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Abdominal Examination Adapted from a gastroenterologist forProject Avicenna 2013General principles of examAbdominal ExaminationThe History and Physical in Perspective 70% of diagnoses can be made based on history alone. 90% of diagnoses can be made based on history and physical exam. Expensive tests often confirm what is found during the history and physical.

Equipment for physical examinationRequired Stethoscope Tongue blades Penlight Tape measure Sphygmomanometer Reflex hammer Safety pins Optional Gloves Gauze pads Lubricant gel Nasal speculum Turning fork: 128 Hz,512Hz Pocket visual acuity card Oto-ophthalmoscopeImportant aspects of physical examination----physician Elegant appearanceDecent mannerKind attitudeHighly responsibilityGood medical morals

Important aspects of physical examination---physicianWash your hands, preferably while the patient is watching

Washing with soap and water is an effective way to reduce the transmission of disease

How to perform the physical examination?

Exposing only the area that are being examined Offer a chaperone for both sexes.Explain what you're going to doSequential

Important aspects of physical examinationThe examiner should continue speaking to the patient

Showing care to his disease and answer to patients questions

It can not only release patients nerviness, but also help to establish the good physician-patient relationship

Gloves should be worn when..Examining any individual with exudative lesions or weeping dermatitisWhen handling blood-soiled or body fluid-soiled sheets or clothing

General principles of examGood light Relaxed patient Full exposure of abdomen

General principles of examHave the patient empty their bladder before examinationHave the patient lie in a comfortable, flat, supine positionHave them keep their arms at their sides or folded on the chest

General principles of examBefore the exam, ask the patient to identify painful areas so that you can examine those areas lastDuring the exam pay attention to their facial expression to assess for sign of discomfort

General principles of examUse warm hand, warm stethoscope, and have short finger nails Approach the patient slowly and deliberately explaining what you will be doing

General principles of examStand right side of the bedExam with right handHead just a little elevated Ask the patient to keep the mouth partially open and breathe gently

General principles of examIf muscles remain tense, patient may be asked to rest feet on table with hips and knees flexed

Other helpful points on examinationTake a spare bed sheet and drape it over their lower body such that it just covers the upper edge of their underwear

General principles of examIf the patient is ticklish or frightenedInitially use the patients hand under yours as you palpate When patient calms then use your hands to palpate. Watch the patients face for discomfort.

171Think AnatomicallyThink AnatomicallyWhen looking, listening, feeling and percussing imagine what organs live in the area that you are examining.

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)liver, gallbladder, duodenum, right kidney and hepatic flexure of colon

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)Cecum, appendix (in case of female, right ovary & tube)

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)Sigmoid colon (in case of female, left ovary & tube)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)Stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas (tail), splenic flexure of colon

Epigastric AreaStomach, pancreas (head and body), aorta

Landmarks of the abdominal wall,

Costal margin, umbilicus, iliac crest, anterior superior iliac spine, symphysis pubis, pubic tubercle, inguinal ligament, rectus abdominis muscle, xiphoid process.

Physical Examination of the Abdomen Inspection Auscultation Percussion Palpation Special Tests Inspection Abdominal examinationAppearance of the abdomen Is Aortic pulsation? Is it flat or Scaphoid (Normally)? Distended? If enlarged, does this appear symmetric?With bulging or moving?

Symmetrical in shape

Scaphoid or flat in young patients of normal weight slightly full but not distended in older age group due to poor muscle tone or in subjects who are mildly overweight Appreciation of abdominal contoursStanding at the foot of the table and looking up towards the patient's head. Lower yourself until the anterior abdominal wall and ask the patient to breathe normally while you are doing so.

Appearance of the abdomenGlobal abdominal enlargement is usually caused by air, fluid, or fat.

Appearance of the abdomenLocalized enlargement probably distend GB space occupying lesion, hepatomegaly.

An aortic aneurysmPalpable massPatient feeling of pulsationOn rare occasions, a lump can be visible.

