ALL LOgic Gaaate

8/18/2019 ALL LOgic Gaaate

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OR GATE (IC7432)

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it

behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive

"or." The output is "true" if either or both of the

inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then

the output is "false."

The OR gate is a digital logic gate thatimplements logical disjunction - it behaves

according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH

output ( ! results if one or both the inputs to the

gate are HIGH ( !. If neither input is HIGH, a #$output (%! results. In another sense, the function

of #& e'ectivel )nds the maximum bet*een t*o

binar digits, just as the complementar A+

function )nds the minimum .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate


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Symbol diagram

A B

TRUTH TABLE

/

INPUT OUTPUT

A 0 A #& 0

% % %

%

%

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OR_ANSI.svg


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A truth table is a table that describes the behavior

of a logic gate. It lists the value of the output for

ever possible combination of the inputs and can

be used to simplif the number of logic gates and

level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general

the truth table does not lead to an e1cient

implementation2 a minimi3ation procedure, using

4arnaugh maps, the 5uine67c8lus9e algorithm

or a heuristic algorithm is re:uired for reducing

the circuit comple;it .


5/129

igital ele!tro"i!# are s stems that represent

signals as discrete levels, rather than as a

continuous range. In most cases the number of

states is t*o, and these states are represented b

t*o voltage levels= one near to 3ero volts and one

at a higher level depending on the suppl voltage

in use. These t*o levels are often represented as

" o*" and "High."

The fundamental advantage of digital techni:ues

stem from the fact it is easier to get an electronic

device to s*itch into one of a number of 9no*n

>


6/129

states than to accuratel reproduce a continuous

range of values.

igital electronics are usuall made from large

assemblies of logic gates, simple electronic

representations of 0oolean logic functions.

?


7/129

$ogi! gate

A logi! gate performs a logical operation on one

or more logic inputs and produces a single logic

output. The logic normall performed is 0oolean

logic and is most commonl found in digital

circuits. ogic gates are primaril implemented

electronicall using diodes or transistor, but can

also be constructed using electromagnetic rela s,

@uidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical

elements.

In electronic logic, a logic level is represented b a

voltage or current, (*hich depends on the t pe of

electronic logic in use!. ach logic gate re:uires

po*er so that it can source and sin9 currents to

achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit

B


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moment , ever terminal is in one of the t*o

binar conditions low (%! or high ( !, represented

b di'erent voltage levels. The logic state of a

terminal can, and generall does, change often, as

the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the

lo* state is appro;imatel 3ero volts (% E!, *hile

the high state is appro;imatel )ve volts positive

( > E!.

There are seven basic logic gates= A+ , #&, C#&,

+#T, +A+ , +#&, and C+#&.

F

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/logic-gate-AND-OR-XOR-NOT-NAND-NOR-and-XNORhttp://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/binaryhttp://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/logic-gate-AND-OR-XOR-NOT-NAND-NOR-and-XNORhttp://searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/binary


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

%


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V C C

V C CV C C

V C C

VC C+BATT

U 2

14PINIC

1

234567

14

1312111098

C 2C E L 5

10M/63V

U 1LM7805H

1

2

3

C 1C C E R104PF

J 1

RLMT 03(M)

123

J 3

RLMT 03(M)

123

J 2

RLMT 03(M)

123

R 2R470E

2

LE

1

LE

R 1

R470E


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Com%o"e"t# li#t


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/


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PC& $A'OUT


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>


16/129

?


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Pri"ted Cir! it &oard#

B


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In electronics , printed circuit boards, or 80s, are

used to mechanicall support and electricall

connect electronic components using conductive

path*a s, or traces , etched from copper sheets

laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.

Alternative names are printed *iring board ( $0!

and etched *iring board. opulating the board

*ith electronic components forms a printed circuit

assembl ( 8A!, also 9no*n as a printed circuit

board assembl ( 80A !. 80s are rugged,

ine;pensive, and can be highl reliable. The

re:uire much more la out e'ort and higher initial

cost than either *ire-*rapped or point-to-point

constructed circuits, but are much cheaper, faster,

and consistent in high volume production.

D

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_tracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_etchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminatedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_Circuit_Board_Assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_wraphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_tracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_etchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminatedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_Circuit_Board_Assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_wraphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction


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Co"troller board = A special t pe of e;pansion

board that contains a controller for a peripheral

device . $hen ou attach ne* devices, such as a

dis9 drive or graphics monitor, to a computer, ou

often need to add a controller board.

Net,or- I"ter.a!e Card (NIC) = An e;pansion

board that enables a 8 to be connected to a

local-area net*or9 ( A+!.

/ideo ada%ter = An e;pansion board that contains

a controller for a graphics monitor .

rinted circuit boards are also called cards.

a" .a!t ri"g

Patter"i"g (et!*i"g)

%

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/disk_drive.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/network_interface_card_NIC.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/graphics_monitor.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/disk_drive.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/network_interface_card_NIC.htmlhttp://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/graphics_monitor.html


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The vast majorit of printed circuit boards are

made b adhering a la er of copper over the

entire substrate, sometimes on both sides,

(creating a "blan9 80"! then removing un*anted

copper after appl ing a temporar mas9 (eg. b

etching!, leaving onl the desired copper traces. A

fe* 80s are made b adding traces to the bare

substrate (or a substrate *ith a ver thin la er of

copper! usuall b a comple; process of multiple

electroplating steps.

There are three common "subtractive" methods

(methods that remove copper! used for the

production of printed circuit boards=

. Sil- #!ree" %ri"ti"g uses etch-resistant in9s

to protect the copper foil. Jubse:uent etching

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroplatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_screenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroplatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_screen


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removes the un*anted copper. Alternativel ,

the in9 ma be conductive, printed on a blan9

(non-conductive! board. The latter techni:ue

is also used in the manufacture of h brid

circuits .

. P*otoe"gra0i"g uses a photomas9 and

chemical etching to remove the copper foil

from the substrate. The photomas9 is usuall

prepared *ith a photoplotter from data

produced b a technician using 8A7, or

computer-aided manufacturing soft*are.

aser-printed transparencies are t picall

emplo ed for phototools2 ho*ever, direct

laser imaging techni:ues are being emplo ed

to replace phototools for high-resolution

re:uirements.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoengravinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoplotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoengravinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoplotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturing


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/. PC& milli"g uses a t*o or three-a;is

mechanical milling s stem to mill a*a the

copper foil from the substrate. A 80 milling

machine (referred to as a 80 rotot per !

operates in a similar *a to a plotter ,

receiving commands from the host soft*are

that control the position of the milling head in

the ;, , and (if relevant! 3 a;is. ata to drive

the rotot per is e;tracted from )les

generated in 80 design soft*are and stored

in H G or Gerber )le format.

