Waste Management 34 (2014) 238–241

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Waste Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /wasman

A Glance at the World

Edited by Giulia Cerminara

This column comprises notes and info not subjected to peer-review focusing on waste management issues in different corners of the world. Its aimis to open a window onto the solid waste management situation in any given country, major city or significant geographic area that may be ofinterest to the scientific and technical community.

Breaking the climate change-municipal solidwaste dump nexus – A case study in Chennai,India

Landfills are one of the safest ways of organized waste disposal.There are no scientifically engineered landfills in India. The opendump creates various environmental issues such as open burningsand greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4 and VOCs).

The Asian Regional Research Program on Environmental Tech-nology (ARRPET) sponsored by Swedish International DevelopmentCooperation Agency focusing on ‘Sustainable Solid Waste LandfillManagement in Asia’, has helped us to understand various aspectsof solid waste management and landfills. Significant contributionsof the project are developing in order to enhance the rehabilitationof dumpsites in the developing countries, characterize the dump-sites and establish the feasibility of dumpsite by methane emissionreduction using biocovers in the landfills.

This paper presents a review of the current conditions of thelandfills in Asia based on reports and research papers. Moreover,it attempts to understand the aspects of solid waste managementand its nexus with climate change issues in Asia related to opendumpsites, focusing on those in Chennai, India.

90% of the open dumpsites in Asia are without precautionarymeasures. The methane they produced contributes to the globalemission in the range of 10–70 Tg/y. Approximately 500 t of meth-ane and carbon dioxide are generated daily from the dumpsites inIndia (Hebbliker and Joshua, 2001). Most of the open dumpsites,being shallow and subjected to open burning, may generate lessgas. Jha et al. (2008) report a substantial level of emission fromChennai dumpsites.

Open dumpsites in Chennai

The urban population in Chennai has increased by 1.23% duringthe year 1991–2001 (CMDA, 2008) and waste generation has in-creased by approximately 5% per annum. According to ProfessorKumar of Madras School of Economics, Chennai, this city has thehighest per capita solid waste generation rate in India at 0.7 kg/d. The estimated per day generation of waste in Chennai is 3036 t/d.

In Chennai, the waste is dumped in two locations: Kodungaiyurand Perungudi. These open dumpsites are susceptible to openburnings, groundwater pollution, scavengers and disease vectors.The amount of gases emitted differs spatially due to waste compo-

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sition, age, quantity, moisture content and ratio of hydrogen/oxy-gen available at the time of decomposition. Wastes with highmoisture content cause a high rate of methane emission. The emis-sion flux is known to range from 1.0 to 23.5 mg CH4 m�2 h�1, 6 to460 lg N2O m�2 h�1 and 39 to 906 mg CO2 m2 h�1 at Kodungaiyurand 0.9–433 mg CH4 m�2 h�1, 2.7–1200 lg N2O m�2 h�1 and 12.3–964.4 mg CO2 m�2 h�1 at Perungudi (Jha et al., 2008). Burning ofmunicipal solid wastes by rag pickers at these sites is a commonsight. In such cases, CO2 emission is prominent. The proximity ofboth sites to residential areas increases the manifestation of theadverse effects of the dumpsites.

Open dumps and vector-borne diseases

Along with the raised temperature, the open dumpsites providedisease vectors a perfect ground for breeding and proliferation. Theproximity of the residential areas to the dumpsites facilitates themovement of the vectors from the dumpsites to residential areas,thereby increasing the potential of disease transmission.

Chennai, with an annual average relative humidity of 71.1%, issuitable for most of the vectors. There was a substantial rise in‘emerging infectious diseases’ like dengue, chikungunya and lepto-spirosis vector borne diseases in 2009 from the year 2008 andmore so in 2010 (Kannan, 2010). The malaria parasite and mos-quito development show a very significant relationship to temper-ature and relative humidity. The optimum humidity for theirgrowth is reported to be 60–70% and the temperature is 25–27 �C, with the maximum temperature of 40 �C for survival (Dhi-man, 2010).

