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1Running head: NEW TEACHER BIAS OF NONTRADITIONAL EDUCATION

Research on New Teacher Bias of Nontraditional Education

Claudine J. Campanelli

Long Island University

LIU Post

2NEW TEACHER BIAS FOR NONTRADITIONAL EDUCATION

Abstract

This grounded theory study evaluated eight doctorate students and their knowledge and

opinion about nontraditional education. Doctorate students were asked to evaluate their own

understanding of various nontraditional methods of education and who influenced them in their

own methodology choices. The study supports the hypothesis that university professor’s bias

about nontraditional education influences teacher methodology choices. The study also exposed

that there are many contradicting definitions for alternative and nontraditional education. The

literature reviews some of the definitions and supports the thought that this confusion adds to the

professor bias regarding nontraditional education.

Keywords: Traditional education, nontraditional education, Professor bias, alternative education


Statement of Problem

An issue that is escalating in the work of non-traditional education is the increased

number of candidates applying for positions that are available. This is due to the decreasing

number of positions in the public sector specifically in New York (Hernandez, 2009). Teacher

candidates interviewing for positions in non-traditional schools posses little knowledge and poor

understanding of non-traditional education. The teacher candidates lack not only knowledge and

understanding but the for-thought to do research on the methodology they are interviewing for.

In my experience and with shared discussions with other directors of programs the candidates

from traditional university backgrounds feel their state credential or license has not only

prepared them for all teaching positions but their qualification exceeds the teaching certificates

in the non-traditional sector. The purpose of teacher education is to assist the student teacher in

their development from student teacher to qualified teacher and to provide them with a larger

view of education then they started with (Talvitie, Peltokallio, & Mannisto, 2000). My

perception is that university professors are not meeting the requirements of their position. The

student teacher’s bias against nontraditional education is an overreaching bias of the university

professors and university curriculum in the field of teacher education.

It is important to study this issue as the privatization and reform of education is impacting

the current job market for new teachers. There are many states with public non-traditional

curriculum and the privatization of schools is growing (National Center for Educational

Statistics, 2013). If new teachers come out of school with only one focus they are limiting

themselves for success. If hired in a nontraditional setting their lack of knowledge and potential

bias can impact their overall performance and the quality of the program the teacher is working

in.


Literature Review

Teachers have many choices when choosing where to work. The choices vary from public or

private settings, faith based or alternative curriculum and methods. The list is endless of the type

of schools that are available. Some methods are more common than others and others are much

more obscure. This can be due to the marketing, popularity and the information that is available

to parents, professors and teachers. Alternative methods have been touted to fix problems in the

current education systems.

The evaluation of the extant research regarding professor’s knowledge and use in

university curriculum of alternative education is limited if not nonexistent. This literature review

focuses on the literature and research that is available regarding alternative education and the

perception of professor’s development of student teachers. The assumption is that due to the

lack of professor’s personal knowledge or bias regarding alternative education and the non-

requirement in the university curriculum the topic is not explored at the university level.

Alternative Education

Alternative methods are looked at to be reformative by some. Alternative education is

defined by the National Center on Education and Economy as

“…schools or programs that are set up by the states, school districts or other entities to

serve young people who are not succeeding in a traditional public school environment.

Alternative education programs offer students who are failing academically or may have learning

disabilities, behavioral problems, or poor attendance an opportunity to achieve in a different

setting and use different and innovative learning methods. While there are many different kinds

of alternative schools and programs, they are often characterized by their flexible schedules,

smaller teacher-student ratios, and modified curricula” (Aron, 2006, p. 6).


Alternative education programs have also been categorized as education for children who are

violent, dropped out of school, or for incarcerated children (Hosley, Hosley, & Thein, 2009).

Alternative is also defined as a school serving a distinct population with educational disabilities

and mental health needs (Jolivette, McDaniel, Sprague, Swain-Bradway, & Ennis, 2012).

There is another thought about alternative methods and that is alternative schools are

inspired by philosophical, political or scholarly orientation and some are ad-hoc assemblies of

teachers who are dissatisfied with the aspect of traditional education (de Bilde, Van Damme,

Lamote, & De Fraine, 2013). This review of different methods and their purpose contradict the

definition provided by Aron (2011).

