Ai lF tiAnimal Function - Class Oracle Media · Ai lF tiAnimal Function ... Sara Olson, PhD ......

AP Biology Rapid Learning Series - 20

© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved. :: http://www.RapidLearningCenter.com 1

Rapid Learning CenterChemistry :: Biology :: Physics :: Math

Rapid Learning Center Presents …p g

Teach Yourself AP Biology in 24 Hours

*AP is a registered trademark of the College Board, which does not endorse, nor is affiliated in any way with the Rapid Learning courses.

A i l F tiAnimal Function

AP Biology Rapid Learning Series

Rapid Learning Centerwww.RapidLearningCenter.com/© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Biology Rapid Learning SeriesWayne Huang, PhD

Andrew Graham, PhDElizabeth James, PhD

Casandra Rauser, PhD Jessica Habashi, PhD

Sara Olson, PhDJessica Barnes, PhD



Learning Objectives

Energy Source: Nutrition, Digestion and Respiration

By completing this tutorial, you will learn about:

Circulation and DefenseReproduction and DevelopmentSensor and Movement

3/46

Animal Function Concept Map

DevelopmentAnimal

DigestionNervous System

ReproductionReproduction

Immune ResponseImmune

Response

Defense Sensory

InflammatoryInflammatoryResponse

Ingest Food

Respiration

Oxygen

4/46

NutrientsCirculation

Response



Energy Source

NutritionDi ti

5/46

DigestionRespiration

Animal Nutrients

Major nutrients include carbohydrates and

proteins.Other essential nutrients

include nonessential amino acids: tryptophan,

Vitamins are required in smaller amounts than

amino acids: tryptophan, methionine, valine, histidine, theronine,

phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and lysine.

6/46

smaller amounts than amino acids but are

essential. Minerals are chemical elements other

than C, H, O and N. Ca and P are the two types required

in large amounts.



Animal Nutrition Uptake■ Macromolecules need to be broken down to small nutrition molecules for body to uptake.

■ Feeding Types:■ Feeding Types:

■ Omnivores: Animals feeding on multiple types of food, e.g. human

■ Herbivores: Animals only eat plants

■ Carnivores: Animals only eat other animals

Omnivores

7/46

Herbivores Carnivores

Food Processing StagesFood processing stages:

• Ingestion: taking the food in.• Digestion: breaking the food down into small units.• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed

Ingestion

• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed.• Elimination: undigested waste is passed out.

8/46 Elimination

Digestions & Absorption



Digestion in StomachFood enters the stomach and is broken apart by a process called heuristic churning and mixed with digestive fluid (having HCl and digestive enzymes).Small molecules like glucose or alcohol pass through the stomach directly into the blood streamthrough the stomach directly into the blood stream.

Gastric Glands:• Mucous Cells: secret mucous for lubrication• Chief Cells: secrets pepsinogen (inactive)• Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which

9/46

HCl + Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (active)

Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which breaks down food• Pepsin: digest proteins into smaller peptides.

Digestion in Small Intestine

LiverSmall Intestine: the major organ for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption

Pancreas

p

10/46

Small intestine

Liver: Makes bile which makes fat more susceptible to enzyme attack.

Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and alkaline solutions which neutralize food mixtures from stomach.



Small Intestine in Detail

The intestine goes from the stomach to the anus. The small intestine is divided into the

Nutrients are absorbed in the lumen. In the glandular epithelium are goblet cells that secrete mucus which lubricates food passage. Villi increase the surface area of the intestines. divided into the

duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

11/46

Large surface area - facilitate absorption:• Plicae Circulares: Folds of submucosa which serve to increase surface area. • Villus (Villi): Finger-like projections on the small intestine wall.• Microvilli: Many tiny projections on epithelial cells which form villi.

Small Intestine Breakdown Products

The small intestine is responsible for carbohydrate breakdown to maltose and monosaccharide. Proteins are broken

down into amino acids.

