1

AFTER-LIFE || LIFE-AFTER

2

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MATERIAL RESEARCH

SOCIO-CULTURAL REPRESENTATION OF DEATH: POPULATION GROWTH, THE BODY, THE CEREMONY, THE SPACE, AND THE IDENTITY

THESIS PROPOSAL 46

38

6

4

ABSTRACT

Death is an inevitable subject that affects every organism in existence. In nature, death is a vital part of a cycle: the decomposition of a deceased organism will yield nutrients that support gene-sis and the sustainability of life for other organisms. Conversely, human civilization has symbolically preserved the body – to the point of immateriality - to satiate an existential requisite that is inextricably tied to the socio-cultural identity.

The idea of “city life” is growing exponentially, and as a result, plots of unused land designated for the traditional burial process are becoming scarce. The shift in prioritizing land for urban, agricul-tural, commercial, and residential development, and not for funeral services, creates higher cost for the traditional burial market. From an ecological perspective, formaldehyde is detrimental to the soil; from occupational safety concern, formaldehyde is very harmful to workers under daily exposure. As a result, society has begun a shift toward affordable, and quite possibly, more effi cient, ecological alter-natives in dealing with the post-mortem. One of the alternatives is the natural – or green - burial. The natural burial is a viable alternative that accedes to the requisites of sustainability, however if the goal is to reduce land-use, the individual burial is temporary: after the decomposition of the body’s fl esh, the skeleton is exhumed to be replaced by another body in 10-15 years. This process exerts extraneous embodied energy. The other alternative is cremation. Although cremation has been around since the beginning of civilization, its purpose, meaning, and overall reception has been as variegated as the human genome. In the early period of western society, cremation was considered taboo: a means of relegation administered to those on fringe of society: the indigent, the outcast, and the loner. However, the perspective on cremation has changed considerably. The percentage of cremation at the global scale is steadily increasing.

From a material perspective, the human body is comprised of bones that are well-designed structural components. They are designed to support static and dynamic loads from unpredictable conditions. Naturally, the bone structure is working in concert with tissue and cartilage, but the overall growth process of bone can be a valuable precedent for architectural/structural design. Furthermore, emergent technologies in biomimicry, computational design, and 3d printing have allowed engineers, designers, and scientists the capability to expound on the complexities of nature’s formal algorithms.

With the growing resurgence of cremation sparked by increased urbanization, my proposal pushes the boundaries of life after death much further: my proposition examines the role of architec-ture in death, and more specifi cally how the built environment can utilize cremains – “cremated re-mains” – through an architectural investigation coalesced with modern technology and experimentation that exists in biomimetics, material science, engineering, sustainability and fabrication. By propos-ing “cremains” as a viable building material, this will support the existing trend of cremation over the traditional burial method as well as commemorate the essence of life beyond death while broaching the subject of metaphysics as the individual maintains a socially active role in society that imbues the incorporeal with the tangible in a sustainable way:

5

“Proposed architecture is a participant of the natural system, exhibiting ‘metabolism’ and acting like the mechanisms to which it was formed: in exchange with environment, response to feedback, and evolutionary in its own right. “ John Frazer

In my mind, this quote illustrates architecture taking the role as an agent of change. The ob-jective of my proposal is an exploration in the possibility of bone as a material option in architecture, and more importantly, repurposing the symbolism of the corporal perspective of death from a holistic approach.

“Responsibly contending with human mortality and the physical remains of the dead in spaces designed to compliment contemporary society is an ethical and social obligation of any progressive civilization.” Christina Stuadt, PhD

6

Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent. This implies heterogeneity – or difference - of physical and mechanical properties relative to their functions or location of applied forces. In other words, a material that is anisotropic will have a difference in physical and mechanical properties (ab-sorbance, tensile, and compressive strength) that depend on the direction of force. Bone and Wood are anisotropic materials.

1 MATERIAL RESEARCH

1.1 BIOMATERIAL + COMPOSITES

The following contains in-depth research into the biological formation, mechanical properties, and microstructure of bone, wood, and concrete. My intention was to acquire a comprehensive under-standing of each material to adequately support my conceptual applications of pulverized bone. Similar to bone, wood is a natural anisotropic material that originates from trees that are formed by site-spe-cifi c load conditions. Moreover, it is broken down into a different form only to be repurposed as an altered version of its former self – structure and shelter. Concrete is a highly heterogeneous material that is formed by aggregate, admixture, cement and water matrix. These constituents are very similar to the composition of bone (fragmented and pulverized) and the collagenous matrix that is in bone. The extensive research into bone formation provides the precedence to explore structural form-fi nd-ing algorithms portion of my proposal. This area of study – biomechanics, composites, and fabrication -has been researched and explored by many notable professionals such as Julius Wolf, A.G Michell, Frei Otto, Neri Oxman, Softkill Design, Clause Mattheck, and Andre Harris, amongst many others. I will use experiments from a few of these individuals as precedence to further sculpt my proposed form. Before I expound on these materials, I would like to briefl y describe a few terms that will be mentioned frequently in the material research portion of my thesis:

ANISTROPY

Heterogeneity allows for the generation of position-dependent material properties. It is here consid-ered as higher-level accounting for non-homogeneous distribution of fi bers with multiple directions.

HETEROGENEITY

7

HEIRARCHICAL STRUCTURING

The emergence of hierarchical structures in natural tissues and specimens is promoted by anisotropic material structuring in heterogeneous organizations, that, when superimposed, enhance the mechanical performance of the substrate. Bottom-up assemblies of structures and interfaces ap-pear as multiple material organizations form super-structures in meso-, and macro-scales.[1]

1.1.1 BONE

Bone is a composite material: it is composed of 70% inorganic mineral such as calcium phos-phate, calcium hydroxyapatite crystals, and 30% organic collagenous matrix.

1.1.1.2 BIOLOGICAL PROCESS

The formation of bone originates with endochondral and intramembranous ossifi cation. The endochondral ossifi cation is the conversion of cartilaginous tissue [cartilage] to osseous tissue [bone]; this process occurs in long, short, and irregular bone structures.[2] Intramembraneous ossifi cation is the process associated with the formation of fl at bones, and unlike endochondral, is formed by connective tissue, not cartilage - e.g., the skull and collarbone. In addition, this is the overall process that occurs during reparation of bone damage and reconstruction. [3]

The primary tissue of bone is called osseous tissue: a relatively hard and lightweight composite material. This material is mostly made up of the minerals, calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxylap-atite crystals. These minerals give bones their rigidity. The other material in osseous tissue is colla-gen, an elastic protein which improves fracture resistance. Osseous tissue has relatively high com-pressive strength of about 25 KSI [170 MPa], but poor tensile strength of 15-18 KSI [104–121 MPa], and very low shear stress strength of 7.5 KSI [51.6 MPa]. This means bone resists pushing forces well, but not pulling or torsional forces. While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a signifi cant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefl y by collagen. All bones consist of living and dead cells embedded in the mineralized organic matrix that makes up the osseous tissue.[4]

[1] OXMAN, NERI. MATERIAL-BASED DESIGN COMPUTATION. MIT: CAMBRIDGE, MASS. THE MIT PRESS, 2010: 52 [2] MULLALY, AARON. “BONE DEVELOPMENT: ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION”. SOPHIA. 26.NOV.2013 [3] “WHAT IS INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFIATION?”. HTTP://WWW.WISEGEEK.ORG/WHAT-IS-INTRAMEMBRANOUS-OSSIFICATION.HTM. JAN.2014 [4] TURNER, C.H.; WANG, T.; BURR, D.B. (2001). “SHEAR STRENGTH AND FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN CORTICAL BONE DETERMINED FROM PURE SHEAR TESTS”. CALCIFIED TISSUE INTERNATIONAL 69(6): 373–378

8

1.1.1.3 BONE CONSTITUENTS

1.1.1.3.1 CORTEX [CORTICAL BONE]

1.1.1.3.2 TRABACULAE [CANCELLOUS BONE]

The osseous tissue is divide into numerous types of cells, but I will expound on the most salient constituents that are related to the structural and mechanical properties of bone:

The outermost layer of bone is the cortex bone. Cortical [cortex] bone is also referred as the compact bone due to its minimal gaps and spaces. Its porosity is between 5 -30%. This tissue gives bones their smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult sketeton.[5]

Trabacular bone is the interior tissue that is comprised of a network of rod – and plate-like elements. This element of bone consists of 20% of the total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of cortical bone.[6] Tracabular bone is formed based on the orientation of tension and compression trajectories. The average direction of the resulting force is aligned exactly with the orientation of the compression trajectories, and is intersected by the tension trajectories at orthogonal and non-orthogonal angles depending on the load trajectory, magnitude, and location. This theory was proposed by Julius Wolf. [7]

FIGURE []: CLOSE-UP IMAGE OF CANCELLOUS BONE FROM THE HUMAN FEMUR OXMAN, NERI. MATERIAL-BASED DESIGN COMPUTATION. MIT: CAMBRIDGE, MASS. THE MIT PRESS, 2010. ELECTRONIC. P 58

FIGURE []: MICROSCOPIC IMAGE OF CORTEX [COMPACT] BONE. IIMAGE IS CREDITED TO ANDRE HARRIS BONE-INSPIRED PAVILION.

