REFLECTION ESSAY
CHAPTER 2: COGNITIVE AND LINGUISTIC DEVELOPMENT
By
Ahmad Z. Al Khatib
Reflection Essay Ch:2
Human Development and Individual Differences
Dr. Yaser Natour
United Arab Emirates University
March, 2012
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©2012
Ahmad Z. Al Khatib
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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Abstract
This essay is a reflection on chapter two in Ormrod’s (2011) Educational Psychology. It
summarizes the main points, analyzes them and then reflects on them in the light of professional
experiences and classroom discussions.
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Introduction
What is cognition?
Cognition is a very difficult term to define. According to the American Psychological
Association, Cognition is the “processes of knowing, including attending, remembering, and
reasoning; also the content of the processes, such as concepts and memories” (APA, 2012). This
is an extremely difficult and long definition.
In an attempt to reach a conclusive definition, the writer of this essay decided to get back
to the roots of the term. Webster dictionary on-line (2012) mentions that the term is derived from
the Latin cognition-, cognitio, from cognoscere which means to become acquainted with, know,
from co- + gnoscere to come to know. All through this essay, the term cognition shall be defined
as to come to know, i.e. the process of knowing or building knowledge, which brings us back to
APA definition still, with a much clearer perspective.
Cognitive development
As children grow, they change physically; that is, they become stronger, taller and bigger.
Their physical abilities develop, a matter which is very much observable. With each phase of
growth we can ask the child to perform certain tasks he was not able to achieve. Many internal
changes also happen as he grows up; developments in the way of thinking, reasoning and
language or what scientists call “Cognitive development”. Cognitive development is a very
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important aspect of teaching and learning. Consequently, classroom instruction needs to be
developmentally appropriate (Ormrod, 2011).
There appear to be four general principles of cognitive development: 1) there are
universal, predictable, and developmental. 2) Children reach these milestones at different rates,
so age should not be the only determinant of what a child can or cannot achieve. 3) The rate of
development does not proceed at a constant rate; in some children it is rapid growth (spurts),
while in others it is slow (plateaus). This can be observed when a child temporarily takes a step
backwards, prior to taking a major leap forward (Ormrod, 2011). 4) Heredity and environment
interact in their effects on development; heredity guides the child’s growth through the process
of maturation, in addition, these maturational processes seem to be characterized by sensitive
periods in which the environment plays an important role. It is worth mentioning that children
are never passive recipients of their environmental legacy, rather, they are active participants to
the point that they succeed in altering and affecting these environments significantly. Educators
and parents should not push children to produce outcomes unparalleled to their cognitive
development stage, or compare them to others who are going at faster or slower rates. Failing to
observe this might cause severe cognitive and psychological impairments that are very difficult
to repair (Ormrod, 2011).
Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
There are other layers that influence cognitive development of a child, in addition to the
immediate surroundings, i.e. the family, community and culture. The cultural aspect is highly
important since it provides the framework by which the child determines what is right and what
is wrong, what is good and what is bad, what is rational and irrational. Teachers in the UAE need
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to be aware of this as they get to deal with children from different cultures and different
backgrounds. The other way round is a possible case in public schools in Abu Dhabi where
teachers come from cultures different from that of the children they teach. Training educators on
how layers of environment influence them and their students, and how both interact with each
other is significantly important. Ignoring this can lead to stereotyping and issuance of judgments
that might impede learning and instruction.
Role of the Brain in Learning and Development
It is important if we want to learn about human learning and cognitive development to
look at what both neurologist and psychologists say. Ormrod (2011) mentions four key points
about the brain’s role in learning and cognitive development. In short, it appears that the brain is
an ever-changing organism. Despite the fact that neuron begin to form synapses long before a
child is born, the brain continues to do so by generating new ones and illuminating (pruning)
unnecessary ones which are inconsistent with the environmental events and behavioral patterns. .
Another important aspect is the harmony in which parts of the brain work together in terms of
left and right hemispheres. There is no such thing as left-brain or right-brain thinking as both
hemispheres constantly collaborate with each other to perform daily tasks from the simplest to
the most complex operations. The brain is an ever adaptable organ, this ability of the brain to
change with learning is known as neuroplasticity. Plasticity, or neuroplasticity, is the lifelong
ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways based on new experiences. By learning we
obtain new knowledge and skills either through instruction or through experience. It is worth
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mentioning that in addition to genetic factors; the brain is formed by the characteristics of a
person's environment and by his/her actions (Hoiland, 2012).