12/46

Nucleic acids are broken down into nucleotides, nitrogen bases, sugars and phosphates. Fats are broken down to

fat droplets and fatty acids and glycerols.

Only small molecules can be absorbed in the small intestine.



Nutrition Question

Nutrients are needed for body

function what else d d?

Oxygen

do we need?

13/46

Gas exchange happens in the lung. When rib

cage enlarges, air

Respiration: Inhale O2, Exhale CO2Trachea

Left Lung

comes in and shrinks air out. Bronchus

Right Lung

Bronchiole

Alveoli

14/46

Breathing is automatically controlled by

centers in the brain.

Right Lung

The lung structure includes: trachea,

bronchus, bronchiole and alveoli. Most gas

exchange occurs at the alveoli.



Oxygen and CO2 Transport

• Hemoglobin is a iron containing oxygen transport metalloprotein.• It is found in the red blood cell.• Hemoglobin transports oxygen

• Hemoglobin is a tetramer, made up of four protein subunits. Each heme group binds one oxygen molecule.• Gas exchange happens at the alveoli which is permeable to gas

• Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs or gills to the rest of the body.

15/46

alveoli which is permeable to gas. • Oxygenated blood is bright red. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red.

Circulation and Defense

16/46



Cardiovascular SystemHeart Structure

■ Left Ventricle■ Right Ventricle Pulmonary artery

Superior Vena Cava

Aorta

■ Left Atrium■ Right Atrium■ Pulmonary artery■ Pulmonary Veins■ Superior Vena Cava■ Inferior Vena Cava■ Atrioventricular Valve

Left AtriumRight Atrium

y y

Semilunar Valve

Pulmonary Veins

17/46

Valve■ Semilunar Valve■ Aorta

Right Ventricle

Left ventricleInferior Vena CavaAtrioventricular Valve

Blood CirculationBlood circulation can be divided into two

circuits, the pulmonary circuit and th t i i it

Pulmonary CircuitA circuit of blood circulation between lung and heartFunction: 1) S d CO t l

Pulmonary Circuit

LungCO2

O2

O2

CO2

the systemic circuit. 1) Send CO2 to lung2) Get O2 from lung

18/46

Systemic Circuit

Tissue O2

O2CO2

CO2

Systemic CircuitA circuit of blood circulation between heart and other part of bodyFunction: 1) Bring CO2 to heart2) Send O2 to tissues



Cardiac CycleThe cardiac cycle consists of three stages of alternating relaxation and

contraction of the heart.

Atria systole: contraction of the atria and blood

DiastoleDiastole: heart is relaxed and blood flows in.

19/46

of the atria and blood moves into the ventricles.

SystoleVentricular systole: ventricles contract and O2 rich blood moves into the aorta artery. CO2rich blood moves into the pulmonary artery.

Body Defense: Nonspecific

Nonspecific defense proteins and cells

Categorized into nonspecific defense and immune response.

Neutrophil

■ White Blood Cells: engulf bacteria and virus and infected tissues

Neutrophils Monocytes MacrophagesLymphocyteEosinophilBasophil

Monocyte

Lymphocyte

20/46

■ Proteins:Interferons: produced by infected

tissues for fighting the virus.Complement: Circulate in blood

for making microbes more susceptible to macrophage. Basophil

Eosinophil



Inflammatory Response

Inflammatory response is a major component of nonspecific immune response.

Tissue injury results in the release of chemical signals like histamine. This causes blood vessel dilation and an increase of local blood vessels, migration of phagocytes in the areas (s elling redness)response. areas (swelling, redness).

21/46

Phagocytes consume bacteria and cell debris resulting in wound repair.

Immune Response

Resistance to specific invaderscontains two interactive immune response: B cell

Humoral

T cell

Cellular

response:

■ The humoral immune response:

-- Detects antigens in blood stream

-- Involves antibodies generated by B cells

Plasma Cell

Antibodies

T cell

T cell attacks infected cell

22/46

■ The cellular immune response:

-- Detect antigens that reside within or on cells.