[5] HALL, SUSAN. (2007) BASIC BIOMECHANICS. FIFTH EDITION. P. 88 [6] HALL, SUSAN. (2007) BASIC BIOMECHANICS. FIFTH EDITION. P. 88 [7] PETRA (2011), “BIOMIMETICS IN ARCHITECTURE: ARCHITECTURE OF LIFE AND BUILDINGS.GERMANY”: 34

9

1.1.1.3.3 COLLAGEN

Collagen is 90% of the organic extracellular matrix that supports the cortex and trabaculae bone cells. The collagenous matrix is responsible for the fracture resistance of bone. This is preva-lent, and desired, in composite as one material should be much stiffer than the other to prevent crack propagation: “if a crack runs through a fi ber of stiff material and then reaches an unstiff material, the latter will slightly deform, accommodate the crack, and reduce the force concentration at the tip of the crack. Result – the crack stops.”[8]

1.1.1.4 BONE FORMATION

1.1.1.4.1 JULIUS WOLF THEORY

Julius Wolf, a german anatomist and surgeon, proposed in his theory that the variable density occurs in bone growth. Furthermore, Wolf’s theory postulates that the external load condition on the bone directly relates to the composition, shape, and overall density of the trabaculae and cortical mi-crostructures.[9] “For example, the arched trabecular patterns are often interpreted as adaptations that approximate the ‘trajectories’ of principal tensile and compressive stresses produced by habitual load application.[10] Wolf’s theory has been seminal in the fi eld of biomechanics and is qoutidian in contem-porary biomechanic literature. Futhermore, results from tests conducted in graphical statics, 2D, and 3D Finite Element Analysis modeling has supported wolf’s theory based on the trajectories of tra-baculae matching the stress trajectories induced by identical loads. The culmination of Wolf’s theory proposes that the formation of trabaculae and cortex can be deduce by a quantifi able algorithim similar to a design calculation – however no such mechanical design rule has been confi rmed. [11]

[8] VOGEL, STEVEN. “COMPARATIVE MECHANICS: LIFE’S PHYSICAL WORLD” – SECOND EDITION”: 335 [9] FROST, HM (1994). “WOLFF’S LAW AND BONE’S STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO MECHANICAL USAGE: AN OVERVIEW FOR CLINICIANS”. THE ANGLE ORTHODONTIST 64 (3): 175–188 [10] BAUCOM, SIDNEY L., AND JOHN. G. SKEDOS. “MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF TRABECULAR ‘TRAJECTORIES’ IN APPARENT TRAJECTORIAL STRUCTURES: THE UNFORTUNATE HISTORICAL EMPHASIS ON THE HUMAN PROXIMAL FEMUR.” JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL BIOLOGY 244 (2007): 16 [11] HUISKES R, 2000. “IF BONE IS THE ANSWER, THEN WHAT IS THE QUESTION?”, J.ANAT. 19:, 148

10

FIGURE [] AFTER THE APPLICATION OF LOADS TO THE HOMOGENOUS FIELD, THE REGULATORY SCHEME PREDICTS THE MORPHOGENESIS OF TRABACULAR ARCHITECTURE. THE STRUCTS ARE ORIENTED ACCORDING TO THE EXTERNAL LOAD DIRECTIONS. STRTING FROM AN ARBITRARY LATTICE STRUCTURE, NOT ALLIGNED WITH THE EXTERNAL LOAD, AN ARCHITECTURE IS CREATED OF WHICH BOTH TRABACULAR THICKNESS AND ORIENTATION ARE ADAPTED TO THE EXTERNAL LOAD. (MULLENDER + HUISKES, 1995)

FIGURE []: THE MOUNTAIN RANGE TECHNIQUE WAS INVENTED TO ILLUSTRATE CALCIUM DISTRIBUTION IN THE BONE AS A FUNCTION OF THE LOAD APPLIED. THE TOP IMAGE REPRESENTS THE INTERNAL BONE STRUCTURE INFORMED BY LOAD PATHS ACROSS THE BONE. THE BOTTOM IMAGE REPRESENTS MATERIAL DISTRIBUTION TO THE ANATOMICAL SECTION EXAMINED. (OTTO, HERZOG ET ALL. 1990)OK

11

1.1.1.4.2 WILHELM ROUX THEORY

In contrast to Wolf’s proposal on the existence of a standard mechanical design rule for bone, Wilhelm Roux suggests that the architecture of trabaculae and cortex is regulated by cells, governed by mechanical stimuli, in a self-organizational process that is biological. Roux’s “thermostat” theory, proposes that it is the local stains induced by external loading that regulates the bone mass based upon “mechanical loading data in humans and animals showing the addition of bone is preferential to where the strains are greatest”.[12] Moveover, he suggests through observation that “the mechanotrans-duction process, especially in development, is to provide threshold values required for implementation or maintenance of patterns of growth guided principally by positional information, and it seems increas-ingly likely that this maxim holds as much for tracabalae as it does for cortex.”[13] Despite the contro-versy over the method of calculating bone growth, modern scholars are in agreement that the descrip-tion of Wolf’s law is vague and needs additional testing to further support or reject the theory: “the enormously variable ways that this nebulous rubric [wolf’s law] is used to explain normal and patho-logic bone ‘transformation’ processes are impediments to progress in understanding how mechanical stimuli and other biologic factors mediate normal skeletal development, maintenance, and adaptation.” [14]

Today, wolf’s law is the putative theory on the architecture of trabaculae and cortex bone by those who deal with bone composition, growth patterns, and maintenance as a profession: orthopedic and oral surgeons, biomechanical engineers, and orthopedists. Therefore it is generally accepted that the density and anisotropy of tracabulae is predicated on the magnitude and direction of the load it experiences. However, the scintilla of uncertainty regarding this Wolf’s position on a unique design rule beckons further inquiry when I commence the in-depth material research during the engineering por-tion of my thesis model. For now, I will continue with Wolf’s theory on the formation of bone as well as the modernly accepted theory of Roux on the existence of the programmed “thermostat” value within the growth process that is biological. One things that is certain, that mechanotransduction is responsi-ble for the adaptation on bone growth.

The remodeling of bone occurs during a process known as mechanotransduction: a process where forces or other mechanical signals are converted to biochemical signals in cellular signaling. The conversion is due to the piezoelectric properties of bone which means that an electrical voltage precipitated by external mechanical/structural stress creates a grid of excitation, which functions as guidance for the cells transporting the calcium substance.[15]

The cells responsible for this transformation are oteocytes: they constitute approximately 95% of all bone cells and coordinate the remodeling process carried out by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts regulate bone deposition and maintenance.[16] The osteoclasts are responsible for the resorption; they are activated by osteoblasts and the lining cells at the bone surface and are regulated by the presence of microcracks within the bone matrix or by disuse. Therefore it is posited that the osteocytes are activated by osteoblasts coupled with the formation of microcracks.[17]

1.1.1.5 MECHANOTRANSDUCTION

[12] NAGATOMI, JIRO. MECHANOBIOLOGY HANDBOOK. BOCA RATON, FL: CRC PRESS, 2011. PRINT. 183 [13] LOVEJOY, C.O., MCCOLLUM, M.A., RENO, P.L., ROSENMAN, B.A. 2003. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY AND HUMAN EVOLUTION. ANNU. REV. ANTHROPOL. 32: 85-109 [14] BERTRAM, J.E., SWARTZ, S.M., 1991. THE ‘LAW OF BONE TRANSFORMATION’: A CASE OF CRYING WOLFF? BIOL. REV. CAMB. PHILOS. SOC. 66: 245-273. [15] DUNCAN, RL; CH TURNER (NOVEMBER 1995). “MECHANOTRANSDUCTION AND THE FUNCTIONAL RESPONSE OF BONE TO MECHANICAL STRAIN”. CALCIFIED TISSUE INTERNATIONAL 57 (5): 344–358. [16] HART, RT. 2001. BONE MODELING AND REMODELING: THEORIES AND COMPUTATION. IN S.C. COWIN (ED.) BONE MECHANICS HANDBOOK, CRC PRESS. [17] HUISKES R, 2000. IF BONE IS THE ANSWER, THEN WHAT IS THE QUESTION?, J.ANAT. 197, 145-156.

12

This process maintains calcium equilibrium, repairs micro-damage from reoccurring stress, and to shapes/sculpts the skeleton through growth to adjust to changes in stress or calcium intake. Furthermore, this functional adaptation enables the bone to perform its mechanical and structural functions with the least amount of self-imposed load and with the strength necessary to support vari-able loading on a daily basis. Bone growth and degradation is dynamic: within days and weeks the strength of human bone can change considerably. Approximately, 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodeled per year.[18] In conclusion, “the mechanostransduction process is summarized by three general rules: a dynamic mechanical stimuli is required for bone adaptation; bone cells become desensitized to continued loading and resensitized with rest, and bones cells adapt to the current load-ing environment so that subsequent changes in loading are perceived.”[19]

From this research into mechanotransduction - the process of bone remodeling - I am interest-ed in the possibilities of incorporating a similar mechanism that could be applied to the built environ-ment. Inspired by WoIf’s theory on the relationship between mechanotransduction and bone architec-ture, I propose a building system that could utilize the deposition, maintenance, and resoption process conducted by the osteoblasts/osteocyts triggered by the external loading to the structure. This would be conducted during the architecture/structural design phase of the project, and therefore a highly re-sistant form would result based upon the site-specifi c loading conditions. This procedure is analogous to the formation of trees and plants: their form is infl uenced by the continual imposition of external loads from environmental conditions. From this informaton, I will research the formation process and microstructure of wood and concrete for comparison to how structural defects such as micro-cracks are resolved. In addition, I also look toward those who’ve research the same fi ndings and how this can be applied to my motives.

In the built environment, wood is a pervasive construction material that exhibits natural warmth that is desired by many people – an easily malleable connection to nature; therefore it goes without saying – but I will reiterate this axiom anyway - that wood comes from trees. Setting the aesthetical quality of wood aside momentarily, trees follow a biologically strategy to growth, adaptation, and gener-ation that is predicated on the forces of their local environment. These natural forces can be catego-rized into axial, shear, bending, and torsional moments as well as thermal stresses that exert strains; these forces, and corresponding strain-induced deformations, need to be counterbalanced if the tree is to remain stable. This natural program encrypted into trees is similar to the mechanics of bone; how-ever, given the permanence of a tree, there are additional formal growth processes worth coalescing with bone for future application into pulverized bone as a building material.

