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ANGRY AGGRESSION
AMONG POLICE OFFICERS
SEAN P.
GRIFFIN
Clemson University
THOMAS J. BERNARD
The Pennsylvania StateUniversity
This article uses angry aggression theory to explain police use of
extralegal force. As applied to police behavior, angry aggression theory
argues that the chronic stress of police wor along with the inability to
respond to the actual sources of that stress increase both the perception of
threats and the aggres! siveness of responses to perceived threats. "n
addition, social isolation of police officers increases their tendency to
displace aggression onto visible and vulnerable targets in the immediate
environment. The theory does not assert that these tendencies are
necessarily actuali#ed. "ndeed, cognitive structuring techni$ues and
stress!reduction policies can prevent such actuali#ation.
Keywords: police% abuse of force% police behavior% excessive
force
The use of excessive force by police is freue!"ly #iscusse# i! "he
volu$i% !ous &ce$ic li"er&"ure o! polici!' (Cr&!)* +,,-./ I!"eres" i!
"he sub0ec" 'oes b&c) "o 1es"ley2s (+,34* +,35. ori'i!&l observ&"io!&l
s"u#y &!# 6&s $os" i!"e!se i! "he +,57s i! respo!se "o police viole!ce i!
sever&l 8/S/ ci"% ies (1&l)er* +,,,./ Expl&!&"io!s of police use of
excessive force usu&lly focus ei"her o! police subcul"ures or o!
perso!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#i% vi#u&l police officers/ 9o6ever* "here
&re 6ell%)!o6! shor"co$i!'s 6i"h e&ch of "hese "ypes of "heore"ic&l
expl&!&"io!/
A! e&rlier versio! of "his &r"icle 6&s prese!"e# &" "he +,,, $ee"i!'s of "he A$eric&! Socie"y of
Cri$i% !olo'y i! Toro!"o/
P&'"C( )UA*T(*'+ :ol/ 5 No/ +* M&rch ;774 4 +7/++??@+7,-5+++7;;37453
;774 S&'e Public&"io!s
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B POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
I! "his &r"icle* 6e focus o! o!e specific "ype of excessive force>Ex"r&le% '&l force is "he force use# by police "o &chieve le'&l 'o&ls 6he!
!o!forceful $e&!s "o &chieve "hose 'o&ls &re reily &v&il&ble "o "he
officer/ 1e &r'ue "h&" &!'ry &''ressio! "heoryD&! i!"e'r&"ive "heory
i!corpor&"i!' socio% lo'ic&l* psycholo'ic&l* &!# biolo'ic&l ele$e!"sD
be""er expl&i!s police use of ex"r&le'&l force "h&! #o "heories focusi!'
exclusively o! "he police sub% cul"ures or o! i!#ivi#u&l police officer
perso!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics/
A!'ry &''ressio! "heory ori'i!&lly 6&s propose# &s &! expl&!&"io! of
viole!" respo!ses "o "rivi&l co!flic"s &!# i!sul"s by "ruly #isv&!"&'e#
people i! i!!er%ci"y &re&s (er!&r#* +,,7* +,,4. &!# l&"er 6&s &pplie# "o
"he expl&!&"io! of i!"i$&"e fe$&le ho$ici#es (O'le* M&ier%H&")i!*
er!&r#*+,,3./ The "heory ci"es ex"e!sive biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l rese&rch
"o &r'ue "h&" people 6ho experie!ce chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l "e!# "o
see "hre&"s $ore freue!"ly &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s $ore &''ressively
"h&! #o o"her people/ The "heory "he! &r'ues "h&" 6he! chro!ic&lly
&rouse# people &re soci&lly isol&"e#* "hese excessive percep"io!s of
"hre&"s &!# &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&lD
"h&" is* "hey "e!# "o sep&% r&"e fro$ "he chro!ic &rous&l &!# "o beco$e
e$be##e# i! v&lues &!# !or$s "h&" &re "r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erperso!&l
co$$u!ic&"io! &s p&r" of & l&r'er 6orl#vie6/ Fi!&lly* "he "heory &r'ues
"h&" 6he! chro!ic&lly &rouse# people c&!!o" respo!# "o "he &c"u&l
sources of &rous&l* "hey "e!# "o "r&!sfer &''res% sio! o!"o visible &!#
vul!er&ble "&r'e"s i! "heir i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"s/
There is &! ex"e!sive li"er&"ure o! 0ob%rel&"e# s"resses of police 6or)
"h&" 6oul# i$ply police officers experie!ce chro!ic physiolo'ic&l
&rous&l/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police
officers shoul# "e!# "o see "hre&"s $ore freue!"ly &!# "o respo!# "o
"hre&"s $ore &''res% sively "h&! #o o"her people/ This provi#es &
s"ruc"ur&l expl&!&"io! for 6h&" o"her "heories &""ribu"e "o "he perso!&li"y
ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#ivi#u&l police officers/ There &lso is &! ex"e!sive
li"er&"ure o! "he soci&l isol&"io! of police officers/ A!'ry &''ressio!
"heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" "he excessive percep"io!s of "hre&" &!#
"he &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s shoul# "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&l/
This provi#es & s"ruc"ur&l expl&!&"io! for 6h&" o"her "heories h&ve
&""ribu"e# "o &! i!#epe!#e!"ly exis"i!' police subcul"ure/ Fi!&lly*
police l&r'ely &re u!&ble "o #ress "he &c"u&l sources of "heir 0ob% rel&"e#
s"ress/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police shoul#
"e!# "o "r&!sfer &''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s 6i"hi! "heir
i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"s/ 1i"hi! "he co!"ex" of &!'ry &''ressio! "he% ory*
"his "r&!sfer of &''ressio! ul"i$&"ely is "he expl&!&"io! for police use of
ex"r&le'&l force/
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS 3
POLICE 8SE OF EJTRALEGAL FORCE
Excessive force 'e!er&lly h&s bee! #efi!e# &s "he &$ou!" of force
beyo!# "h&" 6hich is !ecess&ry "o &ffec" & le'i"i$&"e police fu!c"io!/+
So$e h&ve #is"i!'uishe# be"6ee! abuse of force* excessive force* police
brutality* &!# o"her "er$s "h&" #escribe ille'i"i$&"e &!# eve! ille'&l
police &c"s of force l&r'ely b&se# o! #e'ree of severi"y (e/'/* H&!i&
M&c)ey* +,??./ 1e* ho6ever* op" Fyfe2s (+,-,. #is"i!c"io! be"6ee!
ex"r&le'&l force &!# u!!ecess&ry force o! "he p&r" of police/ Ex"r&le'&l
force i!volves "he 6ill% ful &!# 6ro!'ful use of force by officers 6ho
)!o6i!'ly excee# "he bou!#s of "heir office (Fyfe* +,-,* p/ B53./ I!
co!"r&s"* u!!ecess&ry force occurs 6he! 6ell%$e&!i!' officers prove
i!c&p&ble of #e&li!' 6i"h "he si"u&"io!s "hey e!cou!"er 6i"hou" !ee#lessor "oo h&s"y resor" "o force (Fyfe* +,-,* p/ B53./ This #is"i!c"io!
focuses o! "he officer i!"e!"/ Ex"r&le'&l force is 6illful &!# 6ro!'ful
&!# is #o!e )!o6i!'ly/ I! co!"r&s"* u!!ecess&ry force i!volves & 6ell%
$e&!i!' officer 6ho l&c)s "he s)ills &!# &bili"ies "o h&!#le "he si"u&"io!