-- Involves T cells.

Binding toAntigen

Antigen Destroyed

x Infected cell lysis



Antibody and B Cells

AntigenThere is an enormous amount of binding antigen diversity in antibodies. This is due to the process

Antibody reservoirAntigen binding stimulates cell division

One dominant cell type

of clonal selection.

•There is a variety of B cells in low numbers.• Antigens binding the B cell stimulates one type of B cell

23/46

Plasma cell

to divide and differentiate into plasma cells. • Because of clonal selection these antigen specific cells will dominate.

Primary and Secondary ResponseAntibody reservoir Antigen

Mitosis

Primary response: Lymphocytes are first exposed to the antigen and form a clone of plasma cells which produce antibodies

Memory B cellPlasma cell

which produce antibodies.

Secondary response involves a subsequent exposure to the same antigen. This will trigger a stronger

24/46

Memory B cell

Large clone of cells

trigger a stronger immune response.



Cell Mediated Response

There are three types of T cells:• Cytotoxic T cells - attack body cells that are

infected with virus.• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell

activity. It is responsible for terminating immune activity after the infection is eliminated.

• Helper T cells - activates other T and B cells for antibody production.

25/46

Killer T cells directly attack other cells having foreign or abnormal antigens on their surfaces.

Immune System Summary

Monocytes Monocytes

AntibodiesMacrophagesB cells

Secondary

NeutrophilsNeutrophils

Interferon

Inflammatory

Eosinophil

Cytotoxic Cytotoxic T cell

Complement

Humoral Response

Primary responsePrimary responseSecondary Response

26/46

Inflammatory response

Helper T cell

Suppressor T cell

Nonspecific Response Specific Immune Response

Cell-mediated ResponseBasophil



What is Clonal Selection?

What is clonal selection? Clonal selection is a

process for antigen to stimulate cell divisionstimulate cell division of a corresponding B

cell, therefore this specific B cell number increase significantly

27/46

Development and Reproduction

28/46



Reproductive - Development

Sperm and Ova Formation: Meiosis

Mating to Form ZygotesMating to Form Zygotes

Embryo Development

Child Born Process

29/46

Growth Stages

Adults

Sperm and Ova FormationSperm is developed in coiled

tubes called seminiferous tubules in the testes.

Ova are formed in the ovary. Both sperms and ova are produced during meiosis.

30/46



Embryo Development

Zygote Three layered Three-layered embryo

CleavageBlastula

SpermsSperms

Ovum

Fertilization Gastrulation

Cleavage: Blastula

Mature embryo

Organ formationCleavage: Blastula

is formed, gastrulation cells divide into three

layers: ectoderm, endoderm and

mesoderm.

31/46

Organ Formation: Endoderm leads to digestive tract, liver, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroids thymus, lining of bladder.

Ectoderm: skin and central nervous system, Mesoderm: internal organs,

skeletal/muscular system.

Blastulation

Morula Blastula

The blastula is an early stage of embryonic development in animals. It is formed by cleavage of a fertilized ovum. It is made up of a spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled

32/46

spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled cavity called the blastocoel.

The blastula follows the morula and is before gastrula.



Gastrulation is an invagination of cells during the blastula phase of development to form a digestive cavity – called archenteron and two separate germ layers called an ectoderm and (internal endoderm) often a mesoderm develops between them

Gastrulation

them.

There is only one opening to the digestive cavity which is known as the blastopore.

The germ layers differentiate to form tissues and organs.

33/46

What is Gastrulation?

What is gastrulation

?

Gastrulation is a developmental stage for embryos, it generates three layers of cells which can further differentiate

into organs.

34/46



Sense andSense and Nervous System

35/46

Sensory Process

SoundSoundElectrical Electrical

SignalSensory ReceptorSensory Receptor

LightFood

Sensory Smell

Sensory Neuron

yTransduction

Smell

Nerve SystemCentral

Nerve System

Motor Neuron

3 Types of Neurons1. Sensory neurons send

impulses toward the CNS away from the peripheral system.