1.1.2 TREES

[18] NACHTIGALL, W.; BLUCHEL, K.G. (ED): DAS GROBE BUCH DER BIONIK, 2000: 244 [19] NAGATOMI, JIRO. MECHANOBIOLOGY HANDBOOK. BOCA RATON, FL: CRC PRESS, 2011. PRINT. 183

13

1.1.2.1 BIOLOGICAL GROWTH PROCESS

Like bone, the formal composition and growth of trees is predicated on external forces. How-ever, when trees are subjected to bending moment – like all materials - the outermost area of the cross section contains the highest level of stress, and the neutral axis has zero stress. In bone, zero stress equates to disuse and the local material is decreased by the resoption process administered by osteo-cytes to reduce waste, however in trees, the wood remains due to its permanence: in nature, the tree does not need to account for dynamic mobility. “A tree arranges its material sensibly within narrower limits of its possibilities: trees loaded on one side by wind become elliptical in the wind-direction. “”The tree thus forms a non-circular cross-section which is stiffest against the prevailing bending load, and is characterized by smaller stresses then a uniformly circular cross section with an identical external bending moment. Furthermore, nature acknowledges the variability of induced stress by formal adap-tation based on the axiom of uniform stress realized as an average of time. Root cross-sections may even assume the shape of an I-beam, in which smaller amounts of wood forms in the zone of neutral bending. This is an example of nature’s optimal adaptation in form.”[20] [Figure ()]

Another adaptive growth response to external forces occurs within the root system of trees that is worth a brief, yet in-depth explanation. If a tree is wind-loaded or leaning, the affected side – in accordance to Mohr-Coulomb’s law of soil mechanics – is less resistant, while the soil on the lee side is compressed and compacted, and therefore more shear-resistant. The roots of the tree act as rein-forcement to the aggregation or granular material of soil, and therefore much be stronger and reach further on the less shear-resistant [tension side] of the bending for counterbalance.[21]

FIGURE []: THERE IMAGES DEPICT THE GROWTH APATATION OF TREES PREDICATED ON SITE-SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT LOADS. MATTHECK, C. DESUGB UB BATYRE: LEARNING FRO TREES.SPRINGER,1998.

[20] MATTHECK, CLAUS.(1998).DESIGN IN NATURE: LEARNING FROM TREES: 5-6 [21] MATTHECK, CLAUS.(1998).DESIGN IN NATURE: LEARNING FROM TREES: 68-71

14

FIGURE []: ABOVE IMAGES ARE CONSTRUED FROM THE HYPOTHESIS THAT THE ROOTS ARRANGE THEMSELVES IN THE SOIL IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE SHEAR STRESS BETWEEN THE SOIL AND ROOT IS UNIFORM ALONG THE ROOT. THIS IS A VARIANT OF THE AXIOM OF UNIFORM STRESS. IN IMAGE A, IT IS THE MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE FOR THE TREE ROOT TO GROW UNDERNEATH IT LIKE A SLING, AND THUS WELCOME THE ANCHOR POINT, IN IMAGE B, THE ROOT GROWS ON THE TENSION SIDE WHERE AS THE SHORTER ROOTSSUFFICE TO REINFORCE THE COMPRESSED.

15

Another situation where nature’s ingenious formal adaptation strategy is lost in translation to industrial application is in reaction wood – also known as compression wood in softwood species. Ostensibly, this wood is from the area of the tree where growth was infl uenced by compressive forces. Tree material is innately pre-stressed therefore this type of wood has lost the inherent tensile strength.

1.1.1.2.1.1 REACTION - OR COMPRESSION - WOOD

1.1.1.3.1.1 AGGREGATE

1.1.1.3.1.2 CEMENT

1.1.1.3 CONCRETE

1.1.1.3 .1 MICROSTRUCTURE

Concrete is a widely used construction material; In addition, it is also a composite comprised of aggregate, cement, admixture and water. Similar to the composition of bone and wood, the micro-structure of concrete dictates its strength, durability, fi re resistance, and resistance to moisture. When coupled with steel reinforcement for tensile strength, the use of concrete is pervasive. Amongst the numerous characteristics to substantiate the aforementioned, here are a few: it is resistance to mois-ture, its initial plasticity of concrete which allows manipulation in the fi nal form and size, and its low lev-el of maintenance.[22] Through the investigation of concrete and its microscopic behavior I wish to gain more information into the formation of a widely used material of formidable strength and application where the constituents resemble the resultant of cremated remains. How can I learn from concrete in my inquiry into pulverized bone as a building material?

Aggregate is the granular material comprised of sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed blast-fur-nace slag, or construction and demolition waste. [more information need]

Cement is a fi nely pulverized dry material that acts as the binder with its minerals undergo a chemical reaction with water that is known as hydration: hydraulic cement is resistant to water. The most commonly used version of cement in practice is Portland Cement, which consists of calcium silicate. It is the calcium silicate hydrates formed through hydration that create the adhesive character-istic.

[22] MEHTA, P. KUMAR, AND PAULO J.M. MONTEIRO(1993). CONCRETE: MICROSTRUCTURE, PROPERTIES, AND MATERIALS. NEW YORK, NY: 4-8

16

1.1.1.1.3.1.3 ADMIXTURE

Admixtures are materials other than the aforementioned which are added to concrete to en-hance – or create – a specifi c characteristic: some admixtures increase durability of concrete, while others such as pozzolans reduce thermal cracking in concrete. Admixtures can range from chemical to fi nely-ground insoluble material that is from natural resources or industrial by-product. Mineral admixtures are fi ne dividely sicilceous materials that are added to concrete in relatively large amounts, generally, in the range of 20-70 percent by mass of the total cementitious material.

1.1.1.3 .2 MICROSTRUCTURE BEHAVIOR

1.1.1.3 .3 POZZALONIC MATERIALS

Although concrete is a composite, the overall strength of concrete is lower than the individual strength of the aggregate and the hydrated cement paste. This is due to its microscopic behavior, which is het-erogeneous and therefore subject to variability. The microstructure of concrete is comprised of the fol-lowing: the interfacial transition zone phase, hydrated cement paste phase, and the aggregate phase.

The interfacial transition zone [ITZ] is the interstitial space between the aggregate and bulk hydrated cement paste; this area is begins with a thin fi lm of water that forms around the large aggre-gate as concreted is poured. This creates a high water-to-cement ratio around the aggregate which precipitates a porous framework fi lled with large crystalline products. As hydration progresses, smaller crystalline products fi ll the gaps to increase density, and therefore contribute to the strength of the ITZ.

As previously mentioned, the ITZ is the weakest component compared to the cement and aggregate, therefore it dictates the overall strength of the concrete. The ITZ represents the bridge between the stiff aggregate and cement paste. The ITZ is comprised of a variable percentage of micro-cracks and voids which can’t transfer stress, these micro-cracks propagate much easier under tension stress. When the crack system becomes continuous, stress is not transferred, and surface failure develops 20 to 30 degrees from the load trajectory. This occurrence is responsible for con-cretes inadequacy in tensile strength.

Today, most pozzolans in their natural, pristine condition or after thermal activation - recent vol-canic eruptions - are still being used in some parts of the world, due to economical and environmental considerations many industrial by-products have become the primary source of mineral admixtures in concrete.

Based on the properties of blended concrete and the pozzolanic reation, the most salient qual-ities of pozzolanic admixture in concrete is improved resistance to thermal cracking due to low heat of hydration, enhancement of ultimate strength, and impermeability due to pore refi nement, strong ITZ, and very high durability to sulfate attack and alkali-aggregate expansion.

%PBBINDER [KG]

SAND [KG] WATER FOR BASEMIX [KG]

FOAM CONCENTRATION

MIXING WATER FOAM [G]

4.688

4.688

4.688

4.688

4.688

187.5

187.5

187.5

187.5

187.5

12.50

12.50

12.50

12.50

12.50

75

75

75

75

75

0.00

1.25

2.50

3.75

5.00

PB

25.00

23.75

22.50

21.50

20.00

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

17

1.1.1.3 .3.1 CASE STUDY 1: PULVERIZED BONE AS POZZALONIC MATERIAL

A group of Nigerian engineers from the University of Lagos researched the potential use of pulverized bone as a supplementary cementing material in the production of concrete. Although en-vironmental benefi ts are impicit in its usage, the impetus for this study - other than curiosity - was the economical benefi ts of utilizing the pulverized bone largely amassed from a region that is exposed to heavy bovine farming.

In the process of the study, the group derived the chemical composition of pulverized bone.The results showed the addition of pulverized bone to cement paste resulted in low-water demand and achieved the same consistency by as much as 30%. The pulverized bone brought about delayed setting times in the paste which indicates an increase in plasticity. Furthmore, the results suggest that pulverized bone could be used as a partial replacement of cement without damage to the strength provided that the level of replacement does not exceed 20%.

Predicated upon their research from the State of Lagos, the chemical composition of bone - bovine - is almost idential to the properties of portland cement: the primary matrix that serves as an adhesive, as well as the progentior of the ITZ which dictates the strength of the concrete. The differ-ence in the materials is the presence of fat remnants in the pulverized bone, which may inhibit hydra-tion. When considering pulverized bone as an adhesive matrix for application to composite materials, how could one reduce the fat remnants, and is this an effi ciency in the preparation of bone ash? The researchers have come to the conclusion that pulverized bone has a high calcium content (over 70%); this categorizing bone ash as a Class C type of fl y ash. This Class is responsible for yeilding high strength concrete, and is the only type to exceed 60MPa.

