ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN WEST NEPAL WITH REFERENCE TO MUSK DEER MOSCHUS MOSCHIFER US

MOSCHIFERUS AND SNOW LEOPARD PANTHERA UNCIA

RODNEY JACKSON

Bodega Bay Institute, 240 Fort Mason, San Francisco, CA 94123, USA

ABSTRACT

Observations were made on the hunting of musk deer Moschus moschiferus moschiferus, blue sheep Pseudois nayaur and snow leopard Panthera uncia by Bhotia tribesmen during a survey of snow leopard populations in the remote Langu Valley of West Nepal. Exploitation of wildlife provides an important source of income to some villagers following pervasive economic and political changes in the region.

INTRODUCTION

Environmental degradation has reached unprecedented levels in the Himalayas of Nepal; population growth is forcing farmers onto ever steeper slopes, villagers are searching farther from their homes for firewood as forests disappear under axe and plough, and shepherds are maintaining large herds for longer periods of time on fragile alpine pastures (Eckholm, 1975). These activities have forced native wildlife to retreat into remote and sparsely populated terrain where the remnant populations may be making their last stand. Due to recent economic and political events, wildlife populations are not being afforded safe sanctuary even in these remote areas as some tribesmen turn increasingly to illegal hunting for their livelihood.

While surveying snow leopard in the Langu Gorge in West Nepal during December and January 1976/77,1 was able to observe the annual winter hunt by men from the nearby villages of Dalphu and Wangri. Each year hunters from these villages spend two months or more poaching musk deer, snow leopard and blue sheep along uninhabited portions of the Langu Gorge and adjacent slopes of the Kanjiroba Himal. Musk deer and snow leopard are being seriously depleted in large portions of their formerly extensive ranges (Goodwin & Holloway, 1972). Musk

63 Biol. Conserv. 0006-3207/79/0016-0043/$02-25 (~ Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1979 Printed in Great Britain

64 RODNEY JACKSON

deer are killed for their valuable musk, which is used in cosmetics and oriental medicines. Musk is a thick secretion produced by the musk gland or'pod' of the male deer; this musk gland is removed, dried, and sold to smugglers. Blue sheep provide meat for local consumption, while the rare snow leopard is killed for its pelt and as proof of the hunter's skill.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

Located north of the main Himalayan range along the Tibetan border in West Nepal, the Langu or Namlang River Gorge (longitude 82 °, 33' to 41'E, latitude 29 °, 30' to 35'N) has been described as among the most forbidding areas in the Himalayas (Tyson, 1970). Elevations range between approximately 2,700 m along the river to over 6,800 m on some mountain peaks to the south. The Langu River drains the high Dolpo plateau to the east and flows westward, unable to penetrate southward until its confluence with the Mugu Karnali; its gorge is uninhabited and accessible only during the monsoon-free winter. The villages of Dalphu and Wangri, at an elevation of some 3,350 m, are situated on steep slopes near the downstream entrance to the gorge. A sparse scrub vegetation, comprised largely of juniper Juniperus wallichiana, Caragana, Lonicera, and other species adapted to semi-arid conditions, occupies the northern slopes of the gorge, while blue pine Pinus excelsa, alpine fir A bies spectabilis and birch Betula utilis forests grow on the cooler, moister slopes of the Kanjiroba Himal to the south.

Data on hunting activities were gathered by examining trophies at a number of hunting camps, surveying the hunting grounds, and interviewing hunters, informants and villagers. My crude population estimates for snow leopard and blue sheep are based on visual sightings, tracks and other signs, and surveys of available habitat. Wildlife harvest estimates are derived from information provided by informants and supplemented by limited pelt and skull counts.

RESULTS

Hunting methods Some Bhotia tribesmen have developed highly effective hunting strategies, rarely

using firearms. Bamboo (Arundinaria) spears, about 1 m in length, are angled upright in the ground along wildlife trails. The extremely sharp and hard point of the spear is coated with a potent poison derived from forest herbs collected at lower elevations. Spears are placed on small ledges along steep trails, and as the animals descend, they are impaled. The poison, apparently a neurotoxin, enters the animal's bloodstream and kills quickly. I observed an adult blue sheep, weighing approximately 40 kg, that had collapsed and died less than 35 m from where it had

MUSK DEER AND SNOW LEOPARD IN WEST NEPAL 65

struck a poisoned spear. Examination of the carcass revealed no penetration of vital organs.