i! o"her 6&ys/
8!!ecess&ry police force occurs $ore freue!"ly "h&! #oes ex"r&le'&l
police force (Fyfe* +,-,.* bu" ex"r&le'&l force is $ore #ifficul" "o expl&i!/
8!!ecess&ry force h&s & rel&"ively s"r&i'h"for6&r# expl&!&"io!> I" is
i!s"ru% $e!"&l force by & police officer use# "o &cco$plish & le'i"i$&"e
police fu!c% "io! for 6hich* &s & pr&c"ic&l $&""er* "he officer l&c)s "he
s)ills &!# &bili"ies "o &chieve "h&" fu!c"io! "hrou'h !o!forceful $e&!s/
The solu"io! "o "he proble$ of u!!ecess&ry police force is "o euipofficers 6i"h "he s)ills &!# &bili"ies* p&r"icul&rly verb&l s)ills* "o
&chieve "heir le'i"i$&"e fu!c"io!s 6i"hou" resor"i!' "o force/
The focus of "his &r"icle* "herefore* is o! ex"r&le'&l force by police offi%
cers/ This i!volves force use# by police officer "o &chieve &! &ppropri&"e
&!# le'&l police fu!c"io! 6he! !o!forceful $e&!s "o &chieve "h&"
fu!c"io! &lso &re &v&il&ble "o "he officers/ Al"hou'h "hese !o!forceful
$e&!s &re &v&il% &ble* "he officer 6illfully &!# 6ro!'fully chooses "o
use force )!o6i!' "h&" i" excee#s "he le'&l bou!#s of police &u"hori"y/
C8RRENT EJPLANATIONS OF POLICE 8SE
OF EJTRALEGAL FORCE
The !u$erous propose# expl&!&"io!s for police use of ex"r&le'&l force
esse!"i&lly f&ll i!"o "6o c&"e'oriesDsociolo'ic&l "heories "h&" focus o! &
police subcul"ure &!# psycholo'ic&l "heories "h&" focus o! "he perso!&li"y
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5 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
ch&r&c"eris"ics of i!#ivi#u&l police officers (G&i!es* H&ppeler* :&u'h!*
+,,?K H&!i& M&c)ey* +,??K 1&l)er*
+,,,./
POLICE S8C8LT8RES
The $os" co$$o! expl&!&"io! for police use of ex"r&le'&l force is
fou!# i! "heories of police subcul"ure (Sher$&!* +,-7./ The police
subcul"ure is $os" of"e! #epic"e# &s &! occup&"io!&l &!# or'&!i&"io!&l
e!viro!$e!" "h&" fos"ers hi'hly ues"io!&ble &!# si!'ul&r co#es of
#evi&!ce* secrecy* sile!ce* &!# cy!icis$* &s 6ell &s such p&"holo'ic&l2
perso!&li"y #isposi% "io!s &s suspicious!ess* i!sul&ri"y* bru"&li"y*&u"hori"&ri&!is$* ul"r&co!% serv&"is$* bi'o"ry &!# r&cis$ (S&yles
Albri""o!* +,,,* p/ +54./ The li!% e&'e of polici!' subcul"ure rese&rch c&!
be "r&ce# "o 1es"ley2s (+,34* +,35*
+,5,* +,?7. pio!eeri!' s"u#y of police i! G&ry* I!#i&!&/ 1es"ley &r'ue#
"h&" police beh&vior 6&s bes" expl&i!e# &s & fu!c"io! of &""i"u#es hel# by
police &s &! occup&"io!&l 'roup/ 1i"h respec" "o police &buses of force*
1es"ley (+,5,. believe# police or'&!i&"io!s fos"ere# &!# bre# &
subcul"ure of viole!" $e! &!# su''es"e# "h&" & police officer uses
viole!ce ille'&lly bec&use such us&'e is see! &s 0us"* &ccep"&ble* &!#* &"
"i$es* expec"e# by his colle&'ue 'roup (p/ ;+5./ Nie#erhoffer (+,5?.