18

LOSS OF IGNITION

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

CO2

H20

SO2

NA2O

K2O

MGO

MNO

FE2O3

AL2O3

SIO2

CAO

SH

PORTLAND CEMENT PULVERIZED BONE RICE HUSK ASH FLY ASH

19

CURING AGE [DAYS]

0% P

10% P

20% P

0% P

40% P

50% P

60% P

70% P

80% P

CO

MP

RE

SS

IVE

ST

RE

NG

TH

[N

/mm

^2

]

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

02 46 81 01 21 41 61 82 02 22 42 62 8

20

The information into pulverized bone as a viable admixture bolsters the ideation of incorpo-rating pulverized bone, and the post-mortem body, as a sustainable building resource. Presently, experiements have been completed with bovine bones - a feasible and economical suggestion con-sidering the abundance of cattle production in Lagos. This study served its purpose as precedence in material science and engineering that can infl uence architecture. In particular, if a system could yield a form of pulverized bone devoid of fat remnants, then the adhesion strength of bone could be the equivalent to portland cement. This requires further investigation into how the pulverized bone was rendered in Lagos, and whether this inadequacy translates to modern bone ash process such as Resomation and Promession: two technological advanced methods of reducing the post-mortem body to ash.

1.2 BIOMIMETIC +COMPOSITE MATERIAL ALGORITHMS

1.2.1 MICHELL OPTIMIZATION

The following is research into a few computational design algorithms that were mostly predicat-ed on mathematical theory and the topological optimization innate to natural organisms such as trees and bone. The fi rst two methods – CAO + SKO – were founded by physicist Clause Mattheck, Dr. Andreas Baumgartner, and their team of researchers at the Karlsruhe Research Center in Germany. Michell optimization method is known in the structural engineering discipline; this optimization meth-od by Anthony Michell is largely predicated on the modeling of bone growth, CAO, and SKO method. Voronoi tessellation was discovered by mathematician, George Voronoy. Delaunay triangulation was discovered by Boris Delauney who was a doctoral student under the advisement of Voronoy. My formal approach will use either part or the whole of each algorithm as the foundation. These methods – particularly CAO + SKO – are commonly used in the aeronautical, automotive, nautical, industrial design, and biomedical industries; centuries ago, architecture and some of those industries mentioned, were conceived in the same tectonic fashion; however it can be said that architecture was somewhat lost in translation during the past half-century. The infl ux of emergent technologies in computational design and fabrication within the architectural industry has pushed formal stratagem back to the level of the automotive design industry where SKO + CAO methods have been used for decades.

Anthony G. Michell’s theory on optimization typology of structures illustrates the effi cacy of force transfer and how it directly relates to the formal composition of bone. This supports Wolf’s theory of trajectorial bone growth and substantiates how pervasive it is within the biomechanical profession. Furthermore, Michell’s paper of structural optimization has been a precedent for future exploration into optimization methods infl uenced by the biological process that has pervaded the structural profession.

21

STRAIN ENERGY4.15 mJ

STRAIN ENERGY3.61 mJ

STRAIN ENERGY3.59 mJ

STRAIN ENERGY3.53 mJ

22

1.2.2 SOFT KILL DESIGN [SKO]

Soft Kill Option is a topological optimization algorithm that mimics that natural growth system of bone: the areas with little-to-no stress/strain are “killed” or removed from the structure. SKO was re-fi ned to an iterative process – which accounts for the “soft” – and each step is verifi ed by computation. This process is analogous to bone mineralization. The method was founded by Prof. Claus Mattheck, Director of the Research Center at Karlsruhe. The ultimate goal in SKO is to take a rough draft - pre-dominantly an object or organism with a shape much larger than desired - and reduce the material as much as possible without compromising the global durability. From this process, both the external shape and its internal composition are modulated in a subtractive manner. The following steps are in SKO are as follows:

. A rough design draft is created for the desired form. Its external dimensions are set not to exceed the limits prescribed by the following function and are therefore preferably larger than smaller. This goes in line with the subtraction method: material can be eliminated, but not added. A fi nite element mesh is then applied to the draft and the initial optimization process commences.

2. The initial elastic FEM analysis calculation is carried out taking into account the working load in service with any prescribed supports, restraints and guides, which will produce stress distribution in the component. Mises reference stress is generally also included in this initial calculations, and in special cases, the quan-tatively greatest principal normal stress, σ¹.

3. The local elastic modulus is set much larger than the stress calculated at any particular place (E > σ). As a result, the more highly loaded zones become hard-er occupying more elements per more surface area, and the less loaded zones become softer, occupying less elements per less surface area. The initialized material emerges as non-homogenous as regions of stiff and soft matter appear. The new component may now be characterized by its E-modulus variation across the once uniform finite element mesh that was assigned to it in the step [1].

4. A new finite-element stress calculation is carried out in which the load bearing zones of the component now carry even less load. This precipitates a sharper contouring of the entire structure. Steps [2] and [3] are iteratively applied as the stresses in the non-load bearing zone below a certain minimum value are set at 0. The iteration method terminates when there is no longer visually and mechani-cally significant change in the component design.

23

This process creates an automatic design draft only contains material at the actual load-bear-ing places and in which the values of the modulus of elasticity, now varying only slightly at the local level, are again standardized (E = σ).

The SKO method delivers an already pre-optimized light-weight design which then needs to be shape-optimized to a more refi ned form by the CAO method, in which the last underloaded zones are further reduced, and notch stresses - if present - are also reduced by local growth. A process akin to the growth of trees.

The SKO method may be executed using local or global increment methods. The size of incre-ments refers to the amount of material being subtracted from the component per iteration, relative to the components overall size.

The local stress-increment-controlled method begins with step [1]. However, the calculated stress is no longer put equal to the local E-modulus: the local stress increment from the n-th to the (n+1) -th FEM run is put equal to one increment of the E-modulus (∆σ = ∆E). This increment is added to the existing E-modulus distribution:

En+1 = En + ∆σn

The newly defined E-modulus distribution eliminates the non-load bearing zones in the design draft through iterative computation. This method has rapid efficacy in few iterations. However, the disadvantage of this method is in the possibility to produce excessively porous structures that are very challenging to compute, complicated to manufacture, and presumably, extremely arduous to build at an architectural scale. As a result, a global-stress-increment method was proposed by Matthek’s colleague, Dr. Lother Harzheim. This method requires a reference stress (σref) to be determined. This is a risk-free, threshold value analogous to the axiom of uniform stress, which every tree and the value proposed in Wilhelm Roux’s ‘thermostat theory’ in the mechanotransduction of bone. Thus, the equa-tion becomes:

En+1 = En + k(∆σn - σref)

The stress difference ∆σn = ∆σn - ∆σn-1 is not provided with a place-dependent reference stress ∆σn-1, as in the local method, but the same everywhere. It is particularly successful if the σref is fi rst selected small, then slowly increased during the iteration up to the desired working stress. A method commonly approached by industry designers.

24

1.2.3 COMPUTER AIDED OPTIMIZATION [CAO]

CAO is a method for shape optimization in the fi eld of bionics, in which the growth behavior of biological energy carriers – such as trees and bone – is simulated. In other words, it simulates the build-up of material in overloaded zones, and no build-up in material that is underloaded. SKO and CAO work in concert to produce an optimal design draft. The method can be applied in the following steps:

1. Produce a fi nite-elements structure corresponding to a fi rst design draft - this was most likely conducted in step [1] of the SKO method. The FEM structure should, if possible, have a layer of el-ements of equal thickness on the surface, at least in the zone where later ‘growth’ is to occur. This layer of elements corresponds to the cambium of trees.

2. Carry out an FEM computation with the planned future operational loading and support. As a re-sult of this calculation, we obtain the nodal point displacements at each node of the network, strains and the stresses, and with the following equation, the Mises reference stress:

σmises = (1 ⁄√2)√(σ1+σ2)² + (σ2+σ3)² + (σ3+σ1)²

3. Set the compound stresses - more precisely, the Mises stress - formally equal to a fi ctitious temperature distribution. The hottest places in the component will also denote the areas of highest mechanical stress. Set the modulus of elasticity in the upper layer to 1/400 of the initial value. Thus, we have a soft upper layer which is still particularly warm at the previously overloaded zones and cold in the unloaded zones.

4. In this step, only the thermal load is considered, the previous mechanical load is set to 0. Only the softer upper layer will have a thermal expansion factor, α > 0. The solid material under the soft upper layer cannot expand thermally. Duringn this computational stage, with only thermal load-ing, our soft upper layer will expand corresponding to its temperature distribution whichi denotes growth. Zone experienced with highest loading now have the highest temperatures and expand the most. These stress-controlled thermal increments:

∆l = l0 x α x (T - Tref)

Tref = σref is a stress value to be determined by the engineer, and will likely be the operat-ing stress everywhere in the component.

5. Final step is checking step 4 results by setting the E-modulus of the soft layer at the value of the basic material and starting at step 2 with a new FEM computation under purely mechanical loading, which will deliver a more homogeneous stress distribution with greatly reduced notch stresses.

The advantage to SKO-CAO method is that the user can use any commercially avaiable FEM program, saving money on optimization software, provided that the FEM program can compute ther-mal stress, which is not always the case. Given the limited funds supporting my proposal, this is considerably fortunate. [23]

[23] MATTHECK, CLAUS.(1998).DESIGN IN NATURE: LEARNING FROM TREES: 31-41

25

These optimization algorithms are tricks to supplant the need of expensive software, and are-critical to the formal investigation of pulverized bone as a building material. As previously discussed from the concrete case-study, pulverized bone can be investigated formally with concrete construction as precedent, but the SKO+CAO method is necessary to achieve the optimal design: minimal energy = maximum effi ciency. The minimal energy translates to the least amount of material, a factor that needs to be closely observed considering the reductive process of cremation on the post-mortem body.

