illustrates how TC banana farming can generate food and income security, even on a small scale. What

is particularly important is that bananas provide a regular income that allows farmers to invest in savings schemes and fund

additional farm enterprises. The role of TCBEL in providing a good price and a reliable market is vital to the farm business

development.

Zipporah shows off the wheelbarrow she bought with the proceeds from her TC bananas. This simple tool makes many of her farm tasks quicker and easier


Addressing a hidden threat: Banana virus-indexing While TC bananas offer major advantages to farmers in providing planting material that is free from pests and some diseases, the TC process does not eliminate viral diseases such as the one caused by the banana streak virus. Viruses in banana and other food crops cause substantial yield losses, but because they are difficult to identify, historically they have received little research attention. There is an urgent need to integrate virus-indexing into the TC banana propagation system. The success of banana production in East Africa will depend on institutionalization of virus-indexing and control of somaclonal variants as a mandatory process in banana TC, and in the establishment of an effective regulatory system to enforce it. Currently,

Africa Harvest is one of very few organizations in East Africa supplying farmers with certified disease-free TC banana plantlets imported from South Africa.

The Africa Harvest-led virus-indexing project aims to enhance capacity throughout East Africa to produce clean banana planting materials. Working closely with KARI and the national agricultural research systems (NARS) in Tanzania and Uganda, the role of Africa Harvest is to:

Help set up virus-indexing facilities within the NARS of Kenya, Tanzania and UgandaPromote formal government certification of the material produced from TC laboratories Encourage and oversee virus-indexing in both public and private TC laboratories Help laboratories set up quality control systems to limit occurrence of somaclonal variants and promote good nursery practices.

Ultimately, it is the farmers who will benefit from an overall improvement in the quality of the TC banana plantlets, since if they lose their hard-won investment to viral attack, they may not be able or willing to reinvest in a more hopeful future. However, private-sector entrepreneurs will also benefit by being able to offer planting material that is certified “clean” since they may be able to charge a premium and thus secure repeat business from satisfied customers. Because Africa Harvest has already established links and credibility with farmers, private-sector laboratories, nurseries and NARS, the organization is ideally placed to bring together the demand and supply for virus-indexing.

Progress so far includes running a stakeholders’ workshop in Nairobi, developing the project work plan and conducting a banana virus-indexing baseline survey, testing for six viruses of economic importance to bananas in East Africa. This survey will provide information and data to guide the development of an implementation strategy.

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Banana viruses cause substantial yield losses throughout East Africa

A Decade of Dedication22 4. Making a Difference

4. MAKINg A DIFFERENCE: THE IMPACT OF TC BANANAS IN KENyA

estimated to have increased to around 4300 ha or 5.2% of the total, a trend that is likely to continue.

Costs, returns and net incomeThe profitability of a perennial crop like banana depends on the cost of establishment, the life cycle of the orchard and the yield over the life of the orchard. Based on the results of Qaim (1999), Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007) worked out the average yields from a non-TC and a TC banana orchard, assuming a life cycle of 14 years (Figure 2). When non-TC bananas are planted, no yield is expected in the first year, but in the case of TC bananas, the grower can get a reasonably good yield even in the first year (around 11.48 t/acre or 4.65 t/ha). The peak yield with non-TC bananas (9.70 t/acre or 3.92 t/ha) is achieved in the third year, after which the yields start declining. With TC banana plantations, while yields start declining from the fourth year onward, the decline is less marked. Overall, the average yield from TC bananas is considerably higher (2.2 times more) than from non-TC bananas.

The results of the TC banana projects undertaken in Kenya demonstrate that the technology is appropriate for and can be managed by small-scale farmers. The higher banana yields not only satisfy home consumption, but also create surpluses for sale in the marketplace. Income from this activity can do much to reduce poverty and upgrade the social welfare of rural families and communities. As a direct result of adopting TC bananas, many farmers have been able to raise themselves out of poverty and to begin investing in the future of their farms as viable businesses.

Growth in TC plantlet production and farmer adoptionAcharya and Alton Mackey (2007) estimate Kenya’s current annual TC plantlet production to be around 750,000 plantlets and the number of plantlets produced to date to be almost 6 million (Table 1). The same study estimates that the area planted to TC banana in Kenya in 2004 was about 3200 ha, equivalent to almost 4% of the total area planted to bananas. By the end of 2006 this was

Table 1: Production of TC Banana Plantlets in Kenya

Nursery/ organization

Plantlets produced per year

Total plantlets supplied up to end

2004

Estimated production

2005/6

Cumulative production to end

2006

JKUAT 150,000 1,200,000 300,000 1,500,000

GTL 500,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 4,000,000

KARI 8,000 34,000 16,000 50,000

ATL 80,000 165,000 160,000 325,000

Others 15,000 50,000 30,000 80,000

Total 753,000 4,449,100 1,506,000 5,955,000

Source: Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007)

A Decade of Dedication 234. Making a Difference

Table 2 compares the costs and returns from TC and non-TC bananas. The costs are divided into establishment costs (e.g. land preparation and purchase of plantlets) and recurring annual costs (e.g. manure, fertilizer, watering, weeding, de-suckering and harvesting). The average establishment cost of a TC banana orchard is considerably higher than that of non-TC banana orchard, due mainly to the cost of the TC plantlets. The annual recurring cost of TC bananas is also higher due to the need for inputs and improved orchard management. However, even with the high establishment costs, the net income accruing to the banana grower is 145% higher from TC bananas. Returns on labour are also higher from TC bananas.

Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007) also estimated the unit cost of production. The results indicated that the cost of producing a tonne of TC bananas is KSh 1210, (US$20) compared to KSh 1314 (US$21) for non-TC bananas. Thus, from

all considerations, including yields, cash income, net income, labour income and unit cost of production, TC banana technology is superior to non-TC. The only point of concern is that the net gains are achieved only when the banana grower invests a considerable amount of effort in improved management of the TC banana orchard.

Farmers are also interested in knowing how the returns from growing TC bananas compare with other crops. Table 3 shows that the net returns from maize, beans, Irish potato, kale and spinach are considerably lower than from TC bananas (even when the farmer can harvest two crops per year). Especially considering that the care and management needed for most vegetables is more complicated, perishability is higher, and the risks of pests and diseases are higher, despite visibly higher returns from some vegetables, the superiority of TC bananas under Kenyan rural conditions is beyond doubt.

Figure 2: yields of TC versus Non-TC Bananas

Year

10

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Yield (t/ha)

Source: Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007) using data from Qaim (1999)

Difference

TC bananas

Non-TC bananas


Economic, social and technical impact of TC banana in KenyaEconomic impactIn addition to its value in food security, an estimated 300,000 Kenyan rural families rely on banana to provide them with a regular cash income. The importance of banana in tackling the problems of poverty, food insecurity and malnutrition in Kenya is therefore clear.

TC bananas helped Kenyan farmers recover from the setback in banana yields that occurred during

the mid-1990s. The area under banana, which had declined to around 46,000 ha at the end of 1996, has risen dramatically and was estimated to be around 82,000 by the end of 2006. This increase in banana orchards is equivalent to an additional net income of KSh 5508 million accruing to the banana growers (Acharya and Alton Mackey, 2007). While not all the additional area was planted to TC bananas, the TC project message increased awareness of the value of bananas and gave growers renewed faith in their orchards.

Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007) have estimated the direct economic impact of TC bananas. Taking

Table 2: Costs and Returns from TC versus Non-TC Bananas (1998 figures)

Small-scale farm (0.37)

Medium-scale farm (0.41)

Large-scale farm (0.22)

weighted average (1.00)

(A) Non-TC banana

Establishment cost (KSh/acre) 8596 10262 15059 10786

Recurring annual costs (KSh/acre) 4791 5839 7990 5924

Cost annuity (KSh/acre) 5996 7248 9992 7388

Average yield (t/acre) 1.76 2.27 3.06 2.26*

Income annuity (KSh/acre) 23774 29312 38002 29174

Net income per year (KSh/acre) 17778 22064 28010 21786

Return per labour day (KSh/acre) 929 904 858 903

Unit cost (KSh per tonne) 1313 1292 1357 1314

(B) TC banana

Establishment cost (KSh/acre) 44439 46309 50335 46503

Recurring annual costs (KSh/acre) 8049 9777 12665 9773

Cost annuity (KSh/acre) 13815 15774 19159 15794

Average yield (t/acre) 4.41 5.27 5.91 5.10*

Income annuity (KSh/acre) 60853 71744 78388 69176

Net income per year (KSh/acre) 47038 55970 59229 53382

Return per labour day (KSh/acre) 1251 1271 1211 1250

Unit Cost (KSh per t) 1206 1175 1280 1210

Source: Qaim (1999)

* Average yield figures are slightly different from those given in Figure 2 since these are weighted averages of three size groups, while Figure 2 shows simple averages.


the area under TC bananas as 4288 ha (5.22% of the total banana area) and the difference in net income between TC and non-TC banana (KSh 224,526 per ha), the additional income that accrued to TC banana growers (by adopting TC in place of non-TC bananas works out to around KSh 963 million. Adding this to the indirect impact of KSh 5508 million results in a total economic impact of KSh 6471 million (US$105 million).

This figure represents additional income or food predominantly for smallholder farming families. The introduction of TC bananas has therefore had a considerable impact on the food security, nutrition and economic status of the rural poor. In addition, bananas provide an almost continuous income flow throughout the year, even under low-input regimes, while banana suckers and leaves are a useful source of animal fodder, particularly during the dry season when little else is available.

Apart from the additional income, introduction of TC bananas and the revival of the banana economy has had a multiplier effect on the rest of the Kenya’s economy by providing employment and economic or business opportunities to village assemblies, wholesalers, urban retailers, transporters, labourers in wholesale markets, manufacturers of packaging materials and agricultural labour households.