An aortic aneurysm1 in 10 men over 65 may have some enlargement of the abdominal aorta. About 1 in 100 will have a large aneurysm requiring surgery.

Appearance of the abdomen(Skin)

Abnormal venous patternsAbnormal discolorationUmbilicus is sunken

StriaeStretch marks are a light silver hue.Pregnancy and obese individualsCushings syndrome (more purple or pink).

Appearance of the abdomen (Skin)TattoosScars can be drawn on schematic diagrams of the abdomen (a picture is worth a thousand words).

Cullens signEcchymosis periumbilically. (intraperitoneal hemorrhage ruptured ectopic pregnancy, hemorrhagic pancreatitis..)

Grey-Turners signEcchymosis of flanks. (retroperitoneal hemorrhage such as hemorrhagic pancreatitis)

Upward flow direction indicates IVC obstruction

Outward flow pattern from umbilicus in all directions ? Portal HTNEvaluate venous return states

Place index finger side by side over a vein and press laterally, milking vein.Release one finger and time refill, repeat with other finger. Venous return is in direction of faster filling.

Appearance of the abdomenAreas which become more pronounced when the patient valsalvas are often associated with ventral hernias

Visible Pulsations More conspicuous in the thin than in the fatGreater in the old than in the young.Increased in thyrotoxicosis, hypertension, or aortic regurgitation) In those with an aortic aneurysm and tortuous aortaIn those who have a mass joining the aorta to the anterior abdominal wall.

Visible gastric PeristalsisGastric peristalsis is commonly seen in neonates with congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosisIntestinal peristalsis in partial and chronic intestinal obstructionColonic obstruction is usually not manifest as visible peristalsis

Visible intestinal PeristalsisAppearance of the abdomen Patient's movement Patients with kidney stones will frequently writhe on the examination table, unable to find a comfortable position

Appearance of the abdomen Patient's movement Patients with peritonitis prefer to lie very still as any motion causes further peritoneal irritation and pain.

Auscultation

Abdominal examinationAuscultation

Bowel sounds Vascular sounds (bruits)Friction Rubs Auscultation for bowel sounds

It is performed before percussion or palpationAuscultation for bowel soundsNormal sounds are due to peristaltic activity.Peristalsis: A pregressice wavelike movement that occurs involuntarily in hollow tubes of the body.

Auscultation for bowel soundsCompared to the cardiac and pulmonary exams, auscultation of the abdomen has a relatively minor role.

Auscultation for bowel soundsBowel sounds lend supporting information to other findings but are not pathognomonic for any particular process.

Auscultation

1.Diaphragm of stethoscope used2.Skin depressed to approximately 1 cm

Auscultation

3.Listening in one spot is usually sufficient4.Listening for 15-20 or 30-60 seconds5.Bowel sounds cannot be said to be absent unless they are not heard after listening for 3-5 minutes.

Three things about bowel soundAre bowel sounds present?If present, are they frequent or sparse (i.e.quantity)? What is the nature of the sounds (i.e.quality)?

Bowel sound decreaseInflammatory processes of the serosaAfter abdominal surgery In response to narcotic analgesics or anesthesia.

Auscultation for bowel soundsInflammation of the intestinal mucosa will cause hyperactive bowel sounds.

Auscultation for bowel soundsProcesses which lead to intestinal obstruction initially cause frequent bowel sounds, referred to as "rushes."

Auscultation for bowel soundsProcesses which lead to intestinal obstruction initially cause frequent bowel sounds, referred to as "rushes."

Auscultation for bowel soundsRushes" means as the intestines trying to force their contents through a tight opening.

Auscultation for bowel soundsRushes" is followed by decreased sound, called "tinkles," and then silence.

Auscultation for bowel soundsAfter silence the appearance of bowel sounds marks the return of intestinal sounds activity, an important phase of the patient's recovery.