26

27

1.2.4 VORONOI TESSELATION

1.2.5 DELAUNAY TRIANGULATION

A research team in from the Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering and the Dept. of Pharmaceutical Sciences from the State University of New York, Buffalo have developed a spatio-tem-poral 3D microstructure of bone from Voronoi tessellation. Voronoi tessellation converts a set of points into discrete regions that contain a set of points that are closer to their respective point than any other; essentially, it is a list of points within a list of points which in python computer language is considered a tuple. The boundaries to those regions are representing the mineral matrix comprising bone.[24]

Delauney triangulation for a set [P] of points in a plane is a triangulation of DT(P) such that no point in [P] is inside the circumcircle of any triangle in DT(P). Delauney triangulations maximize the minimum angle of all the angles of the triangles in the triangulation.[25] Delaunay and Voronoy relationship translated from physical presence in academia into their most notable theories as well: if you were to create a normal vector located at the midpoint of each line in every Delaunay triangle and placed a dot at the intersection of the three normal vectors you would create a set of points; this set would also be the center of every circumcircle as well as the focal point of each voronoi cell.

[24] TAEHYONG, KIM ET AL. ‘BONNET: A NETWORK MODEL OF BONE MICROSTRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS.’, INT. J. DATA MINING AND BIOINFORMATICS, VOL X. NO.X. PG 9 [25] DELAUNAY, BORIS: SUR LA SPHÈRE VIDE, IZVESTIA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, OTDELENIE MATEMATICHESKIKH I ESTESTVENNYKH NAUK, 7:793–800, 1934

28

1.3 BIOMIMETIC + COMPOSITE APPLICATION/FABRICATION

1.3.1 CASE STUDY II: JORIS LAARMAN [BONE FURNITURE]

During the past 15 years, every industry affi liated with design has expressed an interest in nature’s strategy for form-fi nding. The following case-studies are situations where designers have utilized nature’s formal strategy as a testament to its effi cacy in structural stiffness, material economy, and aesthetics.

Joris Laarman is a designer from Netherlands who was interested in the coalescence of biomimicry and product design; Joris, with the infl uence of C.Mattheuk and A.Baumgartner via the CAO+SKO model and collaboration with carmaker Opel, has created a line of furniture that has amassed a lot of attention for its appearance and subsequent material conservation. The furniture is based upon the growth process in skeletal systems.

The inception of Laarman’s collaboration with Opel to design ‘Bone furniture’ occurred in 2006, which illustrates the most salient point that should be inferred from my proposal: architectural design needs to increase its awareness in the neighboring design professionals and utilize advanced technol-ogies. To some extent this has taken place in the confl uence of McNeel’s Rhinoceros, Maya, and a few others, which were initially created for other design industries.

The method that produced the bone furniture was custom-designed by Opel, the car manufac-turer, but incorporates a formulaic approach involving SKO followed by CAO. This will be part of the challenge in my proposal to generate a computational algorithm that is operable and feasible to the material capabilities of pulverized bone. Thus, leading to the difference in material: Laarman used a combination of marble, resin, and porcelain. These material were most likely chosen for obvious rea-sons: aesthetic, accessibility, labor, and relatively prescriptive formal behavior. Overall, the resultant models are evocative in that the evince ideation of future applications. If these chairs were made of bone, how would the meaning or value affect the pieces of furniture?

29

30

1.3.2 CASE STUDY III: NERI OXMAN VARIABLE RAPID PROPERTY

Neri Oxman is an assistant professor whose doctoral thesis “material-based computation” expounds on nature’s algorithm to form composites by variable-property modeling and 3d printing with heterogeneous material.

Her work served as a precedent for technological advancement in digital fabrication. I looked more closely at the work that involved variable density distribution in material. This is related to the soft-kill optimization technique inspired by the natural growth process of bone and trees.

This will have more infl uence in the engineering portion of my thesis than for the architecture given the amount of time needed to fully comprehend and apply the digital and computational tech-niques to yield viable structural tests.

[24] TAEHYONG, KIM ET AL. ‘BONNET: A NETWORK MODEL OF BONE MICROSTRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS.’, INT. J. DATA MINING AND BIOINFORMATICS, VOL X. NO.X. PG 9 [25] DELAUNAY, BORIS: SUR LA SPHÈRE VIDE, IZVESTIA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, OTDELENIE MATEMATICHESKIKH I ESTESTVENNYKH NAUK, 7:793–800, 1934

31

32

1.3.3 CASE STUDY IV: LUCA PEDRIELLI [OXYMORON]

The proposal for OXYMORON, a thesis project by recent Italian graduate Luca Pedrielli, fo-cused on the design of a skyscraper using the SKO method. In particular, the proposal was interested in exploring the potential for architectural design as well as the boundaries in the fi eld of aesthetics and composition from a method that is operated at a very different scale than normal application.

Oxymoron illustrates the erosion as a “creative destruction”, adding space by subtraction. The SKO decision was predicated on the natural occurrence of ‘tafoni’: a natural phenomenon caused by erosion of the rock to the emerging internal crystallization of salts transported by salt water.

Luca’s primary objective was purposefully placed in an ambiguous environment. As stated in his presentation, SKO has not been used at the architectural scale; no one inquired as to the possi-bilities of SKO as a formal generator fueled by aesthetic, programmatic, and social initiatives. This approach was something considered in my proposal: to push the application of SKO past the obvious structural application. Of course, this is already the case in nature; for example, the growth of a tree is predicated on the site-specifi c forces but also the effi cacy of water transport, amongst other factors to ensure survival. Luca’s proposal is paralleled with afterlife in its formal exploration and foundation in biomimetic algorithms, yet we diverge in the material and social implications of our inquiry. His intention was to use SKO at the architectural scale, which slated to be the topic of discourse in the next case study with Soft Kill Design, has not be fully resolved; this is the threshold to both endeavors where as my proposal takes on the social-cultural perspective based on a material inextricably tied to society at an intimate level.

[24] TAEHYONG, KIM ET AL. ‘BONNET: A NETWORK MODEL OF BONE MICROSTRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS.’, INT. J. DATA MINING AND BIOINFORMATICS, VOL X. NO.X. PG 9 [25] DELAUNAY, BORIS: SUR LA SPHÈRE VIDE, IZVESTIA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, OTDELENIE MATEMATICHESKIKH I ESTESTVENNYKH NAUK, 7:793–800, 1934

33

34

1.3.3 CASE STUDY V: SOFT KILL DESIGN

Softkill design is a group of architects and researchers who are also interested in computation, material science, structure, and most salient to my thesis, design proposals infl uenced by biomimicry, namely bone growth. In particular, the PROTO house design was inspired by bone growth and is a prototype for the fi rst 3d printed house.

The Proto-house investigates the potential of Selective Laser Sintering technologies with large-scale 3D printing by computer algorithms that micro-organize the printed material itself. The model consists of 30 detailed pieces which can be assembled into one continuous cantilevered structure, without the need for adhesive material.

The structure is predicated on the mechanotransduction process of bone remodeling and michell’s optimization theory as material is deposited where it is needed along lines of stress. This results in a fi brous web rather than a solid envelope, and therefore illustrates the inherent algorithm for natural structures: to achieve utmost structural effi cacy with minimal material. The porosity of the structure allows for rain to permeate and can be potentially absorbed; In this particular design, the waterproofi ng was designed for the interior.[26][27]

. Softkill design substantiates the impetus behind architecture’s representation as an agent of change. The possibilities of 3D printing have been tested extensively in multiple industries except the built environment. The PROTOHOUSE provides a precedent for using 3d fabrication at a large scale that culminates into an effi cient, feasible, and attractive architectural design. The proto-house is com-prised of a single plastic material; I propose to use a similar computer algorithm that would create an amalgamation of pulverized bone and a collagen/cartilage material as a composite that can adapt to the remodeling properties of mechanotransduction: this material would presumably be heterogeneous. Given the porosity of the exterior, a drainage system could be applied to harness the water that perme-ates the building to be reused into the alkaline hydrolysis process.

[26] “PROTOHOUSE BY SOFTKILL DESIGN”HTTP://WWW.DEZEEN.COM/2012/10/23/PROTOHOUSE-BY-SOFTKILL-DESIGN/ [27] HTTP://WWW.SOFTKILLDESIGN.BERTA.ME/PROJECT/

35

36

C

CREMATION RATE: 44.4% [2025] 55.6%

NEW YORK 20.4 26100

13.25

9.84

3100

2000

LA

CHICAGO

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

ISTANBUL 12

POPU

CREMAT

CAIRO 14.0

POPULATIOCREMATION RATE: ??

BEUNOS AIRES

15.5 6800

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

BOGOTA

MEXICO CITY

10.1 19500

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

CREMATION RATE: 68.4%

21.8 10500

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

LIMA 10.32 17300

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

CREMATION RATE: 72.4%

CREMATION RATE: 36%

CREMATION RATE: 36%

CREMATION RATE: 76%

PARIS 10.2 3739

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

LAGOS 21.5 28700

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

SAO PAULO 21.57 10900

RIO deJANEIRO

13.2 8300

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

SWED

EN

NORW

AY

MEXICO

ARGENTIN

A

COLOMBIA

PERU

BRAZI

FRANCE

R

NIGERIA

TURKEY

EGYPT

37

TOKYO 37.28 5330

11.53 4500OSAKA

CREMATION RATE: 99%

CREMATION RATE: 48.5% [DOUBLE BY 2050]

CREMATION RATE: 65%

CREMATION RATE: 70%

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

SHANGHAI 12.63 16900

11.15

10.14

9.18

14900

22400

????

BEIJING

TIANJIN

WUHAN

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CREMATION RATE: ??

CREMATION RATE: ??

CREMATION RATE: ??