Hunting techniques depend upon the particular animal sought. Musk deer are hunted at elevations of 3,300 to 4,200 m, primarily in birch forests and scrub juniper near timber line. Optimal trapping areas are small ledges interspersed with rocky outcrops and cliffs where musk deer tend to concentrate during their rut. Spears are usually placed at the bases of low ledges and near fresh defecation sites or 'latrines'. After an area is saturated with poisoned spears, hunters frequently resort to fire to drive animals toward traps. Unlike their counterparts in other parts of Nepal, these hunters do not construct brush barricades, nor do they use spring-loaded nooses or dogs to run musk deer down (Green, 1977). Traps are checked everyday to minimise loss of musk glands to vultures and other scavengers. When hunting the snow leopard, a hunter usually places a dozen or more spears closely together on trails used by the animal. In order to circumvent impassable sections of the Langu gorge or its steep-sided tributaries, the snow leopard relies heavily upon strategic trails, frequently ledges a metre or so wide traversing the base of cliffs. Though a wide- ranging and nomadic species (Schaller, 1977), snow leopards are vulnerable to this method of hunting because they repeatedly use the same trails to move around their large home-range; the Langu animals seem to visit the same area every four to eight weeks and snow leopard trails are easily located by the abundant faeces and scrapes in prominent places the animals select to mark their presence. Once spears have been placed along a preferred trail, the hunter need only infrequently check his traps while concentrating on musk deer, for sooner or later snow leopard will use the trail. Its chances for survival are poor.

Hunting is a communal activity among the villagers of Dalphu. About 30 men operating from seven base camps and organised into six groups spend the months of November, December and early January hunting. These groups are led by the most experienced individual and membership is highly competitive. Each group has its own clearly delineated hunting grounds, and the most prized (and productive) hunting grounds are the extensive birch forests of the Ruka drainage. Other forests are smaller, more accessible and have been more heavily hunted in the past. Each year the village headsman assigns the various groups to a different hunting area; thus each has an opportunity to hunt the best locales. Hundreds of poisoned spears are placed each year and then retrieved for future use at the end of the season. Hunting is conducted openly since the tribesmen have little fear of governmental interference because the area's isolation and rugged, dangerous trails discourage policing.

Economics of hunting In spite of religious sanctions on the taking of life, most Buddhist tribesmen of the

Himalayas, motivated by the need for animal protein, have long killed wildlife: meat is a dietary necessity in a region where protein-rich crops cannot be successfully grown. In times past, over-hunting was precluded by a limited human population,

66 RODNEY JACKSON

strong influence of religious leaders, the use of livestock as the primary meat source, and a sound economy developed around the exchange of agricultural and other essential commodities such as salt, wool and grain.

The escalation of the musk trade in the more remote areas of Nepal is closely related to changing political and economic patterns. During the mid-1960s, Chinese authorities imposed restrictions on trans-Himalayan trade into Tibet, thereby threatening the prosperity of the high altitude dwellers. The greatest change, however, is probably due to developments within Nepal itself (yon Fiirer- Haimendorf, 1975). The trade in Tibetan salt, for centuries a mainstay of border peoples, could thrive only as long as a monopoly existed for it. The malarial lowlands or 'Terai' that separates India from the Himalayan foothills eliminated any trade of Indian salt into the mountains. Those traders who carried supplies of Tibetan salt long distances on their backs, or by sheep and yak caravans, could be assured of bartering it for many times its value in grain. In recent years malarial control programmes and newly constructed roads have allowed cheap Indian salt to enter the Himalayan market, disrupt the ancient Tibetan salt monopoly, and thereby severely affect the Bhotia barter livelihood. Lacking large pastures, and no longer having access to winter pastures in Tibet, the residents of Dalphu and Wangri have subsequently begun to depend on musk poaching and copper mining as revenue sources. Recently the Nepal government banned the smelting of copper ore because of concern about rapid deforestation. With the inexorable trend toward a cash economy and decreasing grain surpluses in the middle hills, the Bhotias are increasingly faced with inflation beyond the means of their barter economy.