Alternative education is described in research as different approaches to teaching and

learning other than the state provided mainstream education. There is usually an innovative

curriculum or concept. The Steiner and Montessori Method of education the two most common

forms of alternative education in the world. Other methods such as Round Square and Free

schools report to only about 50 – 100 programs worldwide. Many of the alternative methods

were created by innovative forward thinking individuals who wanted to provide an opportunity

for change and difference. Most of the alternatives are not provided by the government. Round

Square was started by Kurt Hahn, Free schools were founded in 1921 by Neil and Dalton

Laboratory Plans founded in 1922 by Helen Pankhurst. Well known private schools with a

single founder includes Brockwood Park Schools which was founded in 1969 by Jiddu

Krishnamurti (Sliwka, 2013).

Individuals who work or send their child to an alternative school tend to have similar

beliefs that appear to contradict current political views (Kraftl, 2012). Democratic beliefs is


what inspired the Free school movement. Marxist-influenced the development of the Forest

schools (Kraftl, 2012).

Spirituality also tends to influence educational and teaching choices. The Montessori pedagogy

even has pedagogical extension for parochial programs called the Catechesis of the Good

Shepherd to align with parental or teacher choices regarding spirituality.

There is consistent themes throughout the research of different methods. The themes

are that the methods promote intrinsic motivation, freedom in choice and movement, personal

leadership and responsibility. The similar themes continue with the role of the teacher, freedom

within the curriculum the small classroom sizes and one on one attention for each student. The

environments established in these programs highlight drastic difference to a government funded

program and what is promoted at the university level.

The Impact of the University Professor

Meyer (2012) suggests that it is the university professor’s responsibility to respond to

both modern realities and expectations while balancing the traditional academic values.

Universities are now charged with the responsibility of educating the masses for the diverse job

market.

Research about quality learning experiences provided by professors have been

inconsistent (Bhatti, 2012). To define what is expected of a good professor there are three

categories. First the professor’s methods is student focused involving innovative pedagogical

approaches, second is the professor possess skills and knowledge to teach the topic and third

having an awareness about the students’ needs and expectations. There are a number of themes

and perceptions by each group of who would perceive a professor as a good teacher. Studies

evaluated professor’s perceptions of themselves, department chairs perception of their


professors, student’s perception of their professors. Bhatti (2012) evaluated interviews

conducted with 42 faculty members. Department chairs evaluated concern for students and

motivating learners as the two themes that determined a good professor. Professors then

categorized five areas that they determined were needed for a good professor. These included

transmitting information, supporting students, developing skills, motivating learners and

personalizing the learning experience.

The purpose of teacher education is to assist the student teacher in their development

from student teacher to qualified teacher and to provide them with a larger view of education

then they started with (Talvitie, Peltokallio, & Mannisto, 2000). Talvitie, Peltokallio and

Mannisto (2000) studied student teachers perceptions about their relationships with their

university supervisors, professors, and cooperating teachers. Student teacher’s ideologies are

resistant to change. Student teachers reflections were superficial (Talvitie, Peltokallio, &

Mannisto, 2000). The role of the university professor is to supervise student teachers in

professional development and alternative in the approach to practice. The study also gleaned

that peer students were an important source of practical teaching support. The study evaluated

sixteen individuals in a teacher training program in Scandinavia. A qualitative approach was

used with open ended survey questions and a review of student teacher reflective journals during

the training process. It was determined that pre-existing beliefs affect student teachers post

program understanding of the concept of teaching (Talvitie, Peltokallio, & Mannisto, 2000). The

student teacher did not experience change in thought if the cooperating teacher did not provide a

difference of opinion for further discussion of debate. The student teacher’s expectations was

that the cooperating teacher would provide more practical guidance which in this study they did

not receive.


Higher education has transformed over the last for decades to meet the needs of

globalization. The idea is to internationalize the educational system to meet the current labor

market (Stier, 2010). Universities curriculum should reflect global conditions including human

rights and legal rights and varying points of views (Stier, 2010). Steir studied sixteen

universities in Sweden, United States, Canada, and Australia. Similarities and differences

presented themselves. Significant differences were in the universities view of pedagogy,

monetary implications, social and moral implications of their purpose (Stier, 2010). There is a

common ground in the universities role to develop competence and critical thinking. The

consistent curriculum at that university level for student teachers is to prepare for the government

provided schools only. This is contradiction to both the need to prepare individuals for

globalization and to create critical thinkers in society.