"Additive" processes also e;ist. The most common

is the "semi-additive process. In this version, the

unpatterned board has a thin la er of copper

alread on it. A reverse mas9 is then applied.

/

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PCB_milling&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPGLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_Filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PCB_milling&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPGLhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_File


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( nli9e a subtractive process mas9, this mas9

e;poses those parts of the substrate that *ill

eventuall become the traces.! Additional copper

is then plated onto the board in the unmas9ed

areas2 copper ma be plated to an desired

*eight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then

applied. The mas9 is stripped a*a and a brief

etching step removes the no*-e;posed original

copper laminate from the board, isolating the

individual traces. The additive process is

commonl used for multi-la er boards as it

facilitates the plating-through of the holes (vias! in

the circuit board.

$ami"atio"


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Jome 80s have trace la ers inside the 80 and

are called multi-la er 80s. These are formed b

bonding together separatel etched thin boards.

rilli"g

Holes, or vias, through a 80 are t picall drilled

*ith tin drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide .

The drilling is performed b automated drilling

machines *ith placement controlled b a drill tape

or drill )le. These computer-generated )les are

also called numericall controlled drill (+8 ! )les

or " ;cellon )les ". The drill )le describes the

location and si3e of each drilled hole. $hen ver

small vias are re:uired, drilling *ith mechanical

bits is costl because of high rates of *ear and

brea9age. In this case, the vias ma be

>

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten_carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excellon_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten_carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excellon_file


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evaporated b lasers . aser-drilled vias t picall

have an inferior surface )nish inside the hole.

These holes are called micro vias. It is also

possible *ith controlled-depth drilling, laser

drilling, or b pre-drilling the individual sheets of

the 80 before lamination, to produce holes that

connect onl some of the copper la ers, rather

than passing through the entire board. These

holes are called blind vias *hen the connect an

internal copper la er to an outer la er, or buried

vias *hen the connect t*o or more internal

copper la ers.

The *alls of the holes, for boards *ith or more

la ers, are plated *ith copper to form plated-

through holes that electricall connect the

?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser


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conducting la ers of the 80. Kor multila er

boards, those *ith < la ers or more, drilling

t picall produces a smear comprised of the

bonding agent in the laminate s stem. 0efore the

holes can be plated through, this smear must be

removed b a chemical de-smear process, or b

plasma-etch.

E+%o#ed !o"d !tor %lati"g a"d !oati"g

The pads and lands to *hich components *ill be

mounted are t picall plated, because bare

copper o;idi3es :uic9l , and therefore is not

readil solderable. Traditionall , an e;posed

copper *as plated *ith solder . This solder *as a

tin -lead allo , ho*ever ne* solder compounds are

no* used to achieve compliance *ith the &oHJ

B

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RoHShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RoHS


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directive in the , *hich restricts the use of lead.

#ther platings used are #J (organic surface

protectant!, immersion silver, electroless nic9el

*ith immersion gold coating ( +IG!, and direct

gold. dge connectors , placed along one edge of

some boards, are often gold plated .

Solder re#i#t

Areas that should not be soldered to ma be

covered *ith a pol mer solder resist (solder mas9!

coating. The solder resist prevents solder from

bridging bet*een conductors and thereb creating

short circuits. Jolder resist also provides some

protection from the environment.

S!ree" %ri"ti"g

D

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_connectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_platedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EUhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_connectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_plated


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ine art and te;t ma be printed onto the outer

surfaces of a 80 b screen printing . $hen space

permits, the screen print te;t can indicate

component designators, s*itch setting

re:uirements, test points, and other features

helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the

circuit board.Jcreen print is also 9no*n as the sil9

screen, or, in one sided 80s, the red print.

Te#t

npopulated boards ma be subjected to a bare-

board test *here each circuit connection (as

de)ned in a netlist! is veri)ed as correct on the

)nished board. Kor high-volume production, a 0ed

of nails tester or );ture is used to ma9e contact

*ith copper lands or holes on one or both sides of

F

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen-printinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_of_nails_testerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_of_nails_testerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen-printinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_of_nails_testerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_of_nails_tester


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Po% lati"g

After the 80 is completed, electronic components

must be attached to form a functional printed

circuit assembl , or 8A. In through-hole

construction, component leads ma be inserted in

holes and electricall and mechanicall );ed to

the board *ith a molten metal solder, *hile in

surface-mount construction, the components are

simpl soldered to pads or lands on the outer

surfaces of the 80.#ften, through-hole and

surface-mount construction must be combined in

a single 8A because some re:uired components

are available onl in surface-mount pac9ages,

*hile others are available onl in through-hole

pac9ages.

/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mounthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount


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Again, L 8 guidelines for 80 component

placement, soldering, and inspection are

commonl used to maintain :ualit control in this

stage of 80 manufacturing. After the board is

populated, the populated board ma be tested

*ith an in-circuit test s stem. To facilitate this

test, 80s ma be designed *ith e;tra pads to

ma9e temporar connections. Jometimes these

pads must be isolated *ith resistors. The in-circuit

test ma also e;ercise boundar scan test

features of some components. In-circuit test

s stems ma also be used to program nonvolatile

memor components on the board. In boundar

scan testing, test circuits integrated into various

I8s on the board form temporar connections

bet*een the pcb traces to test that the I8s are

/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_circuit_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_scanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_circuit_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_scan


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mounted correctl . 0oundar scan testing re:uires

that all the I8s to be tested use a standard test

con)guration procedure, the most common one

being the Loint Test Action Group ( LTAG! standard.

//

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JTAG


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Prote!tio" a"d %a!-agi"g

80s intended for e;treme environments often

have a conformal coat, *hich is applied b dipping

or spra ing after the components have been

soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and lea9age

currents or shorting due to condensation. The

earliest conformal coats *ere *a; . 7odern

conformal coats are usuall dips of dilute solutions

of silicone rubber, pol urethane, acr lic, or epo; .