Splash SignSplashing sound indicative of air or fluid in body cavity with shaking individual: normal in s stomach.

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Auscultation for bowel soundsBowel sounds, then, must be interpreted within the context of the particular clinical situation.

711Bruits

Bruits confined to systole do not necessarily indicate disease.

Auscultation for vascular sounds (bruits)Aortic (midline between umbilicus and xiphoid Renal (two inches superior to and two inches lateral to umbilicus) Common iliac (midway between umbilicus and midpoint of inguinal ligament)

Auscultation for vascular sounds (bruits)Presence of a bruit on the renal artery would lend supporting evidence for the existence of renal artery stenosis.

Auscultation for vascular sounds(bruits)

When listening for bruits, you will need to press down quite firmly as the renal arteries are retroperitoneal structures.

Venous Hum (rare)Epigastric/umbilical area. Soft humming noises in systolic/diastolic component. Indicates collateral between portal and venous systems as in hepatic cirrhosis.

Rubs Rubs-RubsLiver SpleenCardiacPulmonary

Friction rubs (rare)Right and left upper quandrants Grating sound with respiratory movement Indicates inflammation of the capsule of the liver or spleen (infection or infarction).

781PercussionAbdominal examination

PercussionTechnique Liver Spleen

Percussion (technique)DIP joint of third finger (pleximeter) pressed firmly on the abdomen remainder of hand not touching the abdomen

Percussion (technique)Striking hand should move only at the wrist, with only little more than force of gravity

Percussion (technique)Middle finger of striking hand (plexor) should knock the pleximeter firmly, with a strong note

There are two basic sounds with PercussionTympanitic (drum-like) sounds produced by percussing over air filled structures.

There are two basic sounds with PercussionDull sounds that occur when a solid structure (e.g. liver) or fluid (e.g. ascites) lies beneath the region being examined.

Examination of Liver (Percussion)Midclavicular line is notedSecond intercostal space is noted

The two solid organs are percussable in the normal patientLiver: will be entirely covered by the ribs. Occasionally, an edge may protrude 1-2 centimeter below the costal margin. Spleen: The spleen is smaller and is entirely protected by the ribs.

891To determine the size of the liverMeasure the liver span by percussing hepatic dullness from above (lung) and below (bowel). A normal liver span is 6 to 12 cm in the midclavicular line.

To determine the size of the liverStart just below the right breast in a line with the middle of the clavicle. Percussion in this area should produce a relatively resonant note.

To determine the size of the liver Move your hand down a few centimeters than you will be over the liver, which will produce a duller sounding tone.

To determine the size of the liver Continue downward until the sound changes once again. At this point, you will have reached the inferior margin of the liver.

Examination of Liver (Percussion)Upper margin is noted by first dull percussion noteLower margin is noted by first tympanitic note

To determine the size of the liverThe resonant tone produced by percussion over the anterior chest wall will be somewhat less drum like then that generated over the intestines. While they are both caused by tapping over air filled structures, the ribs and pectoralis muscle tend to dampen the sound. Examination of Spleen(Percussion)Percussion at Castells SpotCastells Spot identified Left anterior axillary line identified Left lower costal margin identifiedPercussion at Castells Spot while patient inhales and exhales deeplyDull tone indicates possible splenomegalySpleen percussionEnlarged spleen produce a dull tone, in the left upper quadrant percussion but should then be verified by palpation.

Palpation

Abdominal examinationAbdominal Palpation

Technique Light Deep Liver edge

Spleen tip Kidneys Aorta MassesAbdominal palpationTo palpate four quadrants superficially from LLQ counterclockwise

Light PalpationLight Palpation First warm your hands by rubbing them together before placing them on the patient. Abdominal wall depressed approximately 1 cm

1031Abdominal palpationUse pads of three fingers of one hand and a light, gentle, dipping maneuver to examine abdomen

Palpation (light)Any areas of pain or tenderness are reserved for evaluation at the end of the exam

Light PalpationMostly looking for areas of tenderness Tenderness is a physical exam finding a reflex occurs (muscle splinting, wide eyes, moaning, teeth gritting).