Discussion

Providing only one perspective cannot encompass all of the possibilities. Any

educational vision that claims to be complete, perfected or final is neglecting the opportunities

for avenues of development. To exclude other points of view in education will result in partial

vision which will impoverish children rather than enrich them (Miller, 1997). The main role of

traditional education is that is it method to transmit skills, facts, social requirements that adults

have deemed necessary or important to the next generation. This definition, however, effects the

student teacher as well. What is deemed as important is transferred and what may be viewed as a

contradiction to current political or social points of view are avoided. This leaves the student

teacher with a partial vision of the education options available to children and themselves.

Research regarding pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) of university professors is limited in

the field of education; however, the information supports the assumption that professors do not


have enough content knowledge about alternative education to make an impact on student

teachers. PCK is the instructors understanding of how to help students understand specific

subject matter (Padilla, Ponce-de-Leon, Rembado, & Garritz, 2008). There is a need for research

on both professor bias and knowledge level regarding the different alternative pedagogies

available to student teachers.

The inconsistencies of the description of alternative education can also confuse new

teachers and possibly professors. In this brief literature review the definitions varied to describe

alternative education. The use of the term non-traditional education was also used. Portions of

the definition in varying articles I perceived as negative. This too is a limitation to the positive

movement and understanding of alternative education. Clearer terms and definitions need to be

provided so that university professors can provide clear information to their students. The

explanations may assist in a better understanding of the alternative methods so that there is a less

bias or negative view amongst professors and teachers.

Methodology

Research Question

The purpose of this grounded theory study was to originally look at current doctorate

student’s level of understanding of alternative education. The results of the questionnaire

gleaned that there may be less of an issue of understanding and more if an issue of influence and

bias. Is the lack of knowledge and bias against non-traditional education imparted on the student

teacher by the university faculty and the college curriculum or due to the student teacher’s lack

of interest due to a focused interest only on one area in the field of education? The purpose of

this study is to look at a number of factors that potentially lead to unqualified teacher candidates

in the field of non-traditional education.


Questionnaire

An on-line web based survey tool was used. A link the web survey containing nine

quantitative and qualitative questions was-e-mailed to eight doctorate students at a Long Island

University. Questionnaire results that were submitted were anonymous and was guaranteed by

the on-line service tool that was used. Questions included an evaluation of the doctorate

student’s breadth of understanding on a Lickert scale of various alternative education methods.

Another question asked about their own methodology choice and who influenced this choice.

The participants were able to provide their opinions about alternative education as well. The last

two questions provided a fact regarding a leader in education in the state and his own choice for

education for his children. The participants where then asked if this changed their opinion about

nontraditional education.

Participants

A sample of convenience was used. Eight peer doctorate students participated in the

study. All are first year doctorate students at a Long Island University. Fifty percent of the

population was male and fifty percent was female. All participants work in the field of education

with 50% of the participants working in traditional school settings (See Table 1).

Variables

The independent variable is who influenced the methodology choice in the doctorate

students. The factor that was not taken into consideration was that nontraditional education was

not discussed at the university level for over 75% of the participants. The survey was extracting

information about who influenced teacher’s methodology choices. Is the university professor a

variable regarding influence if the processor does not teach the topic, or does the avoidance of

the topic demonstrate influential bias? The other variable was the provided fact about a New


York educational leader’s nontraditional methodology choice. This information did not seem to

alter opinions.

Coding

To allow anonymity and analyze the date the results were coded. There were three

common themes in the survey: traditional educators who preferred traditional education

practices, traditional educators who wanted to learn about non-traditional methods and

nontraditional educators who work in nontraditional settings.

There were two specific questions that required coding. A question in the survey asked

the participant to describe their feelings towards nontraditional education. The answers were

then placed into four categories. The categories included; prefer nontraditional education

methods, prefer traditional education methods, like that there are both options for children, and

not familiar with this term (See Table 2 and 3). The results of this coding is that it was

determined that a majority of the doctoral students prefer the choice of traditional or

nontraditional education, with only one doctoral student stating they prefer traditional education

(See table 4).