Jome are engineering plastics sputtered onto the

80 in a vacuum chamber. 7an assembled 80s

are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed

in antistatic bags during transport. $hen handling

these boards, the user must be earthed 2 failure to

do this might transmit an accumulated static

/


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charge through the board, damaging or destro ing

it. ven bare boards are sometimes static

sensitive. Traces have gotten so )ne that it s :uite

possible to blo* an etch o' the board (or change

its characteristics! *ith a static charge. This is

especiall true on non-traditional 80s such as

787s and micro*ave 80s.

STEPS FOR MAKING PCB

• repare the la out of the circuit (positive!.

• 8ut the photo)lm (slightl bigger! of the si3e of

the la out.

• lace the la out in the photoprinter machine

*ith the photo)lm above it. 7a9e sure that the

bromide (dar9! side of the )lm is in contact *ith

the la out.

/>

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Chip_Modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Chip_Modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave


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• J*itch on the machine b pressing the push

button for > sec.

• ip the )lm in the solution prepared (developer!

b mi;ing the chemicals A M 0 in e:ual

:uantities in *ater.

• +o* clean the )lm b placing it in the tra

containing *ater for min.

• After this, dip the )lm in the );er solution for

min. no* the negative of the

8ircuit is read .

• +o* *ash it under the @o*ing *ater.

• r the negative in the photocure machine.

/?


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• Ta9e the 80 board of the si3e of the la out and

clean it *ith steel *ool to ma9e the surface

smooth.

• +o* dip the 80 in the li:uid photoresist, *ith

the help of dip coat machine.

• +o* clip the 80 ne;t to the negative in the

photo cure machine, dr ing for appro;imate %-

minute.

• +o* place the negative on the top of the 80 in

the E machine, set the timer for about .>

minute and s*itch on the E light at the top.

• Ta9e the & developer in a container and

rigorousl move the 80 in it.

• After this, *ash it *ith *ater ver gentl .

/B


38/129

• Then appl & d e on it *ith the help of a

dropper so that it is completel covered b it.

• +o* clamp the 80 in the etching machine that

contains ferric chloride solution for about %

minutes.

• After etching, *ash the 80 *ith *ater, *ipe it

a dr cloth softl .

• Kinall rub the 80 *ith a steel *ool, and the

80 is read .

/D


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Co""e!tio" iagram


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OUTPUT(') A &

H HIGH ogic evel

#$ ogic evel

"!tio" Table

I"% t# O t% t

A & '

H H

H H

H H H


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43/129

Note 21 All t picals are at E88 >E, TA

> 8.

Note 31 +ot more than one output should be

shorted at a time, and the duration should not

e;ceed one second.

AN GATE (IC74 )


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The AND gate is so named because, if % is called

"false" and is called "true," the gate acts in the

same *a as the logical "and" operator. The

follo*ing illustration and table sho* the circuit

s mbol and logic combinations for an A+ gate.

(In the s mbol, the input terminals are at left and

the output terminal is at right.! The output is

"true" *hen both inputs are "true." #ther*ise, the

output is "false."

e#ired Gate


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#utput(5! P

The AN gate is a basic digital logic gate that

implements logical conjunction - it behaves

according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH

output ( ! results onl if both the inputs to the

A+ gate are HIGH ( !. If neither or onl one input

to the A+ gate is HIGH, a #$ output results. In

another sense, the function of A+ e'ectivel

)nds the minimum bet*een t*o binar digits, just

as the #& function )nds the maximum . Therefore,

the output is al*a s % e;cept *hen all the inputs

are s.

A truth table is a table that describes the behavior

of a logic gate. It lists the value of the output for

ever possible combination of the inputs and can

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table


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be used to simplif the number of logic gates and

level of nesting in an electronic circuit. In general

the truth table does not lead to an e1cient

implementation2 a minimi3ation procedure, using

4arnaugh maps, the 5uine67c8lus9e algorithm

or a heuristic algorithm is re:uired for reducing

the circuit comple;it .

igital ele!tro"i!# are s stems that represent

signals as discrete levels, rather than as a

continuous range. In most cases the number of

states is t*o, and these states are represented b

t*o voltage levels= one near to 3ero volts and one

at a higher level depending on the suppl voltage

in use. These t*o levels are often represented as

" o*" and "High."


47/129

The fundamental advantage of digital techni:ues

stem from the fact it is easier to get an electronic

device to s*itch into one of a number of 9no*n

states than to accuratel reproduce a continuous

range of values.

igital electronics are usuall made from large

assemblies of logic gates, simple electronic

representations of 0oolean logic functions.

$ogi! gate

A logi! gate performs a logical operation on one

or more logic inputs and produces a single logic

output. The logic normall performed is 0oolean

logic and is most commonl found in digital

circuits. ogic gates are primaril implemented

electronicall using diodes or transistor, but can


48/129

also be constructed using electromagnetic rela s,

@uidics, optics, molecules, or even mechanical

elements.

In electronic logic, a logic level is represented b a

voltage or current, (*hich depends on the t pe of

electronic logic in use!. ach logic gate re:uires

po*er so that it can source and sin9 currents to

achieve the correct output voltage. In logic circuit

diagrams the po*er is not sho*n, but in a full

electronic schematic, po*er connections are

re:uired.

+A+ and +#& logic gates are the t*o pillars of

logic, in that all other t pes of 0oolean logic gates

(i.e., A+ , #&, +#T, C#&, C+#&! can be created

from a suitable net*or9 of just +A+ or just +#&


49/129

gate(s!. The can be built from rela s or

transistors, or an other technolog that can

create an inverter and a t*o-input A+ or #&

gate. Hence the +A+ and +#& gates are called

the universal gates. A logic gate is an elementar

building bloc9 of a digital circuit . 7ost logic gates

have t*o inputs and one output. At an given

moment , ever terminal is in one of the t*o

binar conditions low (%! or high ( !, represented

b di'erent voltage levels. The logic state of a

terminal can, and generall does, change often, as

the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the

lo* state is appro;imatel 3ero volts (% E!, *hile

the high state is appro;imatel )ve volts positive

( > E!.


50/129

There are seven basic logic gates= A+ , #&, C#&,

+#T, +A+ , +#&, and C+#&.