&r'ue# "h&" "he police sub% cul"ure 6&s ch&r&c"erie# by "r&i"s such &s
cy!icis$* &u"hori"&ri&!is$* &''ressio!* & "e!#e!cy "o s"ereo"ype* &!# &
"e!#e!cy "o #efi!e "he 6orl# i! "er$s of 'oo# versus b people/
Reuss%I&!!i (+,-4. si$il&rly #escribe# & subcul"ure &$o!' police
officers &lo!' 6i"h & sep&r&"e $&!&'e% $e!" cul"ure i! "he #ep&r"$e!"
hier&rchy/ She &r'ue# "h&" "hese cul"ures 6ere i! co!s"&!" co!flic" 6i"h
e&ch o"her* resul"i!' i! &! &!"&'o!is"ic &!# s"ressful e!viro!$e!"/
Al"hou'h "hese &re "he $os" co$$o! expl&!&"io! for police &buse of
force* "he "heory of "he police subcul"ure h&s $&!y cri"ics/ H&!i& &!#
M&c)ey (+,??. fou!# "h&" police subcul"ure #i# !o" &ccou!" for "he
v&ri&!ce &$o!' r&"es of excessive force be"6ee! s"&"es/ A" "he $os"
fu!#&$e!"&l level* S&yles &!# Albri""o! (+,,,. ues"io!e# 6he"her &
police subcul"ure i!#ee# exis"s &!# if so* "he ex"e!" "o 6hich "he
subcul"ure &ffec"s i!#ivi#u&l &c"io!s by police officers/ These cri"ics
&r'ue# "h&" $os" subcul"ur&l "heo% ries &re $o!oli"hic expl&!&"io!s for "he
#y!&$ic* ch&!'i!' phe!o$e!o! of police beh&vior/ As Cr&!) (+,,-. h&s
s"&"e#* Police cul"ure is &" o!ce $ore co$plex &!# ele'&!" "h&!
su''es"e# by & focus o! #&r) ele$e!"s of polici!' such &s corrup"io!*
"es"i$o!i&l #ecep"io!* &!# cy!icis$ (p/ +B./ I!#ee#* M&!!i!' &!# :&!
M&&!e! (+,?-. h&ve re$&r)e# &bou" "he !u$erous &!#
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ?
#iverse sub6orl#s "h&" $&)e up "he polici!' e!viro!$e!"/ Rece!"ly*9er% ber" (+,,-. i#e!"ifie# "6o pri!cip&l shor"co$i!'s of $os"
&ccou!"s of police subcul"ure/ Firs"* he &r'ue# "h&" "here is "oo $uch
#is"i!c"io! $e be"6ee! "he for$&l &!# i!for$&l i! polici!' (i/e/* le'&l
&!# bure&ucr&"ic re'ul&"io!s &s oppose# "o "he less for$&l e"hos of "he
subcul"ure* p/ 4BB./ Seco!#* These #iscussio!s co$$o!ly "re&" police
subcul"ure &s if i" 6ere & $ore%or%less cohesive 6hole (9erber"* +,,-*
p/ 4BB./ Fi!&lly* 1&l)er (+,,,. h&s #escribe# "he #o$i!&!" subcul"ur&l
$o#els &s s"ereo"ypic&l* &his"oric&l* &!# i$pressio!is"ic/
PERSONALITY C9ARACTERISTICS OF
IN=I:I=8AL POLICE OFFICERSThe $os" co$$o! &l"er!&"ive "o subcul"ur&l expl&!&"io!s for police
use of ex"r&le'&l force focuses o! "he i!#ivi#u&l psycholo'ic&l
ch&r&c"eris"ics of police officers/ As G&i!es e" &l/ (+,,?. s"&"e#* "hese
expl&!&"io!s &llo6 for "he #evelop$e!" of & pre#isposi"io!&l $o#el of
police beh&vior u!#er 6hich rese&rchers &ssu$e "h&" beh&vior is
pre#e"er$i!e# by & s"&"ic* pre% exis"i!' perso!&li"y "h&" is sh&re# by
people e!"eri!' "he l&6 e!force$e!" professio! (p/ ;;-./ The $os"
freue!"ly !o"e# ele$e!" of "his preexis"i!' perso!&li"y is
&u"hori"&ri&!is$ (Cr&!)* +,,-./ &lch (+,?;. lis"e# sever&l
ch&r&c"eris"ics &ssoci&"e# 6i"h &u"hori"&ri&!is$Dcy!icis$* bi'o"ry* vio%
le!ce* co!ve!"io!&lis$* &!# suspicio!/ Fur"her$ore* people 6i"h &!