Increased production of banana has also helped poor urban and other consumers by keeping the retail price at an affordable level.

Social impactAt the family level, a TC banana plantation is an important asset, since it provides food security. Some families reported that, after adopting TC bananas, they did not need to accept food aid for the first time in their lives when there was a drought in their area. Malnutrition has also

Table 3: Net Income from TC Bananas versus Alternative Crops

CropCost

(KSh/acre/year)Return

(KSh/acre/year)Net income

(KSh/acre/year)

Cabbage 49,800 200 bags × 1000 = 200,000 150,200

Tomato 39,760 8 tonnes × 15,000 = 120,000 80,240

Kale 35,220 150 bags × 400 = 60,000 24,800

Spinach 37,800 200 bags × 400 = 80,000 42,200

Irish Potato 61,960 70 bags × 1000 = 70,000 8040

Beans 20,800 8 bags × 3000 = 24,000 3200

Maize 30,000 25 bags × 1200 = 30,000 –

Lettuce 40,770 300 bags × 400 =120,000 79,230

Cauliflower 36,660 150 bags × 2250 = 337,500 300,840

TC banana (year 1) 98,100 490 bunches × 312.50* = 153,125 55,025

TC banana(years 2–5) 31,900 1080 bunches × 312.50* = 337,500 305,600

Source: Mbogoh et al. (2004) Figures are for one crop per year*Assumes price paid for bananas is KSh14,200 (US$230) per t, which may be on the high side since according to Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007), farmers were getting an average of KSh 11,000 (US$179) per t in 2006


decreased; in addition to the nutritional value of eating the bananas, the families’ diets have become more diverse, since the income from selling bananas can be used to buy other types of food.

Increased family income has led to improvements in other quality-of-life indicators, including ability to pay secondary school fees, improved housing, healthcare and diversification of farm enterprises. Since it is traditionally the women who grow and sell bananas, adopting TC bananas has empowered them and given them the means to take better care of their families, particularly the children. At the same time, the banana income has helped to promote more equality in family decision-making.

There is a theoretical danger that the increased value of bananas as a cash crop could encourage smallholders to sell all their bananas, thereby having an adverse effect on household nutrition. However, the strategy adopted by Africa Harvest that teaches farmers to sell by grade, means that the lower-grade bananas are more likely to be kept for home consumption. Indeed, project staff estimate that banana-growing families are now eating even more bananas.

At community level, formation of cohesive farmer groups has empowered farmers to seek solutions to a range of community issues and concerns in addition to those of agronomy. For example, the Chura groups have lobbied local government for better road access. The groups also provide an entry point for other development activities, such as provision of dairy cows and wells. One of the most important is improved access to credit, through revolving funds or micro-credit schemes.

Group benefits arising from the TC banana projects include:

Food security improved and incomes roseSocial cohesion was enhanced and the group

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could present a collective voice for community improvementAccess to additional development activities was much easierThe groups could access credit, and use the money to buy plantlets or other inputsThey increased their knowledge Their status in society was enhancedThey developed new business and entrepreneurial attitudes.

Technical impactThe availability of large quantities of clean and superior planting material has enabled participating farmers to reclaim their old banana orchards and reduce losses due to pests and diseases. Because TC bananas grow faster and mature earlier than traditional varieties, farmers can benefit from increased productivity per unit of time. At the same time, they are harvesting better quality and larger bunches. The farmers now know how to manage their orchards for maximum productivity. Harvesting and marketing is more efficient due to the more uniform and simultaneous production of large quantities of bananas.

Gender issuesAs the TC technology spreads and banana moves from being a subsistence to a commercial crop, it is important to consider the gender dynamics. Banana is traditionally an important source of income for women. For example, in Maragua, women control the income from bananas in 89% of households. In the initial groups established to promote and support the introduction of TC bananas, 56% of the members were women. However, only 30% of the members in the new groups are women. It appears that, once a banana orchard begins to make a good profit, the men will try to take over the enterprise. Reports indicate that in some instances where marketing is done through the group, even though the woman is the member of the group, the man has approached the treasurer for the money from the sale of

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Ngararia farmers pull together

African smallholders as individuals face seemingly

insurmountable obstacles to increasing the productivity of

their farms. On one hand, they either cannot afford or do

not want to risk buying inputs or investing more time in their

crops because there may not be a market for the surplus; and

on the other, the inputs they need are not available or are

prohibitively expensive because there is insufficient demand

to support the services and private companies that could

supply them.

Strong farmers groups are the key to overcoming many such

problems. Groups build on the Kenyan tradition of harambee,

which means pulling together to achieve more than you

can as an individual. As a group member, a farmer can take

advantage of financial help to buy planting materials or fertilizers, and a group can hire a truck to take their pooled harvest to

a city market. Groups also help farmers exchange experiences and learn new skills, often with the help of specialist support

and facilitation. In time, groups can develop into community-based enterprises and add value to the crop through processing

activities.