>%


51/129

CIRCUIT IAGRA

>


52/129

P C B 5 5 5 1 ! 0

5 5 5

A

1 1" # $ % & ' J & $ # & ' 0 1 2 0 0 6

T* , -

" *. - # - $ N # - R -

& - " - -

+ 5 VV C C V "V " "

V

+ V+ V

+ V

1 2 V

1 2 V

N

R 1R

C 2C E L 1 0

1 0 0 0 M / 3 5 V

5

1 N 4 0 0 7

4

1 N 4 0 0 7

3

1 N 4 0 0 7

2

1 N 4 0 0 7

U 1

L M 5 5 5

2

5

3

7

6

4

T R C V

8I"

T H R

R

8 1B C 5 4 7

R 4

R4 9 7

" : 1

P B 2 P "

12

43

J 2

R L M T 0 2 ( M )

12

R 3R1 9 5

1L E

C 3C C E R1 0 3 P F

C 1C C E R

R 2R

J 1

R L M T 0 3 ( M )

12

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PC& $A'OUT

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>?


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Pri"ted Cir! it &oard#

In electronics , printed circuit boards, or 80s, are

used to mechanicall support and electricall

connect electronic components using conductive

path*a s, or traces , etched from copper sheets

laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.

Alternative names are printed *iring board

( $0!,and etched *iring board. opulating the

board *ith electronic components forms a printed

circuit assembl ( 8A!, also 9no*n as a printed

circuit board assembl ( 80A !. 80s are rugged,

ine;pensive, and can be highl reliable. The

re:uire much more la out e'ort and higher initial

cost than either *ire-*rapped or point-to-point

>B

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constructed circuits, but are much cheaper, faster,

and consistent in high volume production.

rinted circuit boards fall into the follo*ing

categories=

ot*erboard = The principal board that has

connectors for attaching devices to the bus .

T picall , the mother board contains the 8 ,

memor , and basic controllers for the s stem . #n

8s , the motherboard is often called the s stem

board or mainboard.

E+%a"#io" board = An board that plugs into one

of the computer s e;pansion slots . ;pansion

>D

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boards include controller boards, A+ cards, and

video adapters .

a g*ter !ard = An board that attaches directl

to another board.

Co"troller board = A special t pe of e;pansion

board that contains a controller for a peripheral

device . $hen ou attach ne* devices, such as a

dis9 drive or graphics monitor, to a computer, ou

often need to add a controller board.

Net,or- I"ter.a!e Card (NIC) = An e;pansion

board that enables a 8 to be connected to a

local-area net*or9 ( A+!.

>F

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/ideo ada%ter = An e;pansion board that contains

a controller for a graphics monitor .

rinted circuit boards are also called cards.

a" .a!t ri"g

Patter"i"g (et!*i"g)

The vast majorit of printed circuit boards are

made b adhering a la er of copper over the

entire substrate, sometimes on both sides,

(creating a "blan9 80"! then removing un*anted

copper after appl ing a temporar mas9 (eg. b

etching!, leaving onl the desired copper traces. A

fe* 80s are made b adding traces to the bare

substrate (or a substrate *ith a ver thin la er of

?%

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copper! usuall b a comple; process of multiple

electroplating steps.

There are three common "subtractive" methods

(methods that remove copper! used for the

production of printed circuit boards=

5 Sil- #!ree" %ri"ti"g uses etch-resistant in9s

to protect the copper foil. Jubse:uent etching

removes the un*anted copper. Alternativel ,

the in9 ma be conductive, printed on a blan9

(non-conductive! board. The latter techni:ue

is also used in the manufacture of h brid

circuits .

2 P*otoe"gra0i"g uses a photomas9 and

chemical etching to remove the copper foil

from the substrate. The photomas9 is usuall

?

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prepared *ith a photoplotter from data

produced b a technician using 8A7, or

computer-aided manufacturing soft*are.

aser-printed transparencies are t picall

emplo ed for phototools2 ho*ever, direct

laser imaging techni:ues are being emplo ed

to replace phototools for high-resolution

re:uirements.

3 PC& milli"g uses a t*o or three-a;is

mechanical milling s stem to mill a*a the

copper foil from the substrate. A 80 milling

machine (referred to as a 80 rotot per !

operates in a similar *a to a plotter ,

receiving commands from the host soft*are

that control the position of the milling head in

the ;, , and (if relevant! 3 a;is. ata to drive

?

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the rotot per is e;tracted from )les

generated in 80 design soft*are and stored

in H G or Gerber )le format.

"Additive" processes also e;ist. The most common

is the "semi-additive process. In this version, the

unpatterned board has a thin la er of copper

alread on it. A reverse mas9 is then applied.

( nli9e a subtractive process mas9, this mas9

e;poses those parts of the substrate that *ill

eventuall become the traces.! Additional copper

is then plated onto the board in the unmas9ed

areas2 copper ma be plated to an desired

*eight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then

applied. The mas9 is stripped a*a and a brief

etching step removes the no*-e;posed original

?/

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copper laminate from the board, isolating the

individual traces.The additive process is

commonl used for multi-la er boards as it

facilitates the plating-through of the holes (vias! in

the circuit board.

$ami"atio"

Jome 80s have trace la ers inside the 80 and

are called multi-la er 80s. These are formed b

bonding together separatel etched thin boards.

rilli"g

Holes, or vias, through a 80 are t picall drilled

*ith tin drill bits made of solid tungsten carbide .

The drilling is performed b automated drilling

machines *ith placement controlled b a drill tape

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or drill )le. These computer-generated )les are

also called numericall controlled drill (+8 ! )les

or " ;cellon )les ". The drill )le describes the

location and si3e of each drilled hole. $hen ver

small vias are re:uired, drilling *ith mechanical

bits is costl because of high rates of *ear and

brea9age. In this case, the vias ma be

evaporated b lasers . aser-drilled vias t picall

have an inferior surface )nish inside the hole.

These holes are called micro vias. It is also

possible *ith controlled-depth drilling, laser

drilling, or b pre-drilling the individual sheets of

the 80 before lamination, to produce holes that

connect onl some of the copper la ers, rather

than passing through the entire board. These

holes are called blind vias *hen the connect an

?>

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internal copper la er to an outer la er, or buried

vias *hen the connect t*o or more internal

copper la ers.

The *alls of the holes, for boards *ith or more

la ers, are plated *ith copper to form plated-

through holes that electricall connect the

conducting la ers of the 80. Kor multila er

boards, those *ith < la ers or more, drilling

t picall produces a smear comprised of the

bonding agent in the laminate s stem. 0efore the

holes can be plated through, this smear must be

removed b a chemical de-smear process, or b

plasma-etch.

E+%o#ed !o"d !tor %lati"g a"d !oati"g

??


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The pads and lands to *hich components *ill be

mounted are t picall plated, because bare

copper o;idi3es :uic9l , and therefore is not

readil solderable. Traditionall , an e;posed

copper *as plated *ith solder . This solder *as a

tin -lead allo , ho*ever ne* solder compounds are

no* used to achieve compliance *ith the &oHJ

directive in the , *hich restricts the use of lead.

