A Revised Model of the Theory of Planned Behaviour in Regards to the Use of Emotion in Advertising Melissa Scally Contents Page A brief history of advertising ................................................................................................. 5 Emotion in advertising .......................................................................................................... 1 The Theory of Planned Behaviour........................................................................................ 1
Transcript
A Revised Model of the Theory of
Planned Behaviour in Regards to the Use
of Emotion in Advertising
Melissa Scally
Contents Page
A brief history of advertising ................................................................................................. 5 Emotion in advertising .......................................................................................................... 1 The Theory of Planned Behaviour ........................................................................................ 1
Limitations of the TPB ........................................................................................................ 11 Revised Model - Brand Advertising (Figure 13) ................................................................. 13 Revised Model - Social Advertising (Figure 14) ................................................................. 14 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 15 References ......................................................................................................................... 15
A brief history of advertising
Psychological ideas appeared in advertising in the 20th century through Freud’s nephew Edward Bernays who was interested in influencing the behaviour of the masses; known as ‘crowd psychology’. Burnays used the foundations of Freud’s psychoanalysis to create mass consumer persuasion by demonstrating people behave irrationally if products are associated with emotional desires and feelings. This was evidenced through a campaign encouraging women to smoke, with cigarettes symbolised as ‘torches of freedom’; a symbol for gender equality. Claims that smoking made women more free and liberated was irrational but the cigarette became a powerful symbol of self-perception, with women forming an emotional connection.
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The emergence of comsumptionism after WWII brought changes in consumer behaviour; people no longer bought for necessity. Desires became the driving factor of consumer behaviour with advertising needing to respond adequately, with promotions on functional qualities no longer sufficient (Curtis 2002).
Advertising sought psychological advantages beyond the level of emotions and desire; subliminal messaging was famously used by Coca Cola attempting to influence consumer behaviour. Sales increased by 18% through unconscious messages at thousandths of a second (Calvin and Dollenmayer 1959). However, this manipulation of behaviour was subsequently banned, requiring subtlety in the psychological advertising techniques, with the role of emotion becoming prominent.
Emotion in advertising Emotions have a pervasive impact on human behaviour (Lazarus 1984) arguably independent of cognitions in eliciting behavioural responses (Zajonc 1984) with significant implications for the role of emotions in advertising, reinforced by Groeger (1997), suggesting emotions are a vital component for influencing decision making. On a neurological level, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is implicit for decision making and emotional processing. Lesions of the OFC compromise emotional signalling and pathological deficits in decision making are observed (Bechara et al. 2000); thus highlighting the intrinsic value of emotions in decisions.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour
Advertising is used for brand promotion and for non-profit purposes such as social marketing:
“the application of basic marketing principles to the design and implementation of programmes and information campaigns that advance social causes” (Harman 2009)
The sole purpose of advertising is to influence consumer behaviour, which in itself is a decision making process (Kumar and Raju 2013) through which it is established emotion is inherent.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Azjen 1991) developed from the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen & Fishbein 1975) and is a widely accepted action model implemented in social psychology as a framework for understanding, predicting and changing behaviour (Azjen 2011). TPB typically overlooks the emotional component in cognitive decision processing, however when the model is applied to an advertising context, there seems to be an emotional component evident at each level of the three determinants of intended behaviour.
This article applies the TPB to the context of brand and social advertising, assessing the role of emotion underlying the differential decision making processes leading to behavioural change or purchase intentions in response to advertising. I propose a revised model incorporating the reviewed advertising literature in concordance with the antecedents proposed by the original model. With differing objectives and outcomes associated with social and brand marketing, they will be addressed separately throughout.
Attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control are the differential pathways to behavioural intention outlined by the TPB. Behavioural intention is the key causal antecedent of actual behaviour. Evidence has shown that interventions targeting changing intentions were followed by small to medium changes in behaviour (Azjen 2011), supporting the role of intentions in predicting behaviour.
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Attitude: is comprised of cognitive beliefs constituting an attitude. The expectancy value model is applicable for this route, whereby the Attitude = the sum of the behavioural belief and the probability of the outcome x the evaluation of the outcome (Azjen 2011).
Subjective Norms: the individual looks to the subjective norm for reference, which Terry et al. (1999) argues is only applicable if the views of the others around them are considered important. The idea that the self is a social structure is central to this concept; whereby the self is consistent of varying identities (Stryker 1968). Conflict between the self and social identity arises. Social identity theory suggests that our social identity is fundamental with the norms associated with group membership and identity greatly implicating behaviour.