Validity and Reliability

The validity and reliability of the study is poor. The terms used in the study were not

defined. A participant did not answer a majority of the questions because he did not have the

definition of nontraditional education or the different methodologies provided for ranking. A

thorough description in the invitation for the survey participants should have been included. The

selection process was also not valid as it was a sample of convenience. There was a delay in

receiving the responses from the participants. One of the steps taken to improve the response


rate was a reminder e-mail regarding the due date for the survey was sent to all participants.

There was also a need for one more follow up with one participant to ensure completion.

There was one respondent who did not answer a question correctly. It does reflect that

this participant either did not read the question or that the question was unreliable. Upon

reflection of all results it was determined that there was need for several more questions to

substantiate the results of the questioned answered. In the attempts to keep the survey brief, the

survey may be have been too brief to glean facts that were relevant in understanding the

participant’s responses. There were no external audits conducted for this research.

Limitations

Several limitation exists for this research. The sampling was small and arguable too

small for any results to be valid. The survey used was not a valid or reliable survey. Another

limitation was that the terms were not defined for participants and therefore could have

potentially responded without having full knowledge to what they were responding to. Another

limitation is my own bias of traditional education. I looked at the responses and wanted to

educate the participants about nontraditional education instead of taking their opinions and

responses as a valuable tool for the research. Additional limitations of this research will be the

doctoral students own reflection on their acquisition of information about education. There is a

concern with the accuracy of self-reporting by the participants regarding their own knowledge.

Results

The study wanted to review the participants understanding of nontraditional education. A

question asked the participants to rank their answer on a Lickert Scale from one through seven

with one being the participant did not understand nontraditional education and seven that they


thoroughly understood nontraditional education. The participants were asked to rank their

answer on a Lickert Scale from one through seven. One (1) was selected if nontraditional

education was never discussed and seven if it was thoroughly discussed. Six participants ranked

their answer that during university studies nontraditional education was never discussed. Two

participants ranked their answer a three out of seven (see Table 5). The survey documents that

75% (6) of the participants stated that nontraditional education methods were never discussed

during their university experience. The eight participants were asked about their knowledge of

various nontraditional education methods. The doctorate students responses ranged from

thoroughly understand to have never heard of the methodology (See Table 6).

A variable in the study was the question that was provided as a fact that the participants

had to respond to. The question was, “Are you aware that the NYS Commissioner of Education,

John King sends his own children to a Montessori School?” The results were that seven

doctorate students of the eight were not aware of this fact (See Table 7). A majority of the

responses supported their original opinions about traditional education vs. nontraditional

education. One respondent is quoted “It makes me want to gather more information on

traditional vs. nontraditional education”.

Discussion

It was difficult to find literature to support the assumption that professor’s bias of

methods influences student teacher methods choices. An underlying theme that is exposed

during the literature review is the contradictory and discrepancy of definitions for alternative and

non-traditional education. Through the various research that was reviewed the term non-

traditional education and alternative education was used synonymously. Further evaluation of

the definitions has not assisted in refining the literature search or analyzing the results of the


study. The National Center for Educational Statistics provides definitions to the U.S.

Department of Education. The terms are broken down into areas which include typology,

program emphasis, and private school. Typology is then broken into three categories; Catholic,

other religion and non-sectarian. Program emphasis is broken into several categories that

include; regular, Montessori, special program emphasis, special education, vocational, alternative

and early childhood (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2013). The confusion begins

with the definition provided for alternative education “Alternative schools provide nontraditional

education. They fall outside the categories of regular, special education, and vocational

education.” (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2013, pp. A-2). The definition includes

the term nontraditional education which has been used interchangeably with the word that is

being defined. The confusion continues as the charts are evaluated. Montessori has been singled

out as a program emphasis category. There is no explanation why and this is compelling as there

are many pedagogies that are followed by both private and public programs.

Another discussion point is that the doctorate students responded that all but one of them

that nontraditional education was not discussed at the university level. One of the following

questions was their understanding of different methodologies. Some of the participants ranked

understanding at the level of a six and seven on thoroughly understand this nontraditional

methodology. A subsequent question should have asked how they gained this knowledge if it

was not gained in university. One doctorate student responded that he thoroughly knew several

of the methodologies presented including the Montessori pedagogy. The only other individual

who ranked themselves as thoroughly understanding this methodology is a trained Montessorian

herself. This reflects that some individuals do not know that they do not understand a

methodology. This is also a revealing piece of how teachers views methodology and their own


understanding. This individual stated that nontraditional education was not discussed during his

university experience and wanted to learn more. If he is stating that he never learned

nontraditional education methods and states later is the survey that he wants to learn more, how

can he state that he thoroughly understands nontraditional education methods?