#ther platings used are #J (organic surface

protectant!, immersion silver, electroless nic9el

*ith immersion gold coating ( +IG!, and direct

gold. dge connectors , placed along one edge of

some boards, are often gold plated .

Solder re#i#t

?B

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Areas that should not be soldered to ma be

covered *ith a pol mer solder resist (solder mas9!

coating. The solder resist prevents solder from

bridging bet*een conductors and thereb creating

short circuits. Jolder resist also provides some

protection from the environment.

S!ree" %ri"ti"g

ine art and te;t ma be printed onto the outer

surfaces of a 80 b screen printing . $hen space

permits, the screen print te;t can indicate

component designators, s*itch setting

re:uirements, test points, and other features

helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the

circuit board.Jcreen print is also 9no*n as the sil9

screen, or, in one sided 80s, the red print.

?D

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Te#t

npopulated boards ma be subjected to a bare-

board test *here each circuit connection (as

de)ned in a netlist! is veri)ed as correct on the

)nished board. Kor high-volume production, a 0ed

of nails tester or );ture is used to ma9e contact

*ith copper lands or holes on one or both sides of

the board to facilitate testing. A computer *ill

instruct the electrical test unit to send a small

amount of current through each contact point on

the bed-of-nails as re:uired, and verif that such

current can be seen on the other appropriate

contact points. Kor small- or medium-volume

boards, @ ing-probe testers use moving test

heads to ma9e contact *ith the copper lands or

?F

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holes to verif the electrical connectivit of the

board under test.

Po% lati"g

After the 80 is completed, electronic components

must be attached to form a functional printed

circuit assembl , or 8A. In through-hole

construction, component leads ma be inserted in

holes and electricall and mechanicall );ed to

the board *ith a molten metal solder, *hile in

surface-mount construction, the components are

simpl soldered to pads or lands on the outer

surfaces of the 80.#ften, through-hole and

surface-mount construction must be combined in

a single 8A because some re:uired components

are available onl in surface-mount pac9ages,

B%

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*hile others are available onl in through-hole

pac9ages.

Again, L 8 guidelines for 80 component

placement, soldering, and inspection are

commonl used to maintain :ualit control in this

stage of 80 manufacturing. After the board is

populated, the populated board ma be tested

*ith an in-circuit test s stem. To facilitate this

test, 80s ma be designed *ith e;tra pads to

ma9e temporar connections. Jometimes these

pads must be isolated *ith resistors. The in-circuit

test ma also e;ercise boundar scan test

features of some components. In-circuit test

s stems ma also be used to program nonvolatile

memor components on the board. In boundar

B

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scan testing, test circuits integrated into various

I8s on the board form temporar connections

bet*een the pcb traces to test that the I8s are

mounted correctl . 0oundar scan testing re:uires

that all the I8s to be tested use a standard test

con)guration procedure, the most common one

being the Loint Test Action Group ( LTAG! standard.

B

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Prote!tio" a"d %a!-agi"g

80s intended for e;treme environments often

have a conformal coat, *hich is applied b dipping

or spra ing after the components have been

soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and lea9age

currents or shorting due to condensation. The

earliest conformal coats *ere *a; . 7odern

conformal coats are usuall dips of dilute solutions

of silicone rubber, pol urethane, acr lic, or epo; .

Jome are engineering plastics sputtered onto the

80 in a vacuum chamber. 7an assembled 80s

are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed

in antistatic bags during transport. $hen handling

these boards, the user must be earthed 2 failure to

do this might transmit an accumulated static

B/

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charge through the board, damaging or destro ing

it. ven bare boards are sometimes static

sensitive. Traces have gotten so )ne that it s :uite

possible to blo* an etch o' the board (or change

its characteristics! *ith a static charge. This is

especiall true on non-traditional 80s such as

787s and micro*ave 80s.

B


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STEPS OR A6ING PC&

B>


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• repare the la out of the circuit (positive!.

• 8ut the photo)lm (slightl bigger! of the si3e of

the la out.

• lace the la out in the photoprinter machine

*ith the photo)lm above it. 7a9e sure that the

bromide (dar9! side of the )lm is in contact *ith

the la out.

• J*itch on the machine b pressing the push

button for > sec.

• ip the )lm in the solution prepared (developer!

b mi;ing the chemicals A M 0 in e:ual

:uantities in *ater.

• +o* clean the )lm b placing it in the tra

containing *ater for min.

B?


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• After this, dip the )lm in the );er solution for

min. no* the negative of the

8ircuit is read .

• +o* *ash it under the @o*ing *ater.

• r the negative in the photocure machine.

• Ta9e the 80 board of the si3e of the la out and

clean it *ith steel *ool to ma9e the surface

smooth.

• +o* dip the 80 in the li:uid photoresist, *ith

the help of dip coat machine.

• +o* clip the 80 ne;t to the negative in the

photo cure machine, dr ing for appro;imate %-

minute.s

BB


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• +o* place the negative on the top of the 80 in

the E machine, set the timer for about .>

minute and s*itch on the E light at the top.

• Ta9e the & developer in a container and

rigorousl move the 80 in it.

• After this, *ash it *ith *ater ver gentl .

• Then appl & d e on it *ith the help of a

dropper so that it is completel covered b it.

• +o* clamp the 80 in the etching machine that

contains ferric chloride solution for about %

minutes.

• After etching, *ash the 80 *ith *ater, *ipe it

a dr cloth softl .

BD


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• Kinall rub the 80 *ith a steel *ool, and the

80 is read .

BF


80/129

7408 IC

igital logic devices are the circuits that

electronicall perform logic operations on binar

variables. The binar information is represented

b high and lo* voltage levels, *hich the device

processes electronicall . The devices that perform

the simplest of the logic operations (such as A+ ,

#&, +A+ , etc.! are called gates. Kor e;ample, an

A+ gate electronicall computes the A+ of the

voltage encoded binar signals appearing at its

inputs and presents the voltage encoded result at

its output.

The digital logic circuits used in this laborator are

contained in integrated circuit (I8! pac9ages. ach

D%


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I8 is labeled (usuall *ith a J+B.% volt po*er suppl for

operation. TT inputs re:uire a voltage greater

than volts to represent a binar and a voltage

less than %.D volts to represent a binar %.