Perceived behavioural control: refers to the individual’s consideration of whether they are capable of undergoing the act in question.
Self-identity: not originally assessed in TPB but solves the conflict between the self and social identity (Rise et al. 2010)
Attitudes influencing Behaviour
Advertising literature highlights the concept of ‘attitude towards the advert’ (Aad) having a downstream effect on the ‘attitude towards the brand’ (Ab) and the subsequent purchase intention (Mitchell & Olson, 1981). These causal relationships rest on the assumption that cognitive components are the pinnacle aspect of attitude formation.
Holbrook and Batra (1987) proposed the communication model whereby Aad was mediated by emotional responses. They identified a spectrum of emotions, not limited to liking/disliking in shaping consumer behaviour; emphasising the role of emotion in the decision making process, extending on that proposed by Mitchell and Olson (1981). Holbrook and Batra (1987) found positive contributions from emotional content across the emotion’s dimensions of pleasure, domination and arousal which mediated the subsequent attitude towards both advert and brand. This is consistent with the TPB model but highlights the specific role of emotions in the decision making processes in response to advertisements prior to attitude formation.
Figure 1: Summary of the Theory of Planned Behaviour as outlined by Azjen (1991) with the added self-identity component
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Figure 2: The Communication Model outline by Holbrook and Batra 1987
Traditional consumer behaviour models also converge with the attitudinal component suggested by the TPB. The Hierarchy of Effects model (Lavidge and Steiner 1961) explicitly addresses the separate cognitive and affective components of processing in attitude formation, in a manner that address the specific role of emotion in advertising. The conative component in the model is akin to behavioural intention.
Figure 3: Summary of the hierarchy of effects model - Lavidge and Steiner 1961
This model is further evidence that emotions are a key component to the role of attitude formation and resultant consumer behaviour in response to an advert. This is a dualistic approach to attitude formation: this model accounts for the persuasive techniques in advertising that influence cognition, alongside the emotional strategies utilised by affective models.
Differential role of positive and negative emotions
Whilst the Communication Model and the Hierarchy of Effects Model confirm the role of emotions in attitude formation in advertising, they don’t differentiate between the differential effects of positive and negative valence emotions.
Brand Marketing The emotional response to the advert is very important due to the emotions elicited from the advert being transferred in association with the brand (Machleit & Wilson 1988).
Positive emotions
Positive emotions in contrast to negative emotions are few in number and relatively undifferentiated, with less unique responses (Fredrickson 1998). For example Aaker et al. (1986) defined warmth as:
“A positive, mild, volatile emotion involving physiological arousal and precipitated by experiencing directly or vicariously
a love, family, or friendship relationship”
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Aaker et al. (1986) found warmth positively correlates with Aad and purchase intention, suggesting emotions with positive valence illicit positive attitudes, reflected through consumer behaviour. Such evidence implies the positive emotional component experienced whilst watching an advert is transferred to the consumers’ attitude towards the brand and is thus a vital component to purchase behaviours.
There is evidence to suggest that the influence of emotions on purchase intention can have a delayed response as the feelings associated with the brand through the use of advertising are linked and stored in memory (Stayman & Batra 1991). Stayman and Batra found individuals in a positive affective state when watching a brand related advertisement evoked the same emotional state when later encountering the brand name. This suggests the positive association between emotion experienced from the advert and purchase intention is not limited to short-term consumer behaviour as positive emotions facilitate the effect of memory, creating a lasting consumer response. This effect is exclusive to positive emotions.
The transference of the positive emotions displayed in the advert to the consumer affords explanations on a neuroanatomical level. Mirror neurons (Gallese 2001) are believed to create an empathetic link between individuals. Social cues are mirrored when associated with a positive valence (Warren et al. 2006) suggesting positive-valence communications automatically trigger motor responses in the individual. Thus in the context of advertising, it suggests an advert where the product or brand elicits a positive response in an individual on screen is mirrored by the observer. Whilst this proposes profound effects for positive valence in communication, the effects of mirror neurons have not been investigated in the context of a medium of communication rendering the implications hypothetical.
Negative Emotions
The scarcity of resources regarding negative emotions precludes any impact on attitude decision making from the analysis.
Suggested attitudinal component for emotion in brand advertising
Figure 4
Social marketing Negative emotions
Negative emotions are less associated with brand advertising but are more often used in social marketing.