The Ngararia farmers’ group now has more men than women, a sure sign that money is being made. The group meets at the

farm of Julius Njoroge, located about 50km north of Nairobi in Maragua District. Njoroge has planted 0.2 ha – one third of

his farm – with TC banana. “We are now convinced that TC banana is the best cash crop for this area,” he says. “The price

is good and once the orchard is established, the plants don’t need too much labour. There is far less weeding to do than with

maize or vegetables.”

Like the other group members, Njoroge puts part of his banana profits into the group fund. With the help of TechnoServe,

they are using the money to set up their own marketing company so they can attract bigger buyers, cut out the middlemen,

and achieve a better price per bunch. “The market is there; we just need to get organized so that between us we can supply

a large quantity of fruit on a regular basis,” explains Njoroge. The group are now keeping proper records, so they can begin

to forecast how much they will harvest and when, and to investigate how to increase their profitability.

“If we could get more water, we could grow bigger bunches,” says Njoroge, who has sunk a shallow well, but still finds water

a constraint. “So we are looking into how we can get a borehole and install electricity for pumping.”

When they are asked about how growing TC bananas and being in the group has improved their lives, the members list

many aspects. Having enough to eat is a major benefit in itself, and being able to buy salt, sugar and new clothes are further

considerable improvements. But the members also express a newfound hope in the future, and this is the most important aspect

for keeping the project momentum going. Some members have bought dairy goats, which provide an additional income as well

as nutritious milk for their children. Others say they feel more comfortable and can make choices now, or that they are no longer

embarrassed when they cannot contribute to the church collection. Njoroge particularly welcomes the change in the mindset of

his children. “They are learning how to be business people, not just growers of food, and I have hope for their future.”

The Ngararia farmers meet on a regular basis. In addition to group saving, they give each other advice and identify ways to jointly fulfil group members’ needs.


bananas. Because men and women often have different priorities for income, erosion of women’s income may have a negative effect on the family’s health and living standards.

Opportunities for farmer-to-farmer exchange and training are more often taken up by men. In the Rockefeller-funded, Africa Harvest-led project, only four of the 26 farmers trained as farmer-trainers were women, while farmer-to-farmer exchange set up for the Kandara farmers attracted no women at all. There may be a need to provide additional support for women (who have family responsibilities) to fully participate in learning opportunities, and gender issues in programme planning and implementation will need to be carefully considered.

Building institutional capacity and partnershipsAfrica Harvest’s core staff have been appointed to ensure the organization has valuable experience drawn from public-sector agricultural research institutions and private-sector multinational corporations and local private-sector agri-biotech companies. This mix of experiences is critical to forging successful public–private sector relationships. This is the reason why Africa Harvest has been so successful in developing appropriate link-to-market strategies for banana.

Africa Harvest is a strong advocate of creative partnerships with local and international public- and private-sector organizations and NGOs working to build African human capacity and infrastructure. The TC banana initiatives have strengthened the capacities of farmer organizations to participate actively in the generation and dissemination of agricultural technologies, in particular through more proactive partnering with the research and extension systems. At the same time, the on-farm experiences of Africa Harvest have identified additional research questions that need to be answered.

The TC banana projects have had the effect of improving the efficiency, accountability and sustainability of the national agricultural technology generation and advisory systems, including strengthening their linkages with regional and international institutions. For example, through the International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), Africa Harvest helped to import germplasm for cooking varieties into Kenya from South Africa.

The efforts of Africa Harvest and its partners have promoted the development of efficient market chains for the delivery of agricultural technologies and inputs. They have also supported the development, at the regional level, of effective organizations (networks) of producers and

TC banana variety Grand Naine yields big bunches weighing 40–50kg. Banana farmers can double their yields and their incomes when they adopt TC bananas


technology users, research institutions, technology suppliers and policy makers, to facilitate efficient technology transfer across countries. For example, the plan for a virus-indexing facility will be vital for the scaling up and out of TC banana dissemination activities.

The projects implemented by Africa Harvest have been selected by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) and Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) as one of their Dissemination of New Agricultural Technologies in Africa (DONATA) projects for scaling up in Africa. For the FARA DONATA project, Africa Harvest has been selected as the lead organization to help facilitate dissemination of TC banana technology in Africa.

Africa Harvest is also providing technical support to INTERFACE (an NGO with a mission to improve competitiveness of African agribusiness enterprises in 14 countries) in demonstrating the benefits of TC bananas in the Sahel region of Senegal.

Contribution of different stakeholdersWithin a short span of 10 years, the TC banana technology has taken root in Kenya, thanks to the efforts and contributions of international donors, national agricultural research organizations, Africa Harvest, ISAAA, government departments, private-sector enterprises, civil society organizations and the farmers themselves.