D


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I"tegrated Cir! it#

D


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The small integrated circuits used in this lab

implement basic logic gates. Jome of the pins are

inputs to the gates, others are outputs, and t*o of

them are the connectors for po*er ( >E! and

G + (%E!.

Kigure- B


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+ote= In the BE, and pin B *ill be

connected to G + .

D


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Com%o"e"t de#!ri%tio"

D>


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/oltage Reg lator#

A 0oltage reg lator is an electrical regulator

designed to automaticall maintain a constant

voltage level. It ma use an electromechanical

mechanism, or passive or active electronic

components. epending on the design, it ma be

used to regulate one or more A8 or 8 voltages.

$ith the e;ception of shunt regulators, all voltage

regulators operate b comparing the actual output

voltage to some internal );ed reference voltage.

An di'erence is ampli)ed and used to control the

regulation element. This forms a negative

feedbac9 servo control loop . If the output voltage

is too lo*, the regulation element is commanded

to produce a higher voltage. Kor some regulators if

D?

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the output voltage is too high, the regulation

element is commanded to produce a lo*er

voltage2 ho*ever, man just stop sourcing current

and depend on the current dra* of *hatever it is

driving to pull the voltage bac9 do*n. In this *a ,

the output voltage is held roughl constant. The

control loop must be carefull designed to

produce the desired tradeo' bet*een stabilit and

speed of response.

CAPACITOR

A !a%a!itor or !o"de"#er is a passive electronic

component consisting of a pair of conductors

separated b a dielectric (insulator!. $hen a

potential di'erence (voltage! e;ists across the

conductors, an electric )eld is present in the

DB

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dielectric. This )eld stores energ and produces a

mechanical force bet*een the conductors. The

e'ect is greatest *hen there is a narro*

separation bet*een large areas of conductor,

hence capacitor conductors are often called

plates.

An ideal capacitor is characteri3ed b a single

constant value, capacitance , *hich is measured in

farads . This is the ratio of the electric charge on

each conductor to the potential di'erence

bet*een them. In practice, the dielectric bet*een

the plates passes a small amount of lea9age

current . The conductors and leads introduce an

e:uivalent series resistance and the dielectric has

DD

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an electric )eld strength limit resulting in a

brea9do*n voltage .

8apacitors are *idel used in electronic circuits to

bloc9 the @o* of direct current *hile allo*ing

alternating current to pass, to )lter out

interference, to smooth the output of po*er

supplies , and for man other purposes. The are

used in resonant circuits in radio fre:uenc

e:uipment to select particular fre:uencies from a

signal *ith man fre:uencies.

DF

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T*eory o. o%eratio"

8harge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor

causes an internal electric )eld. A dielectric

(orange! reduces the )eld and increases the

capacitance.

F%

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A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate

capacitor

A capacitor consists of t*o conductors separated

b a non-conductive region.The non-conductive

substance is called the dielectric medium ,

although this ma also mean a vacuum or a

semiconductor depletion region chemicall

identical to the conductors. A capacitor is

assumed to be self-contained and isolated, *ith

no net electric charge and no in@uence from an

e;ternal electric )eld. The conductors thus contain

e:ual and opposite charges on their facing

surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric

)eld. The capacitor is a reasonabl general model

for electric )elds *ithin electric circuits.

F

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_mediumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge


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An ideal capacitor is *holl characteri3ed b a

constant capacitance C, de)ned as the ratio of

charge R Q on each conductor to the voltage V

bet*een them

Jometimes charge buildup a'ects the mechanics

of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to var .

In this case, capacitance is de)ned in terms of

incremental changes=

In JI units, a capacitance of one farad means that

one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes

a voltage of one volt across the device.

F

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulombhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt


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E"ergy #torage

$or9 must be done b an e;ternal in@uence to

move charge bet*een the conductors in a

capacitor. $hen the e;ternal in@uence is

removed, the charge separation persists and

energ is stored in the electric )eld. If charge is

later allo*ed to return to its e:uilibrium position,

the energ is released. The *or9 done in

establishing the electric )eld, and hence the

amount of energ stored, is given b =

C rre"t 0oltage relatio"

The current i(t ! through a component in an

electric circuit is de)ned as the rate of change of

F/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(thermodynamics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium


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the charge q (t ! that has passed through it.

h sical charges cannot pass through the

dielectric la er of a capacitor, but rather build up

in e:ual and opposite :uantities on the

electrodes= as each electron accumulates on the

negative plate, one leaves the positive plate. Thus

the accumulated charge on the electrodes is e:ual

to the integral of the current, as *ell as being

proportional to the voltage (as discussed above!.

As *ith an antiderivative , a constant of

integration is added to represent the initial

voltage v ( t %!. This is the integral form of the

capacitor e:uation,

.

F


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Ta9ing the derivative of this, and multipl ing b C,

ields the derivative form, S

.

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor , *hich

stores energ in the magnetic )eld rather than the

electric )eld. Its current-voltage relation is

obtained b e;changing current and voltage in the

capacitor e:uations and replacing C *ith the

inductance L.

8 circuits

F>

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Dorf_p260-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(electrical_circuits)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RC_switch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RC_switch.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor#cite_note-Dorf_p260-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(electrical_circuits)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field


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At t P %, the voltage across the capacitor

is 3ero and the voltage across the resistor is V %.

The initial current is then i (%! P V % UR. $ith this

assumption, the di'erential e:uation ields

*here τ % P RC is the time constant of the s stem.

As the capacitor reaches e:uilibrium *ith the

source voltage, the voltage across the resistor and

the current through the entire circuit deca

e;ponentiall . The case of discharging a charged

capacitor li9e*ise demonstrates e;ponential

FB

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decay


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deca , but *ith the initial capacitor voltage

replacing V % and the )nal voltage being 3ero.

RESISTOR

&esistors are used to limit the value of current in a

circuit. &esistors o'er opposition to the @o* of

current. The are e;pressed in ohms for *hich the

s mbol is VΩ

Q. &esistors are broadl classi)ed as

( ! Ki;ed &esistors

( ! Eariable &esistors

i+ed Re#i#tor# 1

The most common of lo* *attage, );ed t pe

resistors is the molded-carbon composition

resistor. The resistive material is of carbon cla

composition. The leads are made of tinned copper.

FD


99/129

&esistors of this t pe are readil available in value

ranging from fe* ohms to about %7 Ω , having a

tolerance range of > to %W. The are :uite

ine;pensive. The relative si3e of all );ed resistors

changes *ith the *attage rating.