&u"hori"&ri&! perso!&li"y &re s&i# "o h&ve #ifficul"y "oler&"i!' perso!s
6ho #o !o" sub$i" "o "heir &u"hori"y (A#or!o* +,37./ O"her i!#ivi#u&l
per% so!&li"y ch&r&c"eris"ics &lso h&ve bee! li!)e# "o police use of
ex"r&le'&l force/ Rhe* Abr&$s* Tros$&!* &!# M&r'olis (+,?7. &r'ue#
"h&" &$o!' police* "here exis"s & 're&"er #e'ree of p&r&!oi# i#e&"io!* &
're&"er e$ph&% sis upo! virili"y* &!# & 're&"er "e!#e!cy "o &c" ou" "h&! i!
"he !o!%police pop% ul&"io! (p/ 3-./
These "heories &lso h&ve receive# subs"&!"i&l cri"icis$/ Sever&l s"u#ies
h&ve sho6! "h&" police &""i"u#es* i! f&c"* &re !o" #iffere!" "h&! "heir
civili&! cou!"erp&r"s (&lch* +,?;K Tro0&!o6ic* +,?+./ &yley &!#
Me!#elsoh! (+,5,. fou!# "h&" o! &ll perso!&li"y sc&les "he #&"& sho6
"h&" police$e! &re &bsolu"ely &ver&'e people (p/ +3./ McN&$&r& (+,5?.fou!# police recrui"s "o be !o" o!ly less &u"hori"&ri&! "h&! "he 'e!er&l
public bu" &lso less pu!i"ive "h&! co$$u!i"y leers/ Rese&rch h&s &lso
ues"io!e# "he rel&"io!ship of police &""i"u#es &!# ch&r&c"eris"ics "o
o!%"he%0ob perfor$&!ce (e/'/* Sher$&!* +,-7K 1or#e!* +,-,./ Thus*
1&l)er (+,,,. co!clu#e#* There is
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- POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
!o evi#e!ce "h&" & p&r"icul&r "ype of perso! is &""r&c"e# "o l&6e!force$e!"* or "h&" "his expl&i!s police beh&vior (p/ 4B,./
Fur"her$ore* Frie#rich2s (+,-7. s"u#y #i# !o" suppor" "he !o"io! "h&"
police use of force #epe!#s very $uch o! "he i!#ivi#u&l ch&r&c"eris"ics
of "he police (p/ -,./ Fi!&lly* rese&rch su''es"s police &re !o" #r&6!
"o "heir occup&"io! for po6er/ I!s"e* "hey &re i#e&lis"ic (1&l)er*
+,,,. &!# &""r&c"e# by "he possibili"y of helpi!' o"hers &!# co!"ribu"i!'
"o socie"y (Rei!er* +,,;K :&! M&&!e!*
+,?4./
o"h "heories of police subcul"ure &!# "heories of i!#ivi#u&l police
offi% cer ch&r&c"eris"ics h&ve "hus* i!#epe!#e!"ly* f&ile# "o eu&"ely
expl&i! police officer use of ex"r&le'&l force/ 1e #o !o" e!"irely
#iscou!" "hese expl&!&"io!s bu" r&"her propose &! expl&!&"io! b&se# o!&!'ry &''ressio! "heory "h&" i!corpor&"es &!# &u'$e!"s "hese "heories
(i/e/* sociolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l./
ANGRY AGGRESSION T9EORY
A!'ry &''ressio! "heory (er!&r#* +,,7* +,,4K O'le e" &l/* +,,3. is
b&se# o! & l&r'e &!# 6ell%es"&blishe# bo#y of biolo'ic&l &!#
psycholo'ic&l rese&rch &bou" physiolo'ic&l &rous&l* 6hich is "he bo#y2s
fi'h" or fli'h" respo!se "o bei!' "hre&"e!e#/ This bo#y of rese&rch fi!#s
"h&" people 6ho &re chro!ic&lly &rouse# "e!# "o i!"erpre" & 6i#er v&rie"y
of eve!"s &s "hre&"% e!i!' "h&! #o o"her people/ I! #i"io!* "his rese&rch
fi!#s "h&" chro!ic&lly &rouse# people "e!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"e!i!'