Management options

The climate change – disease nexus of open dumping has to bebroken. Investments should be made on mitigation measures. Thesource of GHGs should be reduced or eliminated by managing thesolid waste in a sustainable way starting with the 3R, moving toengineered landfills. The measures adopted should take into ac-count the needs of the region based on local weather conditions,land availability and proximity of the treatment facility to the res-idential area. Chennai presents the land availability issue, makingthe landfill option less feasible. All the disposal methods have someenvironmental liability: the chosen technology should pose theleast threat to the climate and also it should also be economically

Fig. 1. Complexity in breaking the climate change and solid waste nexus.

A Glance at the World / Waste Management 34 (2014) 238–241 239

feasible. Financial obligations related to a technique should takeinto account the operational expense as well as the cost requiredfor restoration after the treatment phase.

Chennai should opt for a combination of different techniquessuch as composting of the organic content. The area is not so suit-able for landfills and the new composting systems can reduce thefurther need for land. The compost can be used for growing non-edible crops to prevent the absorption and retention of toxic com-pounds in the waste. Incineration is commonly employed in thecase of a number of burnable wastes and space restrictions. It pro-duces energy in the form of heat, steam or electricity. Briquettesformed from the plastic content of the waste mixed with starchand wood chips have been reported as having acceptable refuse de-rived fuel quality for incineration (Chiemchaisri et al., 2006).

Research opportunities exist in designing cleaner incinerationtechnology. The current Indian policy which discourages incinera-tion due to the prevailing waste characteristics requires an objec-tive review. Cleaner technologies should be promoted andoperational expenses reduced. The financial requirement in thisregard should be viewed as an investment. If incineration cannotbe opted for, then the open cell method, which has shown greatresults in reducing the environmental threats related to opendumpsites to a large extent (Visvananthan et al., 2005), may beapplied.

The existing open dumpsites require improvement and conver-sion into sustainable landfills by a sequential process.

Cracking the climate change-dumpsite nexus

A regional, followed by on-site execution plan, needs to bedeveloped in order to understand and sever the climate change-dumpsite nexus. A possible approach is depicted in Fig. 1. The ef-forts to reduce the gas emissions should address a multitude ofcause-effect factors controlled and driven by policy instruments.Logistics available for managing the issue is further linked to theavailability and to the nature of the receiving environmental com-ponent; in this context it maybe the availability of land and currentand projected pressures on land resource. To offset the problems,newer research findings may lend support. It is essential to ensurea two-way interaction between the economic and research sectorsto shortlist management options and also between technology andpublic participation. Taking health sector into consideration, themanifestation of the effects of emissions from dumpsites can beinterpreted on the basis of the prevalence distribution and the eco-nomic implications of vector borne diseases. Public involvement isimportant to develop and make changes in policies dealing with

societal concerns. The approach may be modified according tothe onsite requirements.

References

Chiemchaisri, C., Charnnok, B., Norbu, T., Visvanathan, C., 2006. Characterization ofmined solid waste from dumpsite and determination of its reuse potential asRefuse Derived Fuel. Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology 3 (3),191–202.

Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA), 2008. Draft Master Plan – II.Dhiman, R.C., 2010. Vulnerability Assessment of Malaria from the Viewpoint of

Climate Change in India. National Institute of Malaria Research.Hebbliker, S., Joshua V., 2001. How Well Equipped Are We? Deccan Herald.Jha, A.K., Sharma, C., Singh, N., Ramesh, R., Purvaja, R., Gupta, P.K., 2008.

‘Greenhouse gas emissions from municipal solid waste management in Indianmega-cities: a case study of Chennai landfill sites’. Chemosphere 71 (4), 750–758.

Kannan, R., 2010. Much Ground to be Covered in Preventing Infectious Diseases. TheHindu.

Visvananthan, C., Tränkler, J., Chiemchaisri, C., Scholl, W., 2005. The open-celllandfill: a suitable approach for landfill design and operation in the tropicalregion. In: Proceeding of the 10th International Waste Management and LandfillSymposium (Sardinia 2005), 3–7 October 2005. Cagliari, Italy.

Pooja SinghKurian Joseph

Centre for Environmental Studies,Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

R. NagendranNational Green Tribunal, New Delhi, India

Conflicts and risk management of the LaogangLandfill in a developing world city, Shanghai

Shanghai, as one of the largest municipalities in China, is under-going fast economic growth. Ever-increasing population growthand accelerated urbanization has caused a rise in the generationof MSW (Municipal Solid Waste).