The musk trade is centuries old but only in recent decades has this resource been seriously depleted. Early explorers to the Himalayas make frequent mention of the trade. Hamilton (1819, quoted in Green, 1977) for example, notes that 'the most valuable production of the southern face of these mountains is the animal which produces musk of which vast numbers are killed annually'. The export value of musk has increased dramatically, from about $US 0.07/g in 1890 to between $10-$18 in 1977. The banning of the musk trade in 1973 by the government was accompanied by a doubling of prices and organised trafficking to exploit this lucrative market. The value of musk to the hunter of West Nepal has increased from $4.80/g in 1974 to $8.40 in 1977. Dalphu hunters sell their musk collectively to 'middlemen' from as far away as Kathmandu (an 8-day walk and 400 air km) or to the village headman who acts as a broker. According to informants and by personally checking some hunting camps, an estimated 620 g of musk, worth about $5,000 to the Dalphu hunters, were obtained during the 1976/77 season. This quantity's export value is estimated to be around $12,000. Since all profits are shared equally by all members of a particular group, each hunter earned between $40 and $250 for his two-and-a-half month time investment. With about 25 of the approximately 60 families of Dalphu involved in the trade, almost 20 ~ of the village's families satisfied all their cash needs, about $160/year, from the poaching of musk deer.

MUSK DEER AND SNOW LEOPARD IN WEST NEPAL 67

While other Nepalese tribes, notably the Tamangs of Ankhu Khola in central Nepal and the Lhomis of the upper Arun Valley of east Nepal, are expert hunters, few earn profits approaching those of the residents of Dalphu or Wangri. Musk deer have virtually disappeared from Ankhu Khola, and many Tamang hunters are forced to go as far as Sikkim to poach; many return with little success (Toffin, 1976).

Snow leopards are widely killed for their highly prized pelt and reportedly for their abdominal fat, which is used by some religious leaders (lamas) for medicinal purposes. In contrast to musk, the value of snow leopard pelts in West Nepal has declined in recent years. This, however, has not ended the hunting of this cat. In 1974 a pelt was worth $30-50 to the hunter; its current value is about $10. Profits to the 'middlemen' who transport the skin over 200 km to India, where most of the Nepalese pelts are sold, have also declined substantially. Furthermore, Indian traders are becoming increasingly unwilling to deal in this species, perhaps as a result of the international trade bans on pelts from endangered species and increased awareness on the part of tourists. In some respects the decline in rural values is surprising--snow leopard coats are worth as much as $50,000 on the black market in Europe (Wayne King, pers. comm.), but India and Nepal are probably not important sources of this species.

Since musk is far more profitable one wonders why any Dalphu hunters continue to kill snow leopard; only a few made special efforts to trap this species. I found over 30 spears set out specifically for snow leopard; two adult snow leopards were killed and one wounded during the 1976/77 season in the Langu Valley. The most plausible explanation for the continued hunting is the strong hunting tradition of these people, and the esteem some attach to killing such a rare and elusive predator. The snow leopard is not a serious threat to livestock according to Dalphu residents who reported few losses, and who generally viewed the animal with indifference.

Impacts of hunting Musk deer. Commercial hunting is undoubtedly placing substantial pressures on

musk deer populations, although it is not possible to assess accurately resource depletion since population data are not available. Musk deer are becoming increasingly rare and localised throughout Nepal (Jamwal, 1972). In the Namlang Valley I located a number of birch forests that showed few signs of musk deer, while evidence of previous hunting activity abounded. Although the hunters asserted they have observed no decline in their catch, they also admitted to no longer being able to hunt in formerly productive areas. The extensive burning of habitat is an indirect index of the intensity of hunting: in mid-December I observed virtually continuous wild fires in a 13-km corridor along the Kanjiroba Mountains above Dalphu and Wangri villages.

Informants reported that an estimated 105 musk deer of both sexes and approximately 600g of musk were taken during the 1976/77 season. I cannot personally substantiate these numbers because I was unable to visit all hunting

68 RODNEY JACKSON

camps or tally musk 'pods'; however, I was able to examine the Ruka and Tillisha harvests and count pelts, and my estimates were fairly close to the figures provided by informants. Although the latter could not provide information on the sex ratios of the harvested animals, these can be estimated since only the male deer have musk. Assuming these figures are realistic estimates of the harvest and assuming the average adult male musk deer yields about 35 g of the oily secretion (Green, 1977), the calculated ratio of males killed to female and young animals of both sexes is about 1:4 (Table 1). This ratio is probably high because immature males, which only yield as little as 5 g of musk, are also taken (Flerov, 1952), and because some groups, notably the Sonduk 2 hunters (Table 1), reported significant losses of musk-bearing individuals to scavengers. Both of these factors tend to result in misleadingly low estimates of males killed.