Palpation Light palpation assessesMuscle tone Cutaneous hypersensitivity (suggests peritoneal irritation)

Palpation Light palpation assessesPresence of superficial (intramural) masses is more prominent if patient raises their head ,Intra-abdominal mass is less prominent if patient raises their head

Deep PalpationPalpation (deep)

Entire palm Either one- or two handed technique is acceptable

Deep PalpationUse palmar surface of fingers of one hand (greatest number of fingers) and a deep, firm, gentle maneuver to examine abdomen

Palpation Palpate deeply with finger pads (do not dig in with finger tips)

1121Deep PalpationPalpate tender areas last Try to identify abdominal masses or areas of deep tenderness

Two handed techniqueWhen deep palpation is difficult, examiner may want to use left hand placed over right hand to help exert pressure

Palpation (deep)

Push as deeply as patient will allow without significant discomfort

Normal structure that may be palpable Sigmoid colon LiverKidneyAbdominal aortaIliac artery

Distended bladderGravid and non-gravid uterus Xyphoid processspleen Abdominal massIntra abdominal masses or enlargements of the liver, gallbladder or spleenAbdominal wall mass

Intra abdominal masses or enlargements of the liver, gallbladder or spleenThey will shift down with inspiration and back with expiration. (not true of masses within the abdominal wall or retroperitoneal structures).

Aabdominal wall massIt will become more evident and palpable when patient flexes neck as this contracts rectus muscles.

Paraumbilical node

Abdominal pain and TendernessType of abdominal painVisceral painSomatic painVisceral painThis is pain that arises from an organic lesion or functional disturbance within an abdominal viscus (dull, poorly localized, and difficult for the patient to characterize).

Somatic painPainful lesion of the skinSharp, bright, and well localized Indicates involvement of parietal peritoneum or the abdominal wall itself

Tenderness If there is tenderness determine the point of maximum tenderness and its distribution

Abdominal muscle spasmVoluntary guarding Tensing abdominal muscles due to patient anxiety, ticklishness, or toprevent palpation to a painful area Involuntary guarding Muscular spasm or rigidity due to peritoneal inflammationMay be localized (early appendicitis )or diffuse (perforated bowel)

Board-like rigidityIf abdominal wall is palpated as obviously tense, even as rigid as a board, board-like rigidity is so called. Is caused by the spasm of abdominal muscle due to peritoneal irritation.

Differential diagnosis of abdominal painSpine pain Abdominal wall pain( differentiated by having the patient tense his abdominal muscles, by forcefully elevating his head while keeping his shoulders flat on the table)

Liver palpationLiver palpation (Standard Method)Start in the RUQ,10 centimeters below the rib margin in the mid-clavicular line Place left hand posteriorly parallel to and supporting 11th & 12th ribs on right.

Standard Method Liver palpation Ask the patient to take a deep breath. You may feel the edge of the liver press against your fingers.

Liver palpation (Standard Method)Palpating hand is held steady while patient inhales

Liver palpation (Standard Method)Palpating hand is lifted and moved while the patient breathes out

Liver palpationAnother method of palpating the liver uses the radial border of the index finger. In this method the anterior hand is placed flat on the anterior abdominal wall with fingers parallel to the costal margin

Alternate Method Liver palpationIs useful when the patient is obese or when the examiner is small compared to the patient.

Alternate Method Liver palpationStand by the patient's chest. "Hook" your fingers just below the costal margin and press firmly.

Hepatomegaly More than 1cm below the costal marginAn exception is a congenitally large right lobe of the liverSevere, chronic emphysema

Pulsation transmitted from aorta Tricuspid valve insufficiencyHepatojugular reflux signIf you press the liver, you will find the dilated jugular vein becomes more bulged or distended, as from the enlargement of liver passive congestion resulted from right failure.