MUMBAI 25.97 53700

25.83

18.54

9.92

19900

????

18600

DELHI

CALCUTTA

BANGALORE

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

MOSCOW 11.73 5470

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

2.8 10900

ULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

TION RATE: ??

10800

N [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

METROMANILA

13.4 9580

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

KARACHI 18.9 36600

LAHORE 10.1 16200

POPULATION [BIL] DENSITY[POP/Km^2]

CHINASOUTHKOREA

PAKISTAN

RUSSIAPHILLIP

PIN

ES

INDIA

38

2. SOCIO- CULTURAL REPRESENTATION OF DEATH: FUTURE POPULA-TION, THE BODY , THE CEREMONY, THE SPACE, AND IDENTITY:

2.1 MODERN PERSPECTIVE ON DEATH, AND THE POST-MORTEM BODY: THE CUSTOMS AND VARIOUS METHODS OF RITUALS, CONVENTIONS, AND PROCESS-ES ASSOCIATED WITH DEATH IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD

2.1.1 THE AMERICAS

2.1.1 ASIA

2.1.1.1 NORTH AMERICA

2.1.1.1 JAPAN

In North America, the rate of cremation has doubled in over 15 years and grosses 17 billion dollars a year. For the 2.5 million people who’ve died in North America this year, 42% were cremat-ed – the rate in 1960 was 3.6%. The rise in cremation in America is predicated on a few reasons: the exponential increase in technological advancements imbued with modernization which is usually par-alleled with secularization, has lessened the infl uence of religious doctrines; the increased awareness of the harmful impact imposed by conventional burial methods; the increase in urbanization that has considerably reduced the amount of land-use allocated for burials. Like America, many other countries are experiencing an increase in cremation rates for the same reasons.

In North America, the rate of cremation has doubled in over 15 years and grosses 17 billion dollars a year. For the 2.5 million people who’ve died in North America this year, 42% were cremat-ed – the rate in 1960 was 3.6%. The rise in cremation in America is predicated on a few reasons: the exponential increase in technological advancements imbued with modernization which is usually par-alleled with secularization, has lessened the infl uence of religious doctrines; the increased awareness of the harmful impact imposed by conventional burial methods; the increase in urbanization that has considerably reduced the amount of land-use allocated for burials. Like America, many other countries are experiencing an increase in cremation rates for the same reasons.[28]

39

[30] “CHINESE CREMATION”. HTTP://WWW.MEMORIALIZE.COM/CHINESE-CREMATION-INFORMATION.PHP 2002-2013 [31] DAN, HE. “GOVERNMENT BOOSTS RATES OF CREMATION.” CHINADAILY-USA. MAR. 2012. WEB. 2 NOV. 2013 [32] FRANCE-PRESSE, AGENCE. “CHINESE OFFICIALS SET CORPSE ABLAZE IN CREMATION CONTROVERSY.” THE RAW STORY. DEC. 2013. WEB. 2 NOV. 2013

2.1.1.1 CHINA

In China, cremation has garnered an inveterate presence within society. During the 1940s when China was ruled under communism, offi cials banned traditional burial and mandated that all deaths require cremation: “Burial was a waste of space, harmful to the environment, and much more expensive than cremation.”[29] In many cases, the new law was not in confl ict with the with traditional Chinese funeral practices: Buddhism is largely followed by the Chinese population, and although the religion remains silent on dealing with corporeal death, tradition seems to support cremation.

MODERN

Eventually the mandate was lifted due to an infl ux of resistance toward the practice. In China there is an option: burial or cremation. Latest statics show that nearly 46% of Chinese deaths result in cremation; this is a 15% increase in the mid 20th century. In large cities, the rate of cremation is at 100%. The Chinese government is proposing a plan to cut or waive funeral expenses for poor house-holds to incentivize cremation. Alternatively, burial remains the predominant choice in rural areas.[30]

[31] However, even at the present rate of 48%, China cremates more people each year than any other country: approximately 4.5 million out of 9.3 million deaths.

Opposition

The opposition toward cremation as a viable method in China is predicated on the edicts of Confucianism which states that ensuring one’s body, hair, and skin are not damaged is the most basic way to show respect to the deceased.[32]

Conclusion

A potential solution to this opposition is to emphasize the scientifi c fact that the body deterio-rates regardless of the method used. It would be a more suitable representation of the corporeal and incorporeal aspects of the dying body when it is immortalized in living society via built form or object. The memory is preserved, and becomes functional to society.

40

2.1.1.1 INDIA

CONCLUSION

For india, cremation has been inextricably tied to the religion of Hinduism. At the end of the cremation process, Hindus are required to dispose of the ash in water. From the spiritual perspective, cremation is meant to release the soul from the body and ensure peaceful passage into the next world. This concept is predicated on the notion that the astral body will linger in society as long as the physi-cal body remains.

Due to the amount of cremations that occur in India, the government has been investing into alternative energy methods. As of late, there are approximately 100 crematoriums that have installed solar-powered systems. [MORE WILL BE ADDED HERE]

The shift toward cremation is universal. Many countries, especially in their metropolitan areas, have begun to adopt cremation. This global shift substantiates my proposal as a resultant to the poten-tially large quantities of pulverized bone. The image below is a comparison of resources and embod-ied energy for each type of burial system. Resomation is the most sustainable method.

CON

CRET

E

522

LBS

CARB

ON

8

0 LB

S

CARB

ON

8

0 LB

SG

AS

22

GA

L

GA

S 2

3 G

AL

CARB

ON

.75

LBS

CARB

ON

.5

LBS

90 k

HW

130

kWH

15 k

WH

1 kW

H

WO

OD

18

LBS

NAT

URA

L G

AS

13

GA

L

LIQ

UID

NIT

ROG

EN

22 G

AL

WAT

ER

80 G

AL

POTA

SSIU

M H

YDRO

XID

E 4

GA

L

STO

NE

CORN

STA

RCH

.45

ILBS

STEE

L LI

NER

1.3

GA

L

RESOMATION PROMESSION CREMATION EMBALMED BURIAL

RESOMATION PROMESSION CREMATION EMBALMED BURIAL

41

2.2.1 THE CONVENTIONAL BURIAL

2.2.2 THE GREEN ‘NATURAL” BURIAL

2.2 PRESENT BURIAL OPTIONS

Our society has dealt with the inevitable topic of death and the body since the genesis of civi-lization; as previously mentioned, society is now leaning toward the process of cremation. However, cremation has fl uctuated in popularity since its inception based of the vicissitudes of societal percep-tion, public health, and the economy – this is still the case. Furthermore, nature continues to imple-ment the simplest process that ensures the dead will replenish and sustain the living. Advancement in technology and innovation evoked by economic demands has presented a few more alternatives to handling the dead. The following material researches the various funeral practices in modern civiliza-tion, and presents their process, advantages, and disadvantages.

The conventional burial became popular after World War II. The process of “internment” involves the body being fi lled with embalming fl uid to preserve the corporeal body, while being placed into a wood, brass, or some other metallic casket; if the former encasement options are not desired, there is an option to be placed in a concrete vault. Presently, the issue with this method is the required land-use, the environmental and public health impacts, cost (+$4000), and the embodied energy. Annually, this process amasses 100 thousand tons of steel, 10 tons of copper and brass, 30 million board feet of hardwood timber, uncounted tons of plastic, vinyl, and fi berglass, and 1.5 million tons of reinforced concrete. This material is used for the standard double-box casket system. These caskets are designed to resist degradation by creating an anaerobic environment: the body will putrefy rather than break down. Furthermore, the use of embalming fl uid presents harmful environments for those who are regularly exposed to the process. As embalming fl uid fi lls the body, the blood and suctioned internal organs are drained into the water supply. Studies have shown that embalming fl uid does not prevent the spread of disease, and serves little appreciable sanitizing or public health purpose.

Before World War II and the inception of the conventional burial method, the natural burial was the option. Due to increased societal awareness on economic and ecological factors, this process has resurfaced as a viable alternative. The process is straightforward: the body is placed in a biode-gradable container or wrapped in a fi ber shroud. The market has already adapted to the emergence of green burial with stylish containers such as ecopods which can be used for cremation as well. The price of a natural burial start around $2000, which covers the cost of the burial siteinternal organs are drained into the water supply. Studies have shown that embalming fl uid does not prevent the spread of disease, and serves little appreciable sanitizing or public health purpose. internal organs are drained into the water supply. Studies have shown that embalming fl uid does not prevent the spread of disease, and serves little appreciable sanitizing or public health purpose.

42

[33] LEE, RHIM JEA. THE INFINITY BURIAL PROJECT: A MODEST PROPOSAL FOR THE POSTMORTEM BODY. HTTP://WWW. HTTP://INFINITYBURIALPROJECT.COM.

2.2.3 MUSHROOM SUITS

Jae Rhim Lee – visual artist, designer, and researcher – started the Infi nity burial project:”this project has presented an alternative for the post-mortem body; this application is a type of decompi-culture: the cultivation of decomposing organisms which is based on concept derived by entomologist Timothy Myles. The process begins with the training of fungi to decompose bodies and remediate toxins in the human tissue through the development of a decomposition ‘kit’. The body suit is em-broidered with thread infused with mushroom spores; the embroidery pattern resembles the dendritic growth of mushroom mycelium. The suit is accompanied by an alternative embalming fl uid, a liquid spore slurry, and Decompiculture Makeup: a two-part makeup consisting of a mixture of dry mineral, dried mushroom spores, and a separate liquid culture medium. The combination of these two parts and application to the body activates the mushroom spores to develop and grow.” [33]

43

2.2.4 CREMATION

2.2.5 RESOMATION

2.2.6 PROMESSION

Cremation is the use of high –temperature burning, vaporization, and oxidation to reduce dead animal or human bodies to basic chemical compounds such as gases and mineral fragments retaining the appearance of dry bone. The cremated remains do not pose a health risk, and may be subse-quently buried or interred.