The contribution of the major stakeholders can be summarized as follows:

Identified constraints and explored possible solutions in the banana sectorUndertook diffusion and dissemination of the technology to resource-poor farmers using farmer-friendly and unique financial methodologies Sourced funding from donor agencies to

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bridge the gap with which government-funded agricultural institutions like KARI cannot cope Provided technical backstopping services to extension staff and farmersProvided forums where farmers can exchange ideas, e.g. exchange visits, farmer-to-farmer training, travelling workshops and stakeholders’ workshops Packaged biotechnology information into user-friendly forms and disseminated to farmers Worked closely with the Ministry of Agriculture to address policy issues in the banana sector Built the capacity of farmers to adopt and promote the technology by encouraging them to form groups, thereby empowering them and enhancing their bargaining power Formed linkages between different banana sector stakeholders Enabled resource-poor farmers to access clean planting material and knowledge to counteract common banana diseases Changed the mentality and culture of farmers’ view of banana farming from a subsistence crop to a viable business, thereby creating employment and wealth Surveyed and documented relevant information on the WVC and advised farmers accordingly so that they can make informed decisions from production to the final consumption.

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Solar drying of banana is just one option for adding value to the crop through processing


Impact of Africa Harvest’s WVC approachAfrica Harvest’s experience shows that farmers are more likely to adopt a new agricultural technology or enterprise when all the building blocks or links in the production-to-marketing chain are addressed from the beginning of a project. The WVC strategy therefore provides a tried and tested model for introducing new technologies to resource-poor small-scale farmers. The different elements in the TC banana projects were group formation and baseline documentation, availability and affordability of plantlets, orchard establishment and management, harvesting and post-harvest handling, and marketing and value addition.

Awareness creation, group forma-tion and baseline documentationThe value chain has raised awareness through the following activities:

Farmer field schools Involving farmers in project planning, monitoring and evaluation Arranging for new farmers to visit those who had already adopted the technology and to visit market outlets, so they could see the benefits for themselvesPackaging information in a suitable form for farmers to interpret and apply Demonstrating the TC technology package during field days and agricultural showsPromoting the TC technology through the mass media.

Africa Harvest has been successful in mobilizing effective farmer groups. Firstly by working with already formed groups and using them to replicate activities in neighbouring regions through effective demonstrations. Secondly, the Africa Harvest field workers helped build the capacity of the groups by helping them draw up their own constitutions, calling regular meetings and providing training in group dynamics. Such activities have enhanced cohesion and facilitated group management.

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The groups have also received training in how to form their own committees with responsibility for marketing, production, processing and dispute resolution.

The value chain established benchmarks by conducting a baseline survey in each new project area, which documents existing information on banana production and the socio-economic status of the potential recipients of the technology.

Availability and affordability of planting materialsAvailability of planting materials has been improved by sourcing them from private laboratories (GTL and ATL) in addition to public institutions (JKUAT and KARI). The private laboratories have the capacity to produce plantlets in larger quantities, but because they need to make a profit, their costs tend to be higher.

Only limited success has been achieved in making the planting materials more affordable and at present this can be achieved only by subsidizing the purchase price. However, Africa Harvest is making a concerted effort to reduce the cost price by setting up hardening nurseries in the production areas, since this will cut down on transport costs. The project has encouraged private operators to set up community nurseries by providing training. Those who have received training will be able to put their skills into practice and train others in the community. Project staff are also working with the plantlet-producing laboratories to find ways to reduce the cost per plantlet. The team is working with micro-credit institutions to help farmers access loans in kind that can be repaid from the proceeds of the first crop. In addition, ISAAA facilitated a team of Kenyan experts to visit Thailand to investigate the possibility of introducing village laboratories with less-sophisticated equipment as a means of reducing the cost of production. Another option is to request the government to subsidize the cost of the plantlets until sufficient economies of scale


are achieved. ISAAA is in consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture to prepare a policy paper towards this goal.

Africa Harvest has partnered with finance institutions such as the K-Rep Agency to provide micro-credit and further group training/benefits including:

Provision of credit in kind to farmers in the form of plantlets Training farmers in group dynamics Training farmers in farming as a business Training farmers in record keeping, the importance of savings and opening savings accounts of individual members Exposing group members to other packages offered by the micro-credit finance institutions such as smallholder loans.

Training in orchard management and post-harvest handlingTraining activities have been very successful and include modules on land preparation, hole preparation and spacing, planting and orchard management, integrated pest management, and harvesting operations. Farmers have also been trained how to handle their bananas after

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harvesting to ensure that they remain clean and in the best condition. This includes learning how to cut the banana from its stock to avoid injury to the banana fingers, washing the hands of the bananas in a fungicide, preparing a ripening chamber, and organizing collection centres where bananas are sorted and graded.

Marketing and value additionMarketing aspects of the WVC have been addressed through the following:

Linking banana farmers with Highridge Banana Growers and Marketing Association, an institution that aggregates supply and helps secure contracts for farmers. Most buyers want to deal with fewer suppliers to ensure contractual obligations are maintained Linking farmers with Kenya Gatsby Trust (KGT), an NGO that conducts market research and informs farmers of pricing and market trends. KGT also negotiates with buyers on behalf of farmers and facilitates the signing of contracts Facilitating the formation of TCBEL, a farmer-owned marketing companySetting up banana bulking and collection centres.