eve!"s $ore &''ressively "h&! #o o"her people/
er!&r# (+,,7. i!i"i&lly use# "his "heory "o expl&i! "he hi'hly viole!"
respo!ses "o "rivi&l co!flic"s &!# i!sul"s by "ruly #isv&!"&'e# people
i! i!!er%ci"y &re&s/ 9e &r'ue# "h&" pover"y* urb&! e!viro!$e!"s* &!#
r&ci&l #is% cri$i!&"io! &re s"ruc"ur&l co!#i"io!s "h&" &ll resul" i! chro!ic
physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/ People 6ho experie!ce "hese co!#i"io!s*
"herefore* 6oul# be expec"e# "o i!"erpre" & 6i#er v&rie"y of eve!"s &s
"hre&"e!i!' &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"e!i!' eve!"s 6i"h $ore &''ressio!
"h&! 6oul# o"her people/ er% !&r# "he! &r'ue# "h&" u!#er co!#i"io!s of
soci&l isol&"io!* "his i!cre&se# &''ressive!ess "e!#s "o fee# o! i"self i! &
spir&l of i!cre&si!' viole!ce/ Firs"* 6he! chro!ic&lly &rouse# people &re
soci&lly isol&"e# i! & p&r"icul&r e!vi% ro!$e!"* "he e!viro!$e!" i"self
beco$es ui"e #&!'erous bec&use everyo!e sees "hre&"s every6here &!#
respo!#s &''ressively "o "hre&"s/ The #&!'er% ous e!viro!$e!" "he!
fur"her i!cre&ses "he physiolo'ic&l &rous&l of "he peo% ple 6i"hi! "he
e!viro!$e!" &!# "herefore fur"her i!cre&ses "he &''ressive!ess
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ,
of "hose people/ Seco!#* u!#er co!#i"io!s of soci&l isol&"io!* "heexcessive percep"io! of "hre&"s &!# "he &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s
"e!# "o sep&r&"e fro$ "heir ori'i!s i! chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l
&!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&lD"h&" is* "o beco$e e$be##e# i! v&lues*
!or$s* &!# expec"&% "io!s "h&" &re "r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erperso!&l
co$$u!ic&"io!s &s p&r" of & l&r'er 6orl#vie6/ O!ce "h&" h&ppe!s* "he!
eve! people 6i"hi! "he e!viro!$e!" 6ho &re !o" chro!ic&lly &rouse# 6ill
"e!# "o6&r# excessive percep"io!s of "hre&"s &!# &''ressive respo!ses "o
"hre&"s/ Thir#* people 6i"hi! "hese e!vi% ro!$e!"s l&r'ely c&!!o" respo!#
"o "he &c"u&l sources of "heir chro!ic phys% iolo'ic&l &rous&lDpover"y*
urb&! e!viro!$e!"s* &!# r&ci&l #iscri$i!&"io!/ Therefore* "hese people
"e!# "o #ispl&ce &''ressio! o!"o visible &!# vul!er% &ble "&r'e"s 6i"hi!