This form of advertising utilises fear as the most common tactic to instil threat, acting as encouragement to drive behaviour. The product that the consumer needs to buy into with
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regards to social marketing is the behaviour change (Marchand and Filatrault 2002). However the use of fear to elicit change in behaviour has conjured controversial findings (Table 1).
Brennan and Binney (2010) highlighted negative appeals are likely to instil self-protection suggesting caution to advertisers using negative emotion to instigate voluntary compliance. With the common use of negative emotions as a social marketing strategy, effectiveness is limited by increased exposure. Therefore whilst negative emotions have proved to be effective in certain campaigns in eliciting behavioural change, it important to use negative emotions sparingly to maintain the integrity of the emotion and minimise avoidance response and habituation to the emotional effect.
Positive Emotions
With the strong association between negative emotions and behavioural change, positive emotions aren’t utilised for important social campaigns, thereby the role of positive emotions could not be assessed.
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Table 1: Empirical examples of Negative Emotion Campaigns
Campaign type Authors Year Sample Main findings
Dental Health
Janis & Feshbach
1953 200 students from a Conneticut High school.
Investigated the effects of differentiating fear levels in dental hygiene presentations The high-fear group expressed more interest in the film but few behavioural changes were seen (28%) The low fear group expressed boredom but 50% reported improved dental hygiene routines at follow-up Low-fear was more effective.
Road Safety Harman 2008 Seven focus groups on young male Irish drivers 17 - 24 years of age
Campaigns which were highly dramatic limited the credibility of the campaign due to the ‘fake’ nature; reducing the integrity of the emotional reaction, acting as a barrier to attitude change. Target audience found to have greater fear of injuring others than of themselves. This should be the focus of social campaigns as the value of others is greater than the self when engaging in risky behaviour. Nearly half the participants were seen to display defensive cognitive strategies by changing the channel Whilst the level of avoidance is extremely high the authors encourage the use of high level fear campaigns
Anti- Smoking
Biener et al. 2004 1,606 adolescents, 1,069 were 12 – 15. Follow up of 618
Fear was directly related to the perceived effectiveness of the ad; illness ads were rated as significantly more effective (8.2) than normative ads (6.8). High threat adverts are effective in targeting smoking behavioural change. Study did not address levels of avoidance that could be expected outside experimental environments.
AIDS Marchand & Filiatrault
2002 Average age -22 years. 152 female and 126 male respondents
Investigated the effect of three different message strategies on AIDS preventation; negative emotion (fear), positive emotion (rewarding improved behaviour) and rational message. Zaichkowsky 1990- young males don’t see themselves at risk- identification with the issues raised in the campaign must be achieved before attitudes can be change. Zaichkowsky 1990 -fear on this audience can cause denial. The fear message is differentially effected by individual’s characteristics. Results concluded that rational messages generated more personal concern for behaviour towards AIDS prevention. Rational messages are most effective - congruent with the hierarchy of effects model; information processing has positive effects on persuasion
Meta-Analysis
Witte & Allen 2000 98 studies of fear appeals
Strong fear was associated with more persuasive messages, whereby fear had a weak but reliable effect on behaviour and attitude change independent of trait anxiety, age, gender and ethnicity.
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Suggested attitudinal component for emotion in social advertising
Figure 5
Subjective Norms
Brand Marketing Emotions underlying social comparisons
The emotions underlying subjective norms are utilised by brand advertisers to establish desire for the product through the emotional components implicit to social comparison.
Lin and Tsai (2006) postulated that comparison plays a vital role in the purchase intention of a particular brand. They constructed a model which accounts for comparison on a social and temporal level. Only the social comparison will be addressed. As depicted in the model (Figure 6), the comparison component has a direct impact of the self-perception which triggers emotions associated with how the individual is perceived by others. This in turn has a downstream effect on attitude and subsequent purchase intention.
Figure 6: The General Comparative Behaviour Model (Lin and Tsai 2006)
Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory suggests people are motivated to make social comparisons to others similar to themselves, using this as a reference to evaluate their own opinions and attitudes. The implications for emotions in reference to advertising are two-fold. In the event of an emotional advertisement whereby the individual is unsure of their attitude, they can observe others attitudinal and emotional response as a reference. Conversely if an individual is uncertain about their purchase intentions, they may look to others purchase behaviours, effecting their purchase intention in relation to their desire to be affiliated with the social values and those who own the product. Thus, social comparisons are fundamental in creating desire for a product.