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Profits from the sale of TC bananas allow smallholders to invest in their farms, by buying dairy cows and installing water tanks. Once they can afford to buy and keep a cow, they no longer consider themselves to be poor. The children are better nourished through drinking milk and the farm income will rise further through milk sales

A Decade of Dedication32 5. Reaching Out

Linking farmers closer to their markets has enabled them to get a better price for their fruit, but there is still potential to reduce losses throughout the marketing chain. Farmers currently receive about 36% of the price paid by the consumer. Transport is a major cost because banana is a bulk commodity and requires careful handling, while assemblers, wholesalers and retailers add a sizeable margin. Further training and organization of farmers in marketing and expansion of outlets like TCBEL would help to reduce the costs of marketing, cut the margins of the middlemen, and help farmers to realize a higher price.

Working with Kiburi Food Processors, the Africa Harvest team is investigating the potential for banana processing. Solar drying is a technology

that could add value and extend the shelf life of the banana fruit. The technology is inexpensive to set up and would be especially useful in adding value to lower-grade fruit. Dried banana can be sold as a healthy snack or milled into flour. Banana flour has many uses: as a sweetener for diabetics, a cooking ingredient or instant baby food. Green banana flour can be used to make matoke, the traditional Kenyan and Ugandan staple food. Mixed with maize flour, processed banana makes a more nutritious form of ugali, the maize porridge that is the main staple of East African diets. In addition to providing an income for farmers, banana processing has wider employment benefits; for example, Kiburi Food Processors already employ 10 people and would like to expand once they have developed the market for their products.

Partnering with the private sector

Africa Harvest believes that public–private partnerships are a powerful

means of developing and disseminating technology suited to the needs of

small-scale farmers. These partnerships may include farmer groups, national

research systems, international research institutes and individual private sector

entrepreneurs.

Paul Muchemi, Managing Director of ATL is a former secondary school teacher

who has established a TC banana hardening nursery and distribution centre.

Africa Harvest provided training and some financial support to get the business

started, but it is now operating independently, supplying plantlets to project

farmers (subsidized by Africa Harvest) and to others, who buy at the full price

of KSh100 per plantlet. By the end of 2006, he will have supplied over 300,000

plantlets. “The demand is there,” says Muchemi. “If Africa Harvest stopped

buying plantlets tomorrow, my business would still continue.”

A large proportion of the plantlets are flown in from laboratories in South Africa. “If production capacity in Kenya could be increased, we could

reduce the price,” says Muchemi. In the dry season, he retards the growth of the plantlets by applying no fertilizer or water. Growth is accelerated

at the onset of the long rains when the demand goes up. He employs over 50 staff including 10 extension workers who advise the farmers who

buy from him. “By adding value and maintaining the quality of my plantlets I make sure the farmers come back to me.”

Paul Muchemi is one of the entrepreneurs working with Africa Harvest to improve farmers’ access to TC banana plantlets

A Decade of Dedication 335. Reaching Out

5. REACHINg OuT: OPPORTuNITIES FOR uP- AND OuT-SCALINg

The potential of the banana industry in KenyaThe socio-economic impact assessment of TC banana presented in Chapter 4 demonstrates the significant contribution already made by the TC banana technology to improving the lives and livelihoods of small-scale farmers in Kenya. With an enabling environment, TC bananas have immense potential to alleviate hunger, malnutrition and poverty on a much larger scale.

Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007) have predicted the potential growth in area and productivity of bananas in Kenya. They

based their projections on past medium-term and long-term trends, the capacity of the system to produce and supply TC plantlets, and government policies and programmes for promoting banana production in Kenya. Assuming that the total banana area in the country grows at a rate of 1% per annum (from a base of 82,000 ha in 2006), the total area under banana is projected at 86,183 ha for 2011 and 90,580 ha for 2016 (Table 4). Considering the past trend and increasing enthusiasm of farmers to improve management of their banana orchards, it is reasonable to predict that average yield of TC and non-TC banana areas will each increase at the rate of at least 1% per year.

Africa Harvest CEO, Dr Florence Wambugu, celebrates the opening of a new banana market in Meru in September 2007. She is joined by the Minister for Energy, Mr Kiraitu Murungi (right) and Mr Fred Ogana, TechnoServe Kenya CEO (left)


During the year 2016, the total production of banana is anticipated as between 1.72 and 2.02 million tonnes, depending on the growth in area planted to TC bananas (Scenario 1 and 2 in Table 4). As much as 64% of total banana production could be harvested from TC orchards if 40% of the total banana area is planted to TC bananas. This equates to a production compound growth rate of 5.7% per annum.

Assuming the average banana holding size remains the same as at present (0.21 ha with 315 plants), Acharya and Alton Mackey estimate the number of farmers growing TC bananas will increase to around 61,600 by 2011 and 172,000 by 2016 (Scenario 2). Considering an average

household size of six members, this equates to over a million rural Kenyans benefiting from the technology.