Another variet of carbon composition resistors is

the metali3ed t pe. It is made b deposition a

homogeneous )lm of pure carbon over a glass,

ceramic or other insulating core. This t pe of )lm-

resistor is sometimes called the precision t pe,

since it can be obtained *ith an accurac of ± W.

ead Tinned 8opper

7aterial

FF


100/129

8olour 8oding 7olded 8arbon 8la

8omposition

%%


101/129

A 8ire 8o "d Re#i#tor 1

It uses a length of resistance *ire, such as

nichrome. This *ire is *ounded on to a round

hollo* porcelain core. The ends of the *inding are

attached to these metal pieces inserted in the

core. Tinned copper *ire leads are attached to

these metal pieces. This assembl is coated *ith

an enamel coating po*dered glass. This coating is

ver smooth and gives mechanical protection to

*inding. 8ommonl available *ire *ound resistors

have resistance values ranging from Ω

to %%4 Ω

,and *attage rating up to about %%$.

Codi"g O. Re#i#tor1

%


102/129


103/129

RESISTOR COLOUR CHART

or e+am%le , if a resistor has a colour band

se:uence= ello*, violet, orange and gold

T*e" it# ra"ge ,ill be9

Xello*PW

PW P ./>4Z

%/

> green

% blac9

bro*n red

/ orange

< ello*

? blue

B purple

D silver

F *hite

% blac9

bro*n red

/ orange

< ello*

? blue

B purple

D silver

F *hite

> green > green

% blac9

bro*n

red/ orange

< ello*

? blue

B purple

D silver

F *hite

> green

% blac9

bro*n red

/ orange

< ello*

? blue

B purple

D silverF *hite


104/129

o#t re#i#tor# *a0e 4 ba"d#1

• The )rst band gives the )rst digit.

• The second band gives the second digit.

• The third band indicates the number of 3eros.

• The fourth band is used to sho* the tolerance

(precision! of the resistor.

This resistor has red ( !, violet (B!, ello* (<

3eros! and gold bands.

Jo its value is B%%%% P B% 9 .

The standard colour code cannot sho* values of

less than % . To sho* these small values t*o

special colours are used for the third band= gold,

%


105/129

*hich means [ %. and silver *hich means

[ %.% . The )rst and second bands represent the

digits as normal.

or e+am%le1

red, violet, gold bands represent B [ %. P .B

blue, green, silver bands represent

>? [ %.% P %.>?

The fourth band of the colour code sho*s the

tolerance of a resistor. Tolerance is the precision of

the resistor and it is given as a percentage. Kor

e;ample a /F% resistor *ith a tolerance of R %W

*ill have a value *ithin %W of /F% , bet*een

/F% - /F P /> and /F% /F P < F (/F is %W

of /F%!.

%>


106/129

A special colour code is used for the fourth band

tolerance=

silver R %W, gold R>W, red R W, bro*n R W.

If no fourth band is sho*n the tolerance is R %W.

/ARIA&$E RESISTOR1 In electronic circuits,

sometimes it becomes necessar to adjust the

values of currents and voltages. Kor n e;ample it

is often desired to change the volume of sound,

the brightness of a television picture etc. Juch

adjustments can be done b using variable

resistors.

Although the variable resistors are usuall called

rheostats in other applications, the smaller

variable resistors commonl used in electronic

circuits are called potentiometers.

%?


107/129

Re#i#tor #*ort*a"d1

&esistor values are often *ritten on circuit

diagrams using a code s stem *hich avoids using

a decimal point because it is eas to miss the

small dot. Instead the letters &, 4 and 7 are used

in place of the decimal point. To read the code=

replace the letter *ith a decimal point, then

multipl the value b %%% if the letter *as 4, or

%%%%%% if the letter *as 7. The letter & means

multipl b .

Kor e;ample=

>?%& means >?%

4B means .B 9 P B%%

/F4 means /F 9

7% means .% 7 P %%% 9

%B


108/129

o*er &atings of &esistors

lectrical energ is

converted to heat

*hen current @o*s through

a resistor. suall the

e'ect is negligible, but if the

resistance is lo* (or

the voltage across the

resistor high! a large current ma pass ma9ing the

resistor become noticeabl *arm. The resistor

must be able to *ithstand the heating e'ect and

resistors have po*er ratings to sho* this.

o*er ratings of resistors are rarel :uoted in

parts lists because for most circuits the standard

%D

High po*erresistors(>$ top, >$bottom!


109/129

po*er ratings of %. >$ or %.>$ are suitable. Kor

the rare cases *here a higher po*er is re:uired it

should be clearl speci)ed in the parts list, these

*ill be circuits using lo* value resistors (less than

about /%% ! or high voltages (more than >E!.

The po*er, , developed in a resistor is given b =

P I\ [

&

or

P E\ U

&

*here

=

P po*er developed in the resistor

in *atts ($!

I P current through the resistor in

amps (A!

& P resistance of the resistor in

ohms ( !

E P voltage across the resistor in

volts (E!

%F


110/129

E+am%le#1

• A $

*ould be suitable.

CONNECTORS

8onnectors are basicall used for interface

bet*een t*o. Here *e use connectors for having

%


111/129

interface bet*een 80 and D%> 7icroprocessor

4it.

There are t*o t pes of connectors the are male

and female. The one, *hich is *ith pins inside, is

female and other is male.

These connectors are having bus *ires *ith them

for connection.

Kor high fre:uenc operation the average

circumference of a coa;ial cable must be limited

to about one *avelength, in order to reduce

multimodal propagation and eliminate erratic

re@ection coe1cients, po*er losses, and signal

distortion. The standardi3ation of coa;ial

connectors during $orld $ar II *as mandator for


112/129

micro*ave operation to maintain a lo* re@ection

coe1cient or a lo* voltage standing *ave ratio.

Se0e" ty%e# o. mi!ro,a0e !oa+ial

!o""e!tor# are a# .ollo,#1

.A 8-/.>

.A 8-B

/.0+8

.J78

?.T+8B.T pe +

$E ($IG:T E ITTING IO E)


113/129

A junction diode, such as , can emit light or

e;hibit electro luminescence. lectro

luminescence is obtained b injecting minorit

carriers into the region of a pn junction *here

radiative transition ta9es place. In radiative

transition, there is a transition of electron from the

conduction band to the valence band, *hich is

made possibl b emission of a photon. Thus,

emitted light comes from the hole electron

recombination. $hat is re:uired is that electrons

should ma9e a transition from higher energ level

to lo*er energ level releasing photon of

*avelength corresponding to the energ

di'erence associated *ith this transition. In

the suppl of high-energ electron is provided b

/


114/129

for*ard biasing the diode, thus injecting electrons

into the n-region and holes into p-region.