TABLE 1 MUSK DEER HARVEST MADE BY DALPHU HUNTERS, 1976/77

Hunting Group Number o f Total musk Estimated animals reported male/female killed ~ (in Tola) a'b and young ratios ~

Ruka 35 22 1 : 3.8 Tillisha 24 14 1 : 4.1 Sonduk 1 16 8 1 : 4 . 9 Sonduk 2 9 2 1 :1 2 .6 Eding 14 5 1 : 7-4 Dhukya l /Takla 7 3 1 : 6.0

T O T A L 105 54 AVG. 1 : 4 . 8

" Da ta provided by informers b One tola is equivalent to l l . 5 g c Estimate assumes average musk 'pod ' is 3 tolas or about 34.5 g.

The data well illustrate the indiscriminate killing of muskless females and young animals by local techniques, which presumably affect the population's breeding potential. Hunting activities of the Bhotia tribesmen may affect musk deer in other ways: for example, disruption to the rut may occur as the reproductive phase begins in December and females remain in oestrus for a month (Flerov, 1952). Due to heavy hunting pressures in Nepal, McNeely (1973) suggests that musk deer populations are probably at or near their maximum breeding capacity, with females reproducing in their first year. Since grasses, shrubs and slow-growing lichens constitute the musk deer's diet, burning likely impairs its habitat.

Snow leopard. I estimated that a minimum of five snow leopards occupied a 400-500 km 2 area in the Langu Valley, and by the end of the winter two had been killed by hunters and one accidently wounded in a trap set for musk deer. Snow leopard populations, like other large predators, are characterised by low densities

MUSK DEER AND SNOW LEOPARD IN WEST NEPAL 69

and large home ranges. Thus Schaller (1977) estimated that a minimum of six snow leopards used a 500 km 2 area during the winter around Shey and Phoksumdo Lake in the Kanjiroba Range southeast of my study area, though none were apparently wholly resident. While the Langu population may be replenished from stocks occupying the uninhabited and largely unhunted terrain to the east and north along the Tibetan border, its numbers declined by some 40 ~ in a single season (Jackson, in prep.) It is unlikely that this population can sustain these pressures for long. In Pakistan, Schaller (1976) reported that the status of the snow leopard changed from tenuous security to seriously threatened within a period of four years.

Blue sheep, the primary winter prey of the snow leopard in Namlang Valley, are also hunted by men, and I estimated that hunters harvested 20-40 animals from a population of some 120-250 animals. Age and sex counts of 31 skulls found in the hunters' camps showed that considerably more males (87~,,) than females were killed, a difference attributed to the greater caution females and accompanying young show in approaching watering sites, where most traps are placed. Most males killed were six years or older (51-8 ~o); only 3.7 ~o were less than three years of age. What effect this removal may have on the reproductive success of blue sheep or the food supply of the snow leopard is highly speculative, but older male sheep are reproductively more important to the population, the hunting season coincides with the annual blue sheep rut and snow leopards appear to prey more heavily on male than female sheep (Schaller, 1977).

Conservation of musk deer and snow leopard The export of musk was banned by the Nepal National Parks and Wildlife

Conservation Act of 1973. During the last year of legal trading, exports of musk totalled 116.34 kg worth $1.1 million or 8.7 ~o of Nepal's exports, and represented 2,000 to 3,300 adult male animals (Green, 1977). Well-meant legislation has unwittingly promoted a scarcity and a thriving black market of musk by inducing increases in the value of this commodity. With a few grams of musk the Tamang tribesman can make more money in two months than a soldier from the Gurkha regiment can in three years. This is an important incentive since indebtedness is rampant among many mountain tribes. With economic benefits as substantial as these, the ease with which musk can be smuggled, and the unwillingness of the oriental medicine trade to accept synthetic substitutes, it is unlikely that protective laws will significantly ease pressures on musk deer populations.