Yes No Direct link
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The very idea of fashion is ‘the modes of action taking on the character of habits and enforced by social or scientific norms defining what constitutes the “thing to do”’(Dunnette 1966). To be fashionable is arguably an emotional drive to express oneself in line with the norms of many. Thus for a brand to achieve success, it must transcend society, whereby the brand is carried forth as an emotional desire for belonging and acceptance.
However, social comparison is mediated by a function of personality. Snyder and DeBono (1985) distinguished between high and low self-monitoring individuals who were driven to fit in socially or motivated by their personal value respectively. DeBono and Packer (1991) found that these two categories of personalities reacted to advertisements differently. The low self-monitoring individuals’ view of product quality improved in relation to image orientated adverts relating to the social context and appeal of the product, whilst the high self-monitoring individuals were influenced by quality orientated adverts. Thus, personality types make individuals more susceptible to the emotions associated with social comparison in advertising. Independent individuals are less likely to make purchase decisions via the subjective norm component.
Emotion adverts and social stereotypes
The concern with other’s perceptions appears to have a mediating effect on the emotional response which is gender specific. Fisher and Dubé (2005) investigated gender difference effects in emotional advertising through observing reactions in social and private environments. Stereotypical views are that females are more emotional than males in both the frequencies and the intensities of the emotions they experience (Feldman et al. 1998, Birnbaum et al. 1980). However, these are typically self-report studies, possibly presenting a social desirability bias, whereby men represent themselves as less emotional. Fisher and Dubé’s (2005) results support a social desirability explanation for emotional responses, with males reporting significantly less pleasure and positive attitude towards the advert in social conditions as opposed to private. This effect was not found for women, suggesting the masculine social stereotype plays an important role for males’ responses. Males reported the same level of pleasure to females for low-agency emotional adverts when viewed privately, confirming it is the social circumstance that changes the response. Fisher and Dubé (2005) suggest that adverts designed to evoke emotions in men should target solitary mediums such as magazines, newspapers and the internet, thus not impeding on the male social stereotype and the subjective norms.
Suggested subjective norm component for emotion in brand advertising
Figure 7
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Social marketing In the previous section AIDS campaigns addressed the effectiveness of fear to drive behavioural changes in regard to contraceptive use. McCarty (1981) identifies emotions outside the use of fear as being effective at targeting contraceptive use. McCarthy suggests the emotions associated with concerns of others perceptions and the subjective norms are effective in implementing change in sexual health behaviour. The desire to conform to the social norm means the individual is unlikely to want to be judged on sensitive personal health matters. This evidences the importance of social context for social advertising.
Suggested subjective norm component for emotion in social advertising
Figure 8
Self-Identity
The self-identity was not addressed in the original model. Rise et al. (2010) conducted a meta-analysis and found a large correlation between self-identity and purchase intention, which also accounted for 9% of the variance unclaimed by the other components of the model, thereby providing an important contribution to the model.
Brand advertising Subjective norms addressed the emotional component in advertising regarding the brand impact on one’s social relationship with others, however no component has yet accounted for the emotional importance of a brand to the self. Ahuvia (2005) stated that ‘the people, and things, we love have a strong influence on who we are, [and] on our self’ and that love is a common emotion in consumerists in relation to their feelings towards the product. Belk (1988) suggested that consumption helps to define the self, suggesting brands and products we choose in turn become an extension of our self-identity as “that we are what we have” (Belk 1988), postulating that self-identity is key to consumer behaviour.
Fournier (1998) anthropomorphised the brand as the partner in a relationship with the consumer. The brand in this respect is part of the consumer identity. Continual purchase depends on what the relationship adds and means to the consumer; thus the consumer is purchasing a lifestyle and emotional identity rather than just a product. This is a very powerful marketing strategy; if a brand can be made irreplaceable and meaningful to someone’s life then Fournier (1998) suggests that this creates a bias, minimising negative thoughts and attitudes towards the brand. If this love and relationship can be created, the desirability of the brand will transcend from the self-identity component to others through the subjective norms component.
This suggests advertisers need to evoke emotions in regard to their brand that are akin to those of a desirable relationship, e.g. trust, desire and comfort (Fournier 1998).
Suggested self-identity component for emotion in brand advertising
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Figure 9
Social marketing In regards to social marketing, a relationship with the advertised product is irrelevant. However, as highlighted by Zaichkowsky (1990), for a campaign to have an emotional effect on the individual and motivate change, one first has to identify with the issue of the campaign, thus acknowledging the relevance to their self-identity. Campaign identification reduces avoidance of the triggered emotion.