The process begins with the body in a fl ammable casket, and then placed in the crematory – an industrial furnace. At a temperature of 1600-1800F, the body is reduced to variably-sized bone fragments. The incineration typical lasts between 1 to 3 hours and can be approximated by a rate of 1 hour per 100 LBs of body weight. Presently, multiple-body cremation is illegal in America. After incin-eration, the bone fragments are pulverized into a fi ne bone ash which takes approximately 20 minutes. The resultant amount of bone ash from an average male and female is 4 to 6 LBs, respectively. The contents are reduced to mostly calcium phosphates with some salts and potassium.

Natural resources are required for the incineration of the body which precipitates a carbon emission; these byproducts have generated environmental concern, however it is less than the con-ventional burial. In response to effects, solar-power has been explored as well as other alternatives that were built from the cremation process

Resomation is a newly patented process that reduces the post-mortem body to ash through al-kaline hydrolysis: a water-based chemical reaction using alkali at temperatures of up to 350. Alkaline hydrolysis is found in two common occurrences in the nature: fi rst, shallow burials in the earth in neu-tral or slightly alkaline soil are decomposed through this process– in this environment, it is a slow pro-cess; the second, is in the small intestine where consumed food is digested by alkaline hydrolysis by gut enzymes. Unlike in nature, resomation expedites this natural process and reduces the post-mor-tem body to ash in 2 – 3 hours. The resultant liquid is mixture of amino acids, peptides, sugars, and salts that can be discharged into the water supply and/or used as liquid fertilizer. The process requires about 90kWh of electricity, resulting in one-quarter the carbon emissions of cremation, consuming one-eighth the energy, while costing the consumer the same as a cremation.

Promession utilizes the process of cryomation: the body is put in a bath of liquid nitrogen and subsequently vacuum-dried, thus making the body extremely brittle and easily reduced to fi ne parti-cles. Other than the removal of water, the corporeal body maintains complete chemical composition – suitable for biodegradation and absorption in the ecosystem. The process requires 130 kWh of elec-tricity, or about one-third the energy consumed by cremation.

Susanne Wiigh-Masak, a Swedish marine biologist and environmental consultant, founded Promessa Organic Burial. Successfully tested on pigs and cattle, the deceased is prefrozen to -4F,

44

placed in a sealed Promator where the metamorphosis occurs. Immersed in about 22 gallons (83 liters) of liquid nitrogen (calibrated to body-size), the corpse is further frozen to -321F and becomes crystallized. After two hours the liquid nitrogen evaporates into the atmosphere as harmless nitrogen gas -78% of Earth’s atmosphere. Then 60 seconds of ultrasonic vibration reduces the remains to powder. The promessed remains are then passed through a vacuum chamber where frozen water sublimates and is released as steam. A dry, odorless powder, about 30% of the original body weight, is left, and foreign objects are separated. The small particle size enables oxygen and microorganisms in the topsoil to accelerate organic decomposition, which for an adult corpse will be complete in 6 – 18 months.

CONCLUSION

The method of burial tells an interesting story about how society views death and representa-tion of self-identity after life. The conventional method takes extreme measures to promote the pres-ervation of one’s corporeal body in an attempt to mask the inevitable; one that can be construed as overly expensive and impractical. In response to this realization, natural burial and the mushroom suit eliminate the extraneous materiality of the former and embrace decomposition; in essence, the mush-room suit serves as the opposite to embalming fl uid: it expedites the decomposition process, detoxi-fi es toxic chemicals within the body, and yields an edible resultant. However, both alternatives do not resolve the land-use issue, and are subjected to increased price as land becomes prioritized. Many natural land burials occur on conservation land, which is already quite selective. Cremation eliminates the need for land, but like conventional burial, has a few environmental impacts that would pose con-cern as it rises in popularity: carbon emission and fossil-fuel consumption. In response, innovation has used cremation as a precedence to push technology further with promession and resomation. Reso-mation accelerates the natural usage of alkaline hydrolysis. Promession reduces of a corpse to fertiliz-er to feed a living memorial tree or shrub. It is the resultant of this on-the-fringe mindset that allows for a wide range of representation and reverence of the corporeal body to commemorate life. I end this conclusion with an encouraging quote by Dr. Christina Staudt, “These technologies, together with new architectures of social space, enable a long overdue evolution in options to support the process of grief while providing diverse forms and durations of memorial. Design can lead a sociocultural evolution embracing these alternative practices, instigating a serious reconsideration of whether the quintessen-tial American individual autonomy must persist in our post-mortem circumstances.”

45

2.4 PHILSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON DEATH

2.4.1 DEATH AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

2.4.1.1 NORMAL AREAS: BIOLOGICALLY ALIVE, SOCIALLY ALIVE / BIOLOGICALLY DEAD, SOCIALLY DEAD

2.4.1.2 HYBRIDS [ABNORMAL]: BIOLOGICALLY DEAD, SOCIALLY ALIVE

2.4.1.3 HYBRIDS [ABNORMAL]: BIOLOGICALLY ALIVE, SOCIALLY DEAD

The continued social presence of disembodied individuals who have died. These are often recognized in exoticised forms – ghosts, ancestors, revenants, or vampires – beings which exist, from an orthodox perspective, on the deathly fringe of society.

To complete the comparison, we have the other side of the spectrum: those who are biological-ly alive, yet socially dead. There is a gamut of situations/circumstances where individuals fall within this category: the elderly, the mentally ill, the recluse, etc. All have one thing in common: the lack of a tangible connection or infl uence to society. In this context, this condition is socially dead, even though their presence has an indirect infl uence in society as a whole.

46

3. THESIS PROPOSAL

3.1 PROGRAM

3.1.1 IN YOUR MIND, WHAT IS THE MOST SUITABLE PROGRAM FOR YOUR PROPOSAL?

3.2 FORM + STRUCTURE

My proposal culminates into the design of a transformation: it is a coalescence of various established functions in society: a crematorium that correlates with the innate cessation of a biological life, and the reverence, introspection, and existentiality that evokes a sense of minimalism; a material research laboratory to further assess the potential of the pulverized bone and the effi cacy attributed to this type of architecture coupled with the pristine, cold, calculative objectivity embedded into the environment of a scientist/researcher; a manufacturing facility for distribution and processing of the pulverized bone, and resolving the marriage of death, the post-mortem, and the dehumanization of the resultant material and product. How can this be retained or is the human presence indelible?

3.2.1 WHAT IS THE TRAJECTORY FOR ‘CREMAINS’ AS A MATERIAL FOR BUILDING?

At this stage, I envisage the material being primarily used for public space in the form of funtional memorials.

3.2.3 WHAT IS FUELING YOUR DESIGN OF THE FORM AND STRUCTURE?

3.2.2 HOW WILL THE PUBLIC RECEIVE THIS PROPOSAL?

The topology is based upon the growth process of trees and bones represented in the SKO method. In addition, I do not want the growth to overshadow the minimalism and implied monumen-tality commonly attributed to the crematorium. Precedence such as the church of light by Tadao Ando and the Crematorium Baumschulenweg by Shultes Frank Architecture.

I do not wish to presume or generalized the thought of citizenry; however, despite the versatility of a single being, the masses seem to be much more predicatable. Not to long ago, cremation was considered a taboo; now, this has shifted due to economics. I believe society is at the precipice of a major change precipitated by technological advancement in multiple facets of life. Presently, there are alternatives methods in dealing with the post-mortem accepted by the public that are not far from this proposal: coral reef made from the deceased, cremation diamonds, etc. From my perspective, soci-ety has shifted away from the dogma associated with structured religion, and are much susceptible to breaking the convention in pursuit of logic, effi ciency, and sustainability.

47

3.3 MATERIAL

3.3.1 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS FROM USING PULVERIZED BONE AS A POTENTIAL MATERIAL FOR CON-STRUCTION?

“Materials embody the values and characteristics of their fabrication process. Much of the po-tential innovation in material studies lies in the realm of fabrication techniques rather than in the advent of new materials. Many typical architectural materials embody meaning that stems from the ways in which they have traditionally been worked with culture. The perceived value of a material is not always inherent within itself, but in the care, diffi culty, and craft of its treatment within a culture.” - Thomas Schropfer from his book Material Design: Informing Architecture by Materiality

Thomas Schropfer illustrates that the cycle and fabrication process of material is tantamount in value, presence, and reverence to the fi nal product. This coincides with the alternate idea of life after death in a functional role to society. The calcium phosphate - or cremains - will not supplant the need for wood, concrete, steel, or glass, but will be available as another option: a material that inherits a delicacy, reverence, and personal association to society that is indelible. The material is sustainable in given the context of my proposal, creates a green space that serves the public.

4 [OBJECTIVES]

OBJECTIVE 1: ARCHITECTURE, DEATH, AND CEREMONIAL SPACE

To investigate the relationship of architecture and death. As an inevitable occurrence in so-ciety, death and the post-mortem body has numerous methods of representation as well as symbol-ism. My objective is to propose an alternative method of burial through architectural means that will repurpose the ideology of funeral practice: the traditional burial and its ceremonious affect, the existing functionality with natural order, and the immortalization of the dead within society.