In 2011, the quantity of MSW entering the municipal recyclingsystem reached 7.042 million tonnes, corresponding to 19210 t/d(Fig. 1). Currently, there are five landfill sites, two waste-to-energyincineration plants and four composting plants in Shanghai. The to-tal designed capacity of landfills is 6550 t/d, with Laogang LandfillPhase IV 4900 t/d, Songjiang Landfill 400 t/d, Chongming Landfill300 t/d, Changxing Landfill 150 t/d, Liming Landfill 800 t/d. The de-signed capacity of Jiangqiao and Yuqiao waste-to-energy incinera-

tion plant is 2500 t/d (1500 t/d and 1000 t/d respectively). The fourcomposting plants are responsible for absorbing 3000 t/d waste.The Meishang composting plant, which opened in 2003, is respon-sible for absorbing 1000 t/d. In addition, Jiading, Qingpu and Song-jiang composting plants are responsible for absorbing 500 t/d,500 t/d and 1000 t/d, respectively. Waste disposal facilities wouldeventually reach their capacity by receiving the wastes after sourceseparation, which underlines the need for new facilities.

While Shanghai is launching the source separation program,new waste treatment infrastructures are under construction. Witha growing public awareness of environmental issues, the lack ofpublic involvement is resulting in NIMBY (Not-In-My-Back-Yard)syndrome or other locally unwanted land uses (LULUs), which of-ten delays construction or even prevents the identification of anew waste disposal facility (Edelstein, 1988).

Fig. 1. Current disposal situation of MSW entering the municipal recycling system.

240 A Glance at the World / Waste Management 34 (2014) 238–241

Environmental issues of the Laogang Landfill

The Laogang Landfill is located at the junction where the Yan-gtze River joins the East China Sea, a tidal flat formed by the con-stant accumulation of silt from the Yangtze River. Laogang LandfillPhases I, II and III, which have been closed, have a total area of3.36 million square meters. The Laogang Landfill Phase IV is inthe extension area of the existing Laogang Landfill, covering anarea of 3.61 million square meters. It has an approved capacity ofapproximately 4900 tons daily and receives approximately9000 tons of MSW daily.

Due to the MSW characteristics, i.e. longtime overload opera-tion as well as technological and economical shortages, the Lao-gang Landfill is confronted with a number of environmentalchallenges: (1) limited disposal capacity. The high volume ofMSW that enters into the Laogang Landfill exceeds its designedcapacity, especially in summer time when MSW increases expo-nentially; (2) odor annoyance. Odor arises largely from landfillingand drying processes, creating continuous annoyance in adjacentcommunities; and (3) high levels of greenhouse gas emissions.The decomposition of organic waste in landfills may also lead tothe formation of hazardous gases such as methane (CH4), whichcontributes to the greenhouse effect; 4) imperfect monitoringand emergency systems. Online monitoring and emergency re-sponse systems are not fully developed to adapt the municipalsecurity operation system.

Currently, up to 500 households still live within 1000 m of theLaogang Landfill site and Zhonggang Town is also situated withina 3000 m radius of the landfill site. These areas are generally re-ferred as ‘a neighborhood that was ruined by landfilling’ (Furusethand Johnson, 1988). Contamination of ground and surface waterand the annoying effects of dust, odor and visual intrusion areamong the primary concerns of residents living near the LaogangLandfill. Among these concerns, odor annoyance is a significantproblem that is normally associated with reports of annoyance fromneighborhoods and increasing complaints from local communities.

Reconstruction planning of the Laogang Landfill

Taking into consideration the rapid MSW proliferation in thismetropolis, the Laogang Landfill is transforming its image towardsa comprehensive waste disposal facility, which would undertakethe role of a hundred-year MSW disposal base in Shanghai. More-over, present environmental conditions around the Laogang Land-fill are expected be improved through urban planning andconstruction.

Within the original boundary of the north, south and west sideof the existing Laogang Landfill site, the comprehensive wastetreatment facility would be constructed along the east boundaryof the Laogang Landfill Phase IV, and expand eastwards until theYangtze River levee. The planned facility covers a total area of15.3 square kilometers. Based on the planned area, the north, southand west side would expand outwards one kilometer respectively,forming a construction and planning control area (29.5 square kilo-meters in total). The entire layout of the facility site is shown inFig. 2, containing the closed Laogang Landfill Phases I, II and III,the Laogang Landfill Phase IV, a new comprehensive landfill, anew landfill for hazardous waste, a new incineration and a leachatetreatment plant planned extension.