However, for these projections to be realized, there needs to be a system to produce, harden and distribute TC banana plantlets on a much larger scale than has been achieved so far. Considering an average planting density of 1500 plants per ha, the demand for TC plantlets would be around 12.96 million up to 2011 (around 2.59 million plantlets per year). This is more than three times the current capacity of TC plantlet production in Kenya. The demand by 2016 is likely to be much higher still, since plantlet producers will need to supply existing TC banana

Table 4: Projections for TC Banana Area and Production

Particulars 2004 (Actual)

2006 (Estimated)

2011 (Projected)

2016 (Projected)

Scenario 1 Scenario 2

Area (ha)

Total 81,673 82,000 86,183 90,580 90,580

TC 3201 4288 12,927 22,645 36,232

Non-TC 78,472 77,712 73,256 67,935 54,348

Percentage share of TC to Non-TC

3.92 5.22 15.0 25.0 40.0

yield (t/ha)

Total 12.70 13.2 15.94 19.00 22.35

TC 31.75 32.4 34.04 35.78 35.78

Non-TC 11.90 12.15 12.75 13.40 13.40

Production (t)

Total 1,036,138 1,083,131 1,374,049 1,720,567 2,024,644

TC 101,632 138,931 440,035 810,238 1,296,381

Non-TC 934,506 944,200 934,014 910,329 728,263

Percentage share of TC 9.81 14.7 32.0 47.1 64.0

Compound Growth Rate (Percent per year from 2004)

– 2.25 4.1 4.3 5.7

Source: Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007)Scenario 1: 25% of total banana area under TC banana Scenario 2: 40% of total banana area under TC banana


growers who need to replace some of their plants in addition to new adopters.

Up-scaling the TC technology within KenyaUp-scaling the TC banana technology to cover 40% of the banana area and reach over a million farmers will require an associated growth in physical and institutional infrastructure to ensure all the elements of the WVC are in place.

There are five areas of development:1. A system for continuous generation and

perfection of new technologies to tackle issues that arise during implementation. This task should be undertaken by Kenya’s NARS and will include production and hardening of TC plantlets according to the varietal needs of different provinces of the country. An overarching concern is the issue of gender, which will need to be considered in programme planning and implementation. In scaling-up and scaling-

out of the programme, it will be important to devise strategies that empower women and mitigate against loss of an important income source.

2. To evolve and strengthen the technology transfer system, interacting closely with the NARS and other technology transfer organizations.

3. Put in place the physical and institutional infrastructure needed to supply all the required inputs, i.e. plantlets, fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and farm equipment. This includes provision of an efficient credit delivery system to help farmers cope with the high establishment cost of a TC banana plantation.

4. Continued evolution of a marketing system to enable the banana growers to sell their surplus production quickly, easily, and at remunerative prices.

5. Continuous attention to the policy environment that is needed to ensure points 1 to 4 above can function efficiently.

TC banana plantlets at ATL, one of the satellite nurseries supplying plantlets direct to farmers. The current system of plantlet production, hardening and distribution needs to be scaled up to meet the growing demand


Scaling out to the East African RegionThe TC banana technology has been acknowledged by the CAADP of NEPAD as having potential for scaling out beyond Kenya and is included as a target crop of the DONATA project being implemented by FARA.

DONATA’s purpose is to improve African livelihoods by accelerating dissemination and uptake of new technologies. It will achieve this by building a portfolio of tested technologies, assembling resources for dissemination and out-scaling, building capacity, sharing resources and techniques, and joint learning-by-doing. Other priority technologies are New Rice for Africa (NERICA), improved cassava, imazapyr-resistant (IR) maize and high beta-carotene sweet potato.

Africa Harvest’s medium- to long-term strategy is to bring to reality DONATA’s TC banana vision in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The East Africa region is home to over four million small-scale banana farmers, for whom bananas represent up to 80% of their household income and make a significant contribution to food security. However, the average annual income from bananas is currently very low and is estimated at US$148 inKenya, $136 in Uganda, $84 in Tanzania and $67 in Burundi and Rwanda.

Due to many challenges, current production levels fall far below their potential and average 14t/ha in Kenya, 11t/ha in Tanzania, 8t/ha in Burundi and Rwanda, and only 7t/ha in Tanzania. When farmers adopt the TC banana technology package, they can double their productivity.

Recommendations for successful up-scaling in Kenya

1. The process should be led by the Government 2. Increase TC plantlet production capacity to around 3 million per year by 2011 and 7 million per year by 2016 3. Form approximately 2000 new farmers’ groups and support them to establish demonstration plots, hardening nurseries,

input stocking depots and revolving funds 4. Improve availability of credit from official sources and make this available to marketing entrepreneurs in addition to

producers 5. Establish around 400 local, 40 divisional and 8 district-level marketing centres 6. Continue to subsidize the cost of the plantlets for at least five years 7. Specify grade standards for TC and non-TC bananas 8. Scale up Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service (KEPHIS) activities and introduce virus-indexing facilities. Introduce

registration for plantlet producers and hardening nurseries to ensure quality control measures can be enforced 9. Lobby for price support for banana growers (similar to the current policy of a guaranteed price for maize) 10. Include banana as a priority crop monitored by Kenya’s agricultural statistics system 11. Africa Harvest to continue to lead TC banana projects in Kenya since it now has the institutional capacity required.