Musk deer are reported to be abundant in isolated pockets near the Tibetan border (Jamwal, 1972), but they are subject to widespread hunting. They are rapidly disappearing even in protected areas such as Langtang National Park, where a recent survey found that 86 ~,, of the musk deer habitat examined had been trapped during three successive years. Between 100 and 500 noosed 'gates' were reported in a l km transect (Durham University Himalayan Expedition, 1978). Although

70 RODNEY JACKSON

poaching could be discouraged by increased policing, the trade is simply too lucrative for the local populace to ignore. Farming of musk deer is possible, but research is urgently needed to evaluate the feasibility of farming in the light of economic and land-use conditions in Nepal. Flerov (1952) notes that the musk secretion can be removed from the gland by inserting a small tube in its orifice without killing the animal, and the Chinese have extracted musk from penned animals as many as 14 times with no adverse effect (Anon, 1973). However, this approach involves relatively sophisticated management and dietary procedures, and until more information is available it is difficult to assess its applicability to remote mountain situations. A possible alternative to breeding musk deer in captivity may be to livetrap wild individuals, extract the musk, and then release the animal. The minimum realistic conservation strategy seems to be the control of habitat destruction and poaching in national parks like Langtang, Lake Rara, and Sagamartha (Mount Everest) through existing regulations.

While little is known about the status and distribution of the snow leopard, Nepal's populations are thought to be seriously depleted (Jackson, in prep.). With less than 20 ~o of the country having potentially suitable habitat, the snow leopard now appears to be largely restricted to areas north of the main Himalaya Range along the Tibetan border. An extrapolation from estimates of winter density in the Langu Valley and the Shey area to the cat's possible range in all of Nepal (including the more disturbed southern slopes of the Himalayas) suggests a population of 150-300 animals in Nepal. This may be a high estimate since both census areas are atypically remote and sparsely populated by humans. The decline of the species in other parts of the Himalayas is reflected by the fact that few villagers have reported consistent livestock losses or complained about the predator in recent years (Schaller, 1977).

The snow leopard is legally protected, but enforcement is--and will continue to be--difficult because of poor communications, inadequate funds and limited manpower to police the animal's rugged habitat. The most feasible conservation measures are the reduction or elimination of the fur trade and the development of large, defensible sanctuaries. Both Nepal and India have ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, which may be largely responsible for the substantial decline in pelt values. A 400 km 2 area at Shey is being proposed as a wildlife reserve, but has yet to be gazetted by the Nepal government. This area will not afford year-round sanctuary since none of the six leopards reported at Shey are entirely resident; further study may warrant increasing the area of the reserve, particularly since resident blue sheep populations are largely unmolested by humans because of strong Buddhist influences in the area. With the possible exception of Langtang National Park, where a possible snow leopard track was recently reported, the species appears to be absent from Nepal's mountain national parks (Robert Fleming, Jr., pers. comm.)

MUSK DEER AND SNOW LEOPARD IN WEST NEPAL 71

CONCLUSIONS

Nepal has taken a significant step toward protecting its wildlife with the establishment of several parks and controlled hunting reserves in the Himalayas. Reserves, however, can only preserve small fragments of the ecologically diverse mountain environment, and must compete with expanding human populations for scarce resources. These pressures can only be expected to intensify as previously remote areas are increasingly affected by 20th century patterns of life.

~The needs of man and wildlife are difficult to reconcile, especially outside the confines of established reserves, but it may be possible to develop economically sensible and ecologically viable forest, range and wildlife management programmes under the control of local village councils. At present there are few alternative sources of cash income available to these traditionally independent and self- sufficient communities, although properly managed, musk deer may provide an invaluable renewable resource. Conservation of the snow leopard presents a more formidable problem, since it is a shy animal that seeks wilderness and avoids contact with man; however, a tenuous co-existence should be possible ira system of carefully regulated land-uses responsive to human needs, and moderately large reserves, encompassing winter and summer ranges, are established to preserve viable populations of predators and large mountain ungulates. Ultimately the real challenge lies in implementing locally adapted, but regionally cohesive, land-use plans for the many remote villages of the Himalayas--this will require the expertise of interdisciplinary experts and co-operation and involvement with local residents.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was made possible by grants from several private individuals and organisations to whom I express my deep gratitude. For assistance in Nepal I am indebted to Hemant Mishra and Frank Poppleton of the newly established National Parks and Wildlife Conservation office, and Sherpas Dawa Gyalzen and Ang Kami without whose generous help the arduous field work would not have been feasible. Dr A. Starker Leopold, Franklin Gress and Richard Lair reviewed the manuscript and offered invaluable comments and criticisms.

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