Residents’ attitudes towards the reconstruction project

Most residents were knowledgeable about the landfill’s impact.Odors annoyance ranked highest among problems associated withthe landfill site, including odor annoyance, groundwater contami-nation, health hazards, and insect attraction.

Questionnaires about residents’ opinions towards the recon-struction project during the environmental impact assessment(EIA) stage indicated that approximately half of the surveyed resi-dents were unsatisfied with local environmental conditions. It wasagreed by the majority that a comprehensive MSW treatment facil-ity would be urgently needed because the massive amounts ofMSW would have to be disposed of somewhere. Together withsound facility management, serious environmental impacts wereexpected to be mitigated and the public would come to accept this,irrespective of whether they had lived in the locality. Meanwhile,some residents hold a different view that current the LaogangLandfill site should not be the ‘‘preferred location’’, as the increas-ing volume of MSW would exacerbate the environment withoutappropriate operation and management strategies. In addition,although incineration is far less polluting and more efficient, sev-eral residents are still opposed it due to the dangerous substances(namely heavy metals, acid gases and chlorinated organic com-pounds) emitted during the incineration process.

Risk communication and management of the Laogang Landfill

(1) Risk communication. Information was disclosed in the oper-ation stage to build mutual trust. For instance, residentswere provided with opportunities to participate in observa-tion tours of the Laogang Landfill. Knowledge and informa-

Fig. 2. The entire layout of the facility site.

A Glance at the World / Waste Management 34 (2014) 238–241 241

tion were shared on various issues of waste management,such as renewable energies use and odor control. Moreover,a channel for communication was established in a system-atic and regular form. The authorities have continuouslyheld public meetings for the residents living nearby andhave set about responding to questions and concerns.

(2) Emergency response plan. Good management of the LaogangLandfill requires comprehensive emergency plans that takeinto consideration the possible hazards and accidents. Thus,the existing emergency response plans have covered a widerange of issues: fire control, chemical incident, contingencyresponse, flood prevention, firedamp explosion, pollutionprevention, MSW collection, transport and treatment, waterdischarge in flood seasons, vehicle rollover accident, electricshock casualties, etc. These plans above are particularlyhelpful for predicting potential health risks, and hence forputting into place sound mitigation measures, and for theestablishment of locally-adapted monitoring and surveil-lance platforms.

(3) Environmental impact assessment (EIA). The application ofEIA was performed in the holistic planning and the deci-sion-making process of the comprehensive waste disposalfacility, and dialogue with residents living nearby wasinvolved in every stage. Media coverage on environmentalproblems associated with landfills is regarded as an impor-tant factor for public participation, thus public cyber forums,online questionnaire and other public forums have beendevoted to improving public support.

(4) Residents’ relocation plan. Considering the adverse physicaland environmental impacts affected by the reconstruction,546 households would be relocated because of their closeproximity to the proposed facility, thus avoiding communityconflicts and health risks.

Final remarks

Waste disposal facilities shortage is a serious problem in mostrapidly growing cities in China. The NIMBY syndrome happenswhen the public refuses to have landfills sited near their houses,although they admit the necessity of these facilities, which makeslocating new facilities difficult. The environment concerns of theLaogang Landfill reflect the common problems of landfill sittingand management in China and an awareness and understandingof public concerns must be the basis of an effective risk communi-cation strategy. Public positive participation as well as an adequaterisk management would lead to the solution of mitigating theconflicts.

References

Edelstein, M.R., 1988. Contaminated Communities: The Social and PsychologicalImpacts of Residential Toxic Exposure, fourth ed. Westview Press Inc.,Colorado.

Furuseth, O.J., Johnson, M.S., 1988. Neighbourhood attitude towards a sanitarylandfill: a North Carolina study. Applied Geography 8 (2), 135–145.

Yue CheKai Yang

Yan JinZhaoyi Shang

Jun TaiShanghai Key Laboratory of Urbanization and Ecological Restoration,

East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Weiqian ZhangDepartment of Environmental Science and Engineering,

Fudan University, Shanghai, China