Rich and Ray, two participants in the study, peaked my interest. The two participants

proved my hypothesis that university faculty influence teachers and potentially impose a bias

about nontraditional education. They both stated that they did not learn about nontraditional

education at university. They both can be viewed knowing the least amount of information

regarding specific methodologies which included them disclosing that they each have not heard

of at least five of the fourteen methodologies mentioned. In the two opinion questions about

nontraditional education vs. traditional education they both supported traditional education.

When asked about who influenced their methodology choices they were the only two

participants that responded university professors. Ray is quoted “It does not change my opinion

about traditional schools vs. non-traditional. I feel that public schools offer a wider perspective

on life than non-traditional. I do feel though that non-traditional schools offer an excellent

alternative to traditional and may even provide better educational experiences at the sacrifice of

wider social experiences.” This quote does pose to be a contradiction because he is stating there

is sacrifice for the student’s social development; however he has disclosed earlier in the survey

that he does not know enough or experienced enough nontraditional education settings. What is

the opinion based on? The assumption can be the information provided at the university setting.

Conclusion

It disturbs me that seven of eight doctorate students report that nontraditional education

was not defined or discussed during their university experience. What is more perplexing is that


these doctorate students ranked themselves and knowing many forms of nontraditional

education. Further evaluation and research should be in the area of exact content knowledge of

the different methodologies and where they learned the methodologies. I would hope that I

doctorate student would not have rated themselves of thoroughly knowing a pedagogy if they

have never observed, visited or worked in one of these settings. I do not think that it is possible

to thoroughly understand a methodology just through an academic discussion or reading about it.

A follow up question to one of the participants about academic discussions at the university

level. She stated that there was one discussion about Montessori for a few minutes by the

professor in one university class she took at the undergraduate level. The participant stated it was

not very positive and actually lacked factual details and the university professor even shared

false information. This bias and lack of respect to a methodology continues my hypothesis that

university professors perpetuate negative and false views about nontraditional education.

From 1999-2000 academic year to the 2010-11 academic year, the number of students

enrolled in public charter schools increased from 0.3 million to 1.8 million students. During this

period, the percentage of all public schools that were public charter schools, based on schools

that reported enrollment, increased from 2 to 5 percent, comprising 5,300 schools in 2010-11

(U.S. Department of Education, 2013). The National Center for Educational Statistics (2013)

reports that there were 33,366 private schools in 2010. The schools provided education for

4,700,119 children and employed 482,947 teachers. These large numbers support the

recommendation that universities need to better educate the student teachers in various

methodologies and education models that are available in the community.

A review of the literature review demonstrates various definitions for nontraditional and

alternative education. There needs to be an agreement at the highest levels what these terms


mean and carry this over to the universities and training institutes. If everyone uses the same

language there will be less confusion. Teachers, professors, students, and parents will have a

better understanding and can make better choices.

A variable that was left out of the discussions was the lifestyle choice or even the impact

of unions as an influential choice in methodology selection. Most private schools do not have

unions and do not employ based on tenure but actually require teachers to perform and are

evaluated annually. Traditional schools are supported by unions which is a lifestyle choice. This

is a large influencing factor as well that was not evaluated. Private schools also may have altered

work schedules requiring to work summers, weekends or event typical school holidays. Once

again this lifestyle choice could be a factor in regards to methodology selection.

This study is a small evaluation that supports the recommendation that universities need

to do a better job in preparing students for all forms of education opportunities. New York

Times (2009) printed a quote from a recent graduate facing the fact that she now had to apply for

teaching positions in private schools since the job market in New York would not allow her to

apply for teacher positions in the public sector; she is quoted “I need to rethink my entire career.”

This is appalling coming from a new graduate who should have been prepared for all of the

opportunities that are available in the field of education. She should not have to rethink her

entire career if she was well prepared in methodology and expectations in different settings. A

university should prepare their students for all areas of the industry not just the most desirable or

preferable by the university professor.