The pn junction of is made from heavil

doped material. #n for*ard bias condition,

majorit carriers from both sides of the junction

cross the potential barrier and enter the opposite

side *here the are then minorit carrier and

cause local minorit carrier population to be larger

than normal. This is termed as minorit injection.

These e;cess minorit carrier di'use a*a from

the junction and recombine *ith majorit carriers.

In , ever injected electron ta9es part in a

radiative recombination and hence gives rise to

an emitted photon. nder reverse bias no carrier

injection ta9es place and conse:uentl no photon


115/129

is emitted. Kor direct transition from conduction

band to valence band the emission *avelength.

In practice, ever electron does not ta9e part in

radiative recombination and hence, the e1cienc

of the device ma be described in terms of the

:uantum e1cienc *hich is de)ned as the rate of

emission of photons divided b the rate of suppl

of electrons. The number of radiative

recombination, that ta9e place, is usuall

proportional to the carrier injection rate and hence

to the total current @o*ing.

$E aterial#1

#ne of the )rst materials used for is GaAs.

This is a direct band gap material, i.e., it e;hibits

ver high probabilit of direct transition of

>


116/129

electron from conduction band to valence band.

GaAs has P .


117/129

Infrared s are suitable for optical coupler

applications.

A /ANTAGES O $E #1

. o* operating voltage, current, and po*er

consumption ma9es eds compatible *ith

electronic drive circuits. This also ma9es easier

interfacing as compared to )lament incandescent

and electric discharge lamps.

. The rugged, sealed pac9ages developed for

s e;hibit high resistance to mechanical shoc9

and vibration and allo* s to be used in severe

environmental conditions *here other light

sources *ould fail.

/. fabrication from solid-state materials

ensures a longer operating lifetime, thereb

B


118/129

improving overall reliabilit and lo*ering

maintenance costs of the e:uipment in *hich the

are installed.

. s have lo* inherent noise levels and also

high immunit to e;ternall generated noise.

?. 8ircuit response of s is fast and stable,

*ithout surge currents or the prior N*arm-upO,

period re:uired b )lament light sources.

B. s e;hibit linearit of radiant po*er output

*ith for*ard current over a *ide range.

$E # *a0e !ertai" limitatio"# # !* a#1

D


119/129

.Temperature dependence of radiant output

po*er and *ave

length.

. Jensitivit to damages b over voltage or over

current.

/. Theoretical overall e1cienc is not achieved

e;cept in special

cooled or pulsed conditions.

IO E

ACTI/E CO PONENT

Active component are those component for not

an other component are used its operation. I

used in this project onl function diode, these

component description are described as bello*.

F


120/129


121/129

. If arro*head of diode s mbol is positive

$.&.T 0ar of the s mbol, the diode is

for*ard biased.

. The arro*head of diode s mbol is negative

$.&.T bar , the diode is the reverse bias.

$hen *e used cr stal diode it is often

necessar to 9no* that *hich end is

arro*head and *hich end is bar. Jo follo*ing

method are available.

.Jome manufactures actuall point the

s mbol on the bod of the diode e. g 0 B b

< cr stal diode manufacture b b e b.


122/129

/. Jometimes red and blue mar9s are on the

bod of the cr stal diode. &ed mar9 do not

arro* *hereQs blue mar9 indicates bar e .g

oaD% cr stal diode.

;ENER IO E

It has been alread discussed that *hen the

reverse bias on a cr stal diode is increased a

critical voltage, called brea9 do*n voltage. The

brea9 do*n or 3ener voltage depends upon the

amount of doping. If the diode is heavil doped

depletion la er *ill be thin and conse:uentl the

brea9 do*n of he junction *ill occur at a lo*er

reverse voltage. #n the other hand, a lightl


123/129

doped diode has a higher brea9 do*n voltage, it is

called 3ener diode

A properl doped cr stal diode, *hich has a

sharped brea9 do*n voltage, is 9no*n as a 3enor

diode.

In this project I used semiconducter diode for

bridge recti)es, t*o-cr stal diode

APP$ICATIONS

5


124/129

converter (A 8!, and pulse-code modulation is

t picall used to encode it as a digital signal . A

digital-to-analog converter performs the reverse

process, and converts the digital signal bac9 into

an audible sound. igital audio s stems ma

include compression , storage , processing and

transmission components. 8onversion to a digital

format allo*s convenient manipulation, storage,

transmission and retrieval of an audio signal.

2


125/129

digit3ed and stored as a computer )le read for

digital processing, vie*ing, digital publishing or

printing.

3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_publishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_recordinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camcorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_publishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_recordinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camcorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_electronics


126/129

computation to be read. In contrast to most e-

boo9s, electronic literature usuall cannot be

printed as 9e elements of the te;t re:uire

computation= for instance there ma be lin9s,

generative aspects, multimedia content,

animation or reader interaction in addition to the

verbal te;t.

:i#tory a"d de0elo%me"t

In a DD? letter, 8harles Janders eirce described

ho* logical operations could be carried out b

electrical s*itching circuits. SB Jtarting in DFD,

+i9ola Tesla )led for patents of devices containing

electro-mechanical logic gate circuits. ventuall ,

vacuum tubes replaced rela s for logic operations.

ee e Korest s modi)cation, in F%B, of the

?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peircehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gates#cite_note-P2M-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Teslahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Foresthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peircehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gates#cite_note-P2M-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Teslahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest


127/129

Kleming valve can be used as A+ logic gate.

ud*ig $ittgenstein introduced a version of the

?-ro* truth table as proposition >. % of

'ractatus Logico()hiloso*hicus ( F !. 8laude .

Jhannon introduced the use of 0oolean algebra in

the anal sis and design of s*itching circuits in

F/B. $alther 0othe , inventor of the coincidence

circuit , got part of the F>< +obel ri3e in ph sics,

for the )rst modern electronic A+ gate in F


128/129

Re.ere"!e#

. 7a3edi, The D%> 7icrocontroller and

mbedded J stems, rentice Hall, JT dition

. 4enneth L. A ala, The D%> 7icrocontroller,

enram International ublishing, FF?, nd

dition

/. N mbedded J stem using D%> N ( -boo9!

alit 4umar goel and Gaurav Jharma from

7eerut


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