Piaget & Vigotsky
Developmental stage theory (Individual oriented approach)
Piaget aimed at bringing a rational perspective on human thinking and communication,
with the purpose of creating a theory of cognitive development of mankind. According to Piaget,
development is a process from inside out where there is continuing reciprocity between a child
and his/her environment. Children are natural learners who tend to accommodate to the
environmental demands by assimilating what the environment has to offer. Learning occurs
because their minds are made to learn. When they cannot assimilate new events, cognitive
conflict arises leading to a state of “disequilibrium”. The learner according to Piaget is an active
constructor of knowledge, who takes an active role in his/her learning, and uses prior experience
to develop knowledge. This theory focuses more on cognitive development of individual learner
and not as much on social and cultural aspects of learning. The constructing individual is
considered the prime factor in a learning process where knowledge arises at the interface
between subjects and objects (Streitlien, 2011).
Social Development Theory (The sociocultural approach)
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Vigotsky places primacy on social and cultural aspects when human beings develop
cultural identity by participating in cultural activities. By doing so, they acquire the instituted
meaning of the activity gradually. The basic unit of analysis here is the mediated action. The
difference between what a learner is capable of doing alone and what he/she is capable of doing
in collaboration with others, known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The theory
emphasizes the importance of language activities where knowledge is socially constructed and
language is viewed as the medium of this construction. Language starts as a means for a child to
communicate, which then evolves to internal mental functions when more sophisticated
processes arise. Vigotsky distinguishes between concepts a child develops through informal
interactions with people in everyday life, and scientific concepts he/she learns at school. The
spontaneous concepts are inductive generalizations while the scientific ones go from general to
concrete (Streitlien, 2011).
Compatibility issues
Streitlien (2011) mentions that some researchers claimed these two theories as
incompatible, while others viewed them as complimentary to each other. The teacher/ researcher
should alter the focus between the two views depending on the situation. Neither Piaget nor
Vigotsky believed in the possibility of verbal transmission of knowledge, however, both viewed
learning as an active process in which learners construct knowledge in their own way, and the
learner as an active operator in his/her own learning process. Both theories have strong influence
on education research and teaching practices (Streitlien, 2011).
Constructivism Theory
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Developmental stage theory and Social Development Theory form the foundation of
constructivism theory; a model or a theory that views learning as an active, contextualized
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on
personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Since no learner is a blank slate (tabula
rasa), new information is connected to prior knowledge, leading to consequently subjective as
opposed to objective mental representations. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through
social interaction (Streitlien, 2011).
Language Development
Both Piaget and Vigotsky share the belief that language development is perhaps the most
important factor in cognitive development (Ormrod, 2011). Scientists were able to define the
linguistic characteristics and abilities at different grade levels. Teachers need to be aware of
these and adapt their instruction accordingly.
Final Words
A carpenter, a blacksmith, or a mechanic, cannot function well without the tools of the
trade. So, why teachers sometimes go to classes without being prepared with the tools of their
trade? Advancements in education psychology have opened the doors to a deeper understanding
of the cognitive development of children. Ignorance is not an excuse anymore in the era of
internet and speedy communication. Myths and misconceptions such as those related to the right
and left hemispheres of the brain, causes of stuttering, brains not being able to regenerate itself,
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etc, should not be allowed to prevail among educators and govern teaching practices of teachers
today.
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References
APA (2012). Glossary of Psychological Terms. Retrieved on 21 March, 2012
http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx
Cognition. 2011. In Merriam-Webster.com.
Retrieved March 21, 2012, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cognition
Hoiland, E. (2012). Brain Plasticity: What Is It? Learning and Memory. Retrieved March
22, 2012, from http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/plast.html
Ormrod, J. E. (2008). Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, 6/E, Pearson:
Prentice Hall.
Streitlien, A. (2011). Learning through interaction. Telemark Centre for Educational
Research, Norway