Project cycles should be at least 5 years. The WVC approach should be continued and projects should be expanded to investigate different orchard management practices (as used by the farmers) and the performance of different dessert and cooking varieties of TC bananas under different agro-climatic conditions.

Source: Abbreviated from Acharya and Alton Mackey (2007)


While each of these countries could increase productivity levels to 40 or 50t/ha, the mid-term goal of the regional project would be to increase production to 30t/ha.

Africa Harvest’s up-scaling strategy is based on more than 10 years’ involvement in TC banana technology dissemination in Kenya. Recent experiences, especially with regard to marketing banana fruit through TechnoServe and TCBEL, confirm the need to scale up TC banana activities. Firstly, the issue of ensuring family food and income security is the primary foundation for any up-scaling strategy. Africa Harvest’s involvement at grassroots level reveals that the challenges of existing hunger, poverty and malnutrition can put a brake on efforts to scale up. Before the family can be viewed as an economically productive unit, the issue of sustenance must be addressed.

Secondly, there is still a mismatch between supply and demand; the supply of good quality, virus-

indexed TC banana plantlets exceeds the demand and the demand for banana (both dessert and cooking varieties) exceeds the supply. This is the key reason why Africa Harvest advocates scaling up based on the WVC strategy, which links the producer to the consumer by addressing all the links in the production-to-marketing chain. In the short-term, this means addressing the need to increase production to meet current demand. Over the longer term, the WVC will focus more on the demand side by addressing opportunities for processing and value addition, such as wine and juice making, thereby increasing demand still further.

Thirdly, for bananas to attract much-needed government support, the issue of scale must be addressed. Scaling up enables the identification of national and regional opportunities to increase banana production. It also raises the profile of banana as a commodity, thereby helping large-scale businesses to visualize the processing and marketing opportunities that will provide the

TC plantlets in the growth room at KARI’s National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) in Nairobi. Both public- and private-sector involvement in plantlet production needs to be developed to achieve scaling up at regional level

A Decade of Dedication38 References

necessary large-scale demand pull for banana. Bringing scale to the TC banana sub-sector will help to promote favourable national and regional policies and these, in turn, will help to address issues of supply and demand.

The large-scale up-scaling strategy will seek collaboration with the private-sector manufacturing and export industries. It will also factor in community involvement, gender balance and capacity building as necessary precursors to effective technology transfer; this must be supported by a sustained change in agronomic practices and frequent follow-up to ensure the technology transfer is successful. Out-scaling of the TC banana project would also need to address the quality of plantlets through virus-indexing and government certification

schemes (similar to those already in operation in South Africa) in each new country.

It is hoped that up-scaling will help to address the problem of affordability of plantlets, since economies of scale should, in theory, lead to a reduction in the cost of plantlet production. However, it will still be important to ensure farmers have access to sources of credit. Africa Harvest’s work in group mobilization is an important strategy towards this goal and, as demonstrated in this report, being part of a group brings many additional benefits to the farmers and their families. Acknowledging and building on the multiple functions of farmer groups is an integral part of a regional project and helps to build long-term sustainability.

A Decade of Dedication 39References

REFERENCES

Acharya, S.S. and M. Alton Mackay (2007). Economic Impact Assessment of Tissue Culture Banana Industry in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation International.

Kahangi, E.M. (1999). RAPD profiling of some banana (Musa sp.) varieties selected by small-scale farmers in Kenya. In: Wesonga, J. et al., Proceedings of Second Horticultural Seminar on Sustainable Horticultural Production in the Tropics, held at JKUAT, August 6–9, 1999, Nairobi, Kenya: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology.

Kahangi, E.M. (2003). Deployment of micro propagation and clean planting materials. Report of Group Meeting on Improved Production of Bananas and Plantains in sub-Saharan Africa, August 22 2003, Kampala, Uganda: African Agricultural Technology Foundation.

Mbogoh S., F. Wambugu and C. Gichuki (2004). Socio-economic characterization of existing and potential tissue culture banana producers and the economics of TC banana production in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: Africa Harvest Biotech Foundation International.

Qaim, M. (1999). Assessing the impact of banana biotechnology in Kenya. ISAAA Brief No. 10. New York, USA: International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications.

Wambugu, F.M. and R.M. Kiome (2001). The benefits of biotechnology for small-scale banana producers in Kenya. ISAAA Briefs No. 22. New York, USA: International Service for Agri-biotech Applications.

Credits

Writing/Editing Sue Parrott, Green Ink (www.greenink.co.uk)

Design and layout Green Ink (www.greenink.co.uk)

Photographs Green Ink and AHBFI

Printing Pragati Offset Pvt. Ltd (www.pragati.com)

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A DECADE OF DEDICATION

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