2. Interneurons are the neurons lie entirely

36/46

Effector(Action)to

the

ywithin the CNS.

3. Motor neurons: these nerve cells carry signals from the CNS to the effector cells in the peripheral system.



Sensory Receptors

Mechanical and chemical receptors detect temperature and pressure. They also detect muscle contraction and blood pressure. They are

Auditory receptors are responsible for detecting pressure waves in the air.

p yresponsible for sensing taste, smell and body position.

37/46

Optic receptors detect light over a broad range of wavelengths.

Potential on Sensory NeuronA nerve signal originates as a change in the resting potential.

Resting Potential■ The voltage across the plasma membrane of a restingplasma membrane of a resting neuron

■ Inside of cell is negative and outside is positive

■ The resting potential is maintained by ions

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Inside of cell

outside

38/46

Action Potential■ A nerve signal

Threshold Potential■ A change in the potential that is big enough to initiate a nerve signal



Synapse and Neuron CommunicationAction potentialAction potential

Synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the receiving neuron.

The binding opens ion channels in the receiving neuron

and generates a new action potential y py p

NeurotransmitterReleasing

Neurotransmitter

Accepting and binding of Accepting and binding of the neurotransmitter

Transmitting Neuron

The potential arrives at the synaptic cleft and releases

neuro-transmitters.

N

action potential.

39/46

the neurotransmitter

New Action Potential

Receiving neuron

Neurons communicate at the synapse. An action

potential can regenerate itself

along the neuron.

Spinal CordSpinal cord connects the central nerve system and peripheral nerve system.

Sensory Cell Body Dorsal Root

Ganglion

y yWhite Matter

Gray Matter

Central Canal

Sensory axon

Receptor

Effector Spinal N

40/46

Motor Cell BodyInterneuronMotor axon

Nerve



Central Nervous System

C b ll

ForebrainBrain and Spinal Cord

The brain is made up of three parts.

Th b i t iBrainstem

Cerebellum The brainstem is the most primitive in the evolutionary chain. Important in life support and basic functions such as movement.

The cerebellum consists of two

hemispheres and integrates the

sensory perception and motor output

41/46

and motor output.Forebrain the

most advanced in evolutionary

terms. Important for learning ability and creativity.

What is the Signal in a Neuron?

What form does a stimulus signal take in a neuron?

A stimulus signal exists as a potential charge across the plasma membranemembrane.

42/46



Animal NutrientsAnimal

Nutrients

Learning Summary

Animal Sensory System and

Signal

Animal Sensory System and

SignalDigestion and Respiration

Digestion and Respiration

Animal Animal

Signal Transmission in Nerve System

Signal Transmission in Nerve System

AnimalAnimal

43/46

Reproduction and

Development

Reproduction and

Development

Animal Circulation and

Defense System

Animal Circulation and

Defense System

Question: Review

_____ are animals that feed on multiple types of food. ___________Omnivores

The major organ for chemical ___________

___________

Small intestine

Pulmonary and systemic circuit

The major organ for chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.

Spinal cord connects the

The two circulation divisions of blood.

44/46

___________Central, peripheralp

____ and _____ nerve systems.

The blastula is formed by _____ of a fertilized ovum. ___________Cleavage



Congratulations

You have successfully completed the core tutorial

Animal Function

45/46

Rapid Learning Center

Rapid Learning Center

Wh t’ N t

Chemistry :: Biology :: Physics :: Math

What’s Next …

Step 1: Concepts – Core Tutorial (Just Completed)

Step 2: Practice – Interactive Problem Drill

Step 3: Recap – Super Review Cheat Sheet

46/46

Go for it!

http://www.RapidLearningCenter.com

Date post:	07-Jul-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	lamkhue
View:	222 times
Download:	0 times

Ai lF tiAnimal Function - Class Oracle Media · Ai lF tiAnimal Function ... Sara Olson, PhD ......

Documents