Ballotable sign

Spleen palpationSpleen palpation

Seldom palpable in normal adults. Causes include COPD, and deep inspiratory descent of the diaphragm.

Spleen palpation

Support lower left rib cage with left hand while patient is supine and lift anteriorly on the rib cage.

Spleen palpation

Palpate upwards toward spleen with finger tips of right hand, starting below left costal margin. Have the patient take a deep breath.

Examination of Spleen (Palpation)Deep technique usedStarting point is RLQ, proceeding to LUQ

Kidney palpationKidney palpationPlace left hand posteriorly just below the right 12th rib. Lift upwards. Palpate deeply with right hand on anterior abdominal wall.

Examination of KidneyPatient take a deep breath. Feel lower pole of kidney and try to capture it between your hands.

Examination of Kidney

Right kidney may be felt to slip between hands during exhalationPalpation of the AortaExamination of AortaFlat palm placed over the the epigastrium to locate pulse

Examination of AortaPress down deeply in the midline above the umbilicus. The aortic pulsation is easily felt on most individuals.

Examination of AortaHands then oriented vertically on either side of midline with distal fingers at level of pulsation; equal pressure applied until pulsation is palpated

A well defined, pulsatile mass, greater than 3 cm across, suggests an aortic aneurysm.Examination of AortaLateral width of pulsation is determined by space between index fingers

Special examAbdominal examinationSpecial examMurphys Sign McBurneys PointRovsings SignPsoas SignObturator Sign Re bound TendernessCostovertebral tendernessShifting DullnessFluid waveMurphys Sign (acute cholecystitis)Examiners hand is at middle inferior border of liver.Patient is asked to take deep inspiration.If positive patient will experience pain and will stop short of full inspiration

Hepatitis, subdiaphragmatic abscess CholecystitisMcBurneys Point

Localized tenderness Just below midpoint of line between right anterior iliac crest and umbilicus.Heel strike, riding over bumps in road while driving, coughing, will produce pain.

McBurneys Point (Common Causes)Appendicitis Incarcerated or strangulated hernia Ovarian torsion (twisted Fallopian tube) Pelvic inflammatory disease Abdominal abscess Hepatitis Diverticular disease Meckel''s diverticulum

Rovsings SignPatient will experience right lower quadrant pain (in region of McBurneys Point) when left lower quadrant is palpated.

Non-Classical AppendicitisIliopsoas Sign

Obturator Sign

Iliopsoas Sign

Patient can lay on side and extend leg at the hip or have patient lay on back and try to flex hip against the resistance of examiners hand on thigh. If patient has an inflamed retrocecal appendix, this will produce pain. Iliopsoas SignAnatomic basis for the psoas sign: inflamed appendix is in a retroperitoneal location in contact with the psoas muscle, which is stretched by this maneuver.

Obturator Sign

Internally rotate right leg at the hip with the knee at 90 degrees of flexion. Will produce pain if inflamed appendix is in pelvis. Obturator SignAnatomic basis for the obturator sign: inflamed appendix in the pelvis is in contact with the obturator internus muscle, which is stretched by this maneuver.

Rebound Tenderness (For peritoneal irritation)Warn the patient what you are about to do. Press deeply on the abdomen with your hand. After a moment, quickly release pressure. If it hurts more when you release, the patient has rebound tenderness. [4]

Cost vertebral Tenderness (Often with renal disease) Use the heel of your closed fist to strike the patient firmly over the costovertebral angles. Compare the left and right sides.

Warn the patient Patient sit up on the exam tableShifting Dullness (For peritoneal fluid) Percuss from anterior abdomen laterally to outline areas of dullness noted

Examination for Shifting Dullness

Patient rolled slightly toward the examined side; movement of the dull point medially is described as shifting dullness and suggests ascites

Shifting Dullness

Fluid wave