References

Aron, L. (2006). An overview of alternative education. Washington, DC: The National Center of Education and the Economy. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from http://www.ncee.org/

Bhatti, M. (2012). Dimensions of good university teaching: Faculty and department chiar's perspectives. Design and Technology Education: An International Journal, 44-53.

de Bilde, J., Van Damme, J., Lamote, C., & De Fraine, B. (2013). Can alternative education increase children's early school engagement? A longitudinal study from kindergarten to third grade. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 24(2), 212-233. doi:10.1080/09243453.2012.749795

Hernandez, J. (2009, May 11). For many teachers a famous f. Retrieved from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/11/nyregion/11teachers.html?_r=0

Hosley, N., Hosley, J., & Thein, M. (2009). Survey and analysis of alternative education programs II. Harrisburg: Center for Rural Pennsylvania.

Jolivette, K., McDaniel, S., Sprague, J., Swain-Bradway, J., & Ennis, R. (2012). Embedding the positive behavioral interventions and suppots framework into the complex arrya of practices within alternative education settings: A decision -making process. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 38(1), 15-29. doi:10.1177/1534508412454450

Kraftl, P. (2012). Towards geographies of 'alternative' education: A case study of UK home schooling families. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 436-450. doi:10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00536.x

Miller, R. (1997). "Partial Vision" in alternative education. The Journal of Alternative Education, 14(3), 27-33.

National Center for Educational Statistics. (2013, November 29). Fast Facts . Retrieved from National Center for Educational Statistics: http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=372

Padilla, K., Ponce-de-Leon, A., Rembado, M., & Garritz, A. (2008). Undergraduate professors' pedagogical content knowlege: The case of "amount of substance". International Journal of Science Education, 30(10), 1389-1404. doi:10.1080/09500690802187033

Sliwka, A. (2013, November 27). Organization for Economic cooperation and Development . Retrieved from OECD.org: http://www.oecd.org

Stier, J. (2010). International education: Trends, ideologies and alternative pedagogial approaches. Glabalisation, Societies and Education, 8(3), 339-349. doi:10.1080/14767724.2010.505095

Talvitie, U., Peltokallio, L., & Mannisto, P. (2000). Student Teachers' view about thier relatipnships with university supervisors, cooperating teachers and peer student teachers. Scandinavian Journal of


Educational Research, 1, 79-88.

U.S. Department of Education, N. C. (2013). The Condition of Education 2013. Retrieved from Charter School Enrollment.


Table 1

Doctorate Students Employment Settings


Table 2

Coding


Table 3

Coding

Q3

Prefer Traditional Methods

Prefer Non traditional Methods

Like the choice

Do not understand terms

How would you describe your feelings towards non-traditional education?

Anna

Each child is unique.Each child should have the priviledge to be taught in a way that fits him best. 1

Betty

I am open minded about all forms of education as a result of my career as an educational consultant and as a college instructor. It has been my job to learn and understand about different forms of education so that I can accurately inform my students or clients. It has also allowed me to work with clients that follow different philosophies or methods. I believe that not every school is right for every child and not every child is right for every school. 1

Carl

I feel that non-traditional education is a great alternative to traditional forms. I feel that they provide 1


increased opportunity for students who desire a specific style and type of education.

DarrenPersonally i prefer traditional education. 1

Erin

I would need to know more information to make an inform decision. 1

Fran

I am in favor of nontraditional schools. I taught at a Friends School for the first 8 years of my teaching career. What a joy to be so supported 1

Gary I am not familiar with this term. 1


Hank

I think non-traditional education is better for students because traditional schools are usually stuck in mandates from a higher power that stifles most teachers creativity and forces new initiatives on them too often. 1


Table 4

Doctoral Students Opinions Regarding Nontraditional Education


Table 5

Participant knowledge of nontraditional education methods taught in University

Note: The participants were asked to rank their answer on a Lickert Scale from 1-7. One was selected if nontraditional education was never discussed and seven if it was thoroughly discussed. Six participants ranked their answer that during university studies nontraditional education was never discussed. Two participants ranked their answer a three out of seven.


Table 6

Doctorate Students Understanding of Various Nontraditional Methods on a Lickert Scale


Table 7

Are you aware that the NYS Commissioner of Education, John King sends his own children to a Montessori School?

Note: 12% represents only 1 participant of the 8 participants.


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