48

OBJECTIVE 2: FORMAL INQUISITION

OBJECTIVE 3: APPLICATION

This proposal has been heavily predicated upon research in theory, case-studies in material science, biomimicry, biomechanics, structural analysis, computational design. From this knowledge, my intention is to compose a computational algorithm that emulates the SKO method. Then apply this method to my design proposal in multiple capacities: for the most part, SKO+CAO work through extrapolating highest stresses (mechanical, structural, and thermal), then converting an initial homog-enized structure into a heterogeneous material contoured with diversity in material. If those materials were to be assigned different colors, one could possibly create a beautiful composition that is solely based upon its optimal structure in terms of structural/mechanical constraints. This leads to the word optimal, which is not the best word in the architecture discourse from my experience in critiques. A de-signer should not mention ‘optimal’ without presenting a given constraint; in other words, there needs to be a comparison, controlled environment, or perhaps, a universal standard of perception. Ultimate-ly, self-assurance, confi dence, and refl ection aside, it seems inevitable that to objectively measure the worth of an individual, a comparison to an average or standard is required. By proposing a hybridized crematorium that amalgams the ‘preconceived’ programmatic requisites , ambience, spatial qualities, and aesthetics of a crematorium, non-denominational space for introspection, material science labora-tory, and potential manufacturing plant, I will have a heterogeneous palate of spaces. These panoply of spaces can be assigned in a spectrum of hot to cold to produce a composition; this was broahce in oxymoron by Luca Pedrielli.

To create a viable replacement to the tradition crematorium; one that offers an option of the post-mortem body to be represented with reverence and retain a functionality to society. This is achieved by utilizing a recent alternative burial method of Resomation. The process of resomation ends with two products: calcium phosphate and an effl uent comprised of the liquid organic material. The products are highly nutritious to under-developed soil. In today’s market, anyone can purchase bone meal from a gardening store.

The calcium phosphate is implemented into the structural elements as a partial replacement for portland cement = the binding matrix in present-day concrete. In addition, the calcium phosphate is used in a panelized facade system where each panel erodes over time. In the erosive process, the calcium phosphate is redistributed to the soil in two methods: the fi rst is through direct precipitation from the panels, and the second is collected in a glass fi ber reinforced catchment system that also provides tensile strength to the doubly-curved panels.

The dynamism of the structure exudes a poetic dynamism of life: the ephemeral. Over time the structure will grow and recede, while supplying nutrients to the soil. The goal is to blur the lines be-tween spaces conditioned for live and death, and celebrate the symbiosis between the two inevitable concepts.

49

5. THE SITE

The site is brownfi eld located by the India Basin. The soil has been contaminated by the various phases of industry that once occupied the area. This area is the one of the only undeveloped regions of the increasingly burgeoning housing market of San Francisco; as a result, middle-to-high-end residential, commercial, and retail projects are slated for construction within the decade.

The immediate site has been effected by liquefaction: a condition in soil mechanics where the soil has lost bearing capacity and is essentially a liquid due to seismic vibrations over time. In order to accommodate the soil condition, large piles are employed and driven down to a depth where the soil bearing capacity is adequate. This process is very expensive. Therefore I process this area should be developed as a central green space for future residential developments.

The combination of human depository and green space would be resourceful and favorable to an area with a surge of economic and population growth.

50

51

52

100

53

STORAGE AT COLUMBARIUM

WK 4

WK 8

WK 12

WK 16

WK 20

WK 24

WK 28

WK 32

WK 36

WK 40

WK 44

WK 0

ACCEPTANCE SHO

CK ANGER

B

ARG

AIN

ING

DEPRESSION

KEPT AT HOM

E

BUR

IED

OR

SCAT

TERE

D

Based on preliminary research, the average greiving process for the deceased is ap-promixately 48 weeks. Thus, the corrosion allowance for each panel in the system is calibrat-ed to that duration. This time-line is not defi nite and is subect to change if a more economical and effi cient system is discovered. The erosion pattern is maniplulated by the variable dis-trubtion in density: the panel is designed to recede at the edges. The initial phase of erosion causes calcium phosphate to fall directly to the ground. As the panel continues to erode, the material will fall into a catchment system. This system is pressurized, and the calcium phos-phate will reunite with the effl uent liquid dispensed into the irrigation system to be time-re-leased to the green space when the public is not present.

The adjacent chart denotes how the production facility can determine the amount of calcium phosphate amassed by individual given a series of empirical algorithms.

54

BM%

BM%

HT AGE

HTAGE

HTAGE

HTAGE + GENDER

SW BW

SW BW

SW BW

SW BW

BW HT

BWHTBW

HT

Bn

BnBn

BM%

AGE

VISITOR #2059: JOHN DOLITTLE

40

6.083’

185 #

64.75 #

6.48 #

.35

.10

PEAK = 1.0AGE 30 - 40

55

This diagram illustrates the early concept behind how the architec-ture can illustrate the cyclical and symbiotic natural process be-tween life and death. The panels are elevated in most cases to pro-vide shelter and improve space. Again, the presence of those who have past are celebrated and have a function within the living society.

56

As shown in the image above and below, the glass reinforced system provides tension between the outside structural ring as well as catchment for the calcium phosphate during the erosion process.

5757

A comprehensive axom of the system from panels to pressured underground irrigation system.

5858

THE POST-MORTEM

WATER

[In]organics

PotassiumHydroxide

WATER

EFFLUENT LIQUID

RESOMATION CHAMBER

PANEL PRODUCTION

GREEN SPACE REVITALIZATION

Protein

FATs

Minerals

59

THE FAMILY

60

THE STAFF

61

THE PUBLIC

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

1. Addington, D. Michelle, and Daniel L. Schodek. Smart Materials and Technologies: For the architecture and design professions. Burlington, MA. Elsevier: Architectural Press, 2005.

2. “About Alkaline Hydrolysis”.http://www.alkalinehydrolysis.com

3. Alexander, Christopher. A Pattern Language. New York. Oxford University Press, 1977. Print.

4. Baucom, Sidney L., and John. G. Skedos. “Mathematical analysis of trabecular ‘trajectories’ in apparent trajectorial structures: the unfortunate historical emphasis on the human proximal femur.” Journal of Theoretical Biology 244 (2007) 15-45

5. Braidotti, Rosi. The Posthuman. Malden, MA. Polity Press, 2013.

6. Brown, J. H. ‘Complex Ecological Systems in G.A. Cowan, A.Pines, and S. Meltzer. Complexity: Metaphors, Mod-els, and Reality. Santa Fe Institute: Studies in the science of Complexity.

7. “Chinese cremation”. http://www.memorialize.com/Chinese-Cremation-information.php 2002-2013

8. Dan, He. “Government boosts rates of Cremation.” ChinaDaily-USA. Mar. 2012. Web. 2 Nov. 2013

9. Delaunay, Boris: Sur la sphère vide, Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR, Otdelenie Matematicheskikh i Estestvennykh Nauk, 7:793–800, 1934

10. France-Presse, Agence. “Chinese offi cials set corpse ablaze in cremation controversy.” The Raw Story. Dec. 2013. Web. 2 Nov. 2013

11. Falade, F. et al.”Potential of Pulverized Bone as a Pozzolanic Material”. [International Journal of Scientifi c + Engi-neering Research], Vol: 3, Issue: 7, 2012,6.

12. Gruber, Petra. Biomimetics in Architecture: Architecture of Life and Buildings.Germany. Springer-Verlag, 2011. Print.

13. Hall, Susan. (2007) Basic Biomechanics. Fifth Edition. p. 88

14. Ito, Masami. “Cremation fi nds favor even with royal clan.” The Japan Times. Jun. 2012. Web. 2 Nov. 2013

15. Hallam, Elizabeth, Jenny Hockey, ad Glennys Howarth. Beyond the Body: Death and the social identity. New York, NY. Routledge, 1999. Print.

16. Hensel, Michael, Achim Menges, and Michael Weinstock. Emergent Technologies and Design: Towards a biological paradigm for architecture. New York, NY. Routledge, 2010. Print.

17. Lee, Rhim Jea. The Infi nity Burial Project: A Modest Proposal for the Postmortem Body. http://www. http://infi nity-burialproject.com.

18. Mattheck, Claus.(1998).Design in Nature: Learning from Trees.

19. Mehta, P. Kumar, and Paulo J.M. Monteiro. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials – 3rd Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Print

20. Menges, Archim and Sean Ahlquist. Computational Design Thinking. West Sussex, United Kingdom. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,,2011. Print.

21. Menges, Archim. Material Computation , AD: Architectural Design. 216 (2012)

22. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2012. Print.

WORK CITED

69

23. Mullaly, Aaron. “Bone Development: Endochondral Ossifi cation”. SOPHIA. 26.Nov.2013

24. Otto, Frei, and Philip Drew. Form and Structure. Boulder, CO. Westview Press, 1976. Print.

25. Oxman, Neri. Material-based Design Computation. MIT: Cambridge, Mass. The MIT Press, 2010. Electronic.

26. Pearce, Peter. Structure in Nature Is a Strategy for Design. Cambridge, Mass, London, England. The MIT Press, 1987. Print

27. “ProtoHouse by Softkill Design” http://www.dezeen.com/2012/10/23/protohouse-by-softkill-design/

28. SOFTKILL DESIGN. http://www.softkilldesign.berta.me/project/

29. Schropfer, Thomas. Material Design: Informing Architecture by Materiality. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser GmBH, 2011. Print

30. Staudt. PhD., Christina and Horald Ellens. Our changing Journey to the End: Reshaping Death, Dying, and Grief in America. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2013. Print.

31. Taehyong, Kim et al. ‘BonNET: A Network Model of Bone Microstructure and Dynamics.’, Int. J. Data Mining and Bioinformatics, Vol x. No.x

32. Terzidis, K. Algorithmic form. Expressive form: A Conceptual Approach to Computational. Newy York: Spon Press, 2003. Print

33. Turner, C.H.; Wang, T.; Burr, D.B. (2001). “Shear Strength and Fatigue Properties of Human Cortical Bone Deter-mined from Pure Shear Tests”. Calcifi ed Tissue International 69(6): 373–378

34. Vogel, Steven. “Comparative Mechanics: Life’s Physical World” – Second Edition. Princton, NJ:Princeton Press. Print.