Suggested self-identity component for emotion in social advertising
Figure 10
Self-efficacy
Brand Advertsing Whilst self-efficacy is evident in brand marketing, such as being a mediating influence on internet shopping (Hernandez et al. 2009), it is not implicated in an emotional respect. It is likely that self-efficacy in relation to brand advertisements is associated to the cognitive processes of decision making and thus shall not be addressed further.
Social marketing Self-efficacy in regards to social marketing is associated with the use of fear. Witte and Allen’s (2000) meta-analysis concluded that self-efficacy had mediating effects on reactions to the fear message, whereby the effects of high fear advertising were only effective if coupled with a high-efficacy message. Weaker efficacy messages were found to correlate with defensive responses to the message, thereby limiting campaign effectiveness. Witte and Allen (2000) noted self-efficacy with regard to fear is comprised of two dimensions; perceived self-efficacy and perceived responses efficacy, whereby the individual assess their own ability to perform the response, assessing their beliefs as to whether the response will evert the fear-associated situation respectively. Witte’s (1992) Extended Parallel Processing Model (EPPM) fear appeal theory suggests that perceived efficacy contributes to the extent the appropriate behaviour is adopted. Thus fear is an effective persuasive devise when provided with a constructive method for fear control (Marchand and Fillatrault 2002).
Figure 11: Extended Parallel Process Model for fear appeals (EPPM) (Witte 1992)
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Basil et al. (2008) used the EPPM for fear appeals to explain the components of charitable donations in response to advertising, suggesting that the combination of empathy and self-efficacy generate guilt which in turn influences donation intentions. Guilt, akin to fear triggers negative emotions in the individual whereby adaptive and maladaptive changes are the potential outcomes. Guilt is most effective when the consumer is given a sense of social responsibility. Basil et al. (2008) found that self-efficacy is a key factor in diminishing maladaptive responses; thus if the guilt is presented in a way that can easily be alleviated, this will positively correlate with charitable donations. Whilst self-efficacy is mediated by guilt it was found do have its own independent effects on intention and behaviour.
Increased exposure to advertising was seen to increase self-efficacy in regard to condom use in AIDS prevention (Agha 2003) whereby Kenyans were previously uneducated in the protective aspects of condoms and the means of accessing condoms. This study highlights that advertising is crucial in eliciting behavioural changes, whereby efficacy elicits positive behavioural responses, providing the correct balance of emotional components are used (See fear appeals- Table 1).
Suggested self-efficacy component for emotion in social advertising
Limitations of the TPB
The TPB explains behaviour in a manner that suggests intentions are directly related to behavioural acts. The main limitation of the TPB is that intentions aren’t a reliable measure of actual behaviour as there are several mediating factors that interfere between intentions and actual behaviour. For example Marks (1996) suggested that “behavioural intention-proved to be a notoriously poor predictor of … action”. Whilst through the use of psychological research, one can observe patterns and correlations in behaviour antecedents, behaviour is not an exact science as the subjects are human beings, who do not behave like predictable machines.
The limitations of the original model are thus transferred to this model. However, there has not been a model that overcomes this as behaviour is an inexact science. Therefore whilst this model seems plausible the link between purchase intentions and consumer behaviour remains tenuous, which reflects an issue which needs to be explored in psychology in general.
However Sutton (1998) highlights the distinction between prediction and explanation of human behaviours in regard to the TPB concluding;
“If the aim is simply to predict behaviour, there can be no theoretical objection to using intention on its own as a predictor”
Yes
Figure 12
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Revised Model for the Theory of Planned Behaviour in Emotional Brand Advertising – figure 13
Represents a direct link unaffected by the following components
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Revised Model for the Theory of Planned Behaviour in Emotional Social Advertising- figure 14
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Conclusion
The revised and extended Theory of Planned Behaviour is demonstrated in figures 13& 14 which account for the factors mediating emotional decision making in respect to both brand and social advertising. The model suggests that emotion is a key aspect of advertising that has not been given sufficient attention in previous models, with considerable importance in predicting behavioural/purchase intentions and subsequent behaviour. However, the model demonstrates the effects of gender, personality and message in influencing behaviour that pose emotion as a complex process that needs careful consideration for use in advertising for upmost efficacy.
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