"h&" e!viro!$e!"/ This fur"her i!cre&ses "he #&!'erous% !ess of "hee!viro!$e!"* "hereby fur"her i!cre&si!' "he physiolo'ic&l &rous&l
"herefore &''ressive!ess of "he people 6i"hi! "he e!viro!$e!"/ I" &lso
rei!forces "he subcul"ur&l v&lues &bou" "he perv&sive!ess of "hre&"s &!#
"he &ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "hre&"s/ er!&r# referre# "o
"his e!"ire #o6!6&r# spir&l &s & subcul"ure of &!'ry &''ressio!/ I" is
i$por"&!" "h&" &!'ry &''ressio! "heory is !o" #e"er$i!is"ic &!# "hus #oes
!o" &sser" "h&" &ll people i! si$il&r si"u&"io!s e!'&'e i! si$il&r beh&viors/
1he"her & p&r"icul&r i!#ivi#u&l e!'&'es i! "hese beh&viors #epe!#s o! &
6i#e v&rie"y of o"her f&c"ors "h&" &lso i!flue!ce "he i!#ivi#u&l2s beh&vior
(cf/ er!&r#* +,,7./
ANGRY AGGRESSION Y POLICE OFFICERS
Three ele$e!"s of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory see$ "o &pply #irec"ly "o
"he expl&!&"io! of police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Firs"* polici!' is &
hi'hly s"ressful occup&"io! &!# police officers "he$selves &re chro!ic&lly
&rouse# o! "heir 0obs/ Seco!#* police "e!# "o be soci&lly isol&"e# fro$
o"her $e$% bers of socie"y/ Thir#* police l&r'ely c&!!o" #o &!y"hi!'
&bou" "he &c"u&l sources of chro!ic s"ress o! "heir 0obs/ A!'ry &''ressio!
"heory* "herefore* su''es"s "h&" police officers shoul# "e!# "o see $ore
"hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s $ore &''ressively "h&! #o o"her peopleK
"h&" "hese percep"io!s &!# respo!ses shoul# "e!# "o sep&r&"e fro$ "heir
sources i! chro!ic physiolo'i% c&l &rous&l &!# "o beco$e e$be##e# i!
subcul"ur&l !or$s* v&lues* &!# expec"&"io!sK &!# "h&" police officers
shoul# h&ve & "e!#e!cy "o "r&!sfer &''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble
"&r'e"s i! "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"/ For police* "hese l&r'ely 6oul# be
ci"ie!s 6ho co$e i!"o co!"&c" 6i"h police* especi&lly suspec"s/ These
people "he! 6oul# beco$e "he "&r'e"s for
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+7 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Si'!ific&!"ly* !o"hi!' i! "he "heory &sser"s"h&" "hese "e!#e!cies !ecess&rily &re &c"u&lie#/ I!#ee#* &" le&s" so$e
i!#i% vi#u&l officers i!for$&lly* &!# perh&ps u!)!o6i!'ly* use co'!i"ive
s"ruc% "uri!' &!# s"ress%re#uc"io! "ech!iues "o $&i!"&i! & se!se of
perspec"ive &bou" "heir 6or)/ A!'ry &''ressio! "heory 6oul# "hus
expec" i!#ivi#u&l% level #iffere!ces &$o!' police officers/
SO8RCES OF C9RONIC ARO8SAL IN POLICE OFFICERS
I! our &pplic&"io! of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory "o police beh&vior* "he
pri% $&ry source of i!#epe!#e!" v&ri&"io! is chro!ic physiolo'ic&l
&rous&l i! police officers 'e!er&"e# by 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress/ S"ress h&s bee!
#efi!e# &s & respo!se "o & perceive# "hre&"* ch&lle!'e* or ch&!'eK &physic&l &!# psycho% lo'ic&l respo!se "o &!y #e$&!#K &!# & s"&"e of
psycholo'ic&l &!# physic&l &rous&l (&r"oll&s 9&h!* +,,,* p/ +,B./
There is #eb&"e re'&r#i!' i"s c&uses &!# effec"s i! polici!' 6or)
e!viro!$e!"s (G&i!es :&! Tuber'e!*
+,-,K M&lloy M&ys* +,-BK Terry* +,-4.* &!# !u$erous s"u#ies h&ve
i#e!% "ifie# & v&rie"y of police s"ressors (e/'/* see C&r"er* +,,BK S)ol!ic)*
+,55K 1&l)er* +,,,./ Si'!ific&!"ly* "hese s"ressors &re !o" $u"u&lly
exclusive/ I!#ee#* i" is "heir i!"er&c"ive !&"ure 6hich le!#s suppor" "o
"heir cu$ul&"ive effec" o! police beh&vior (C&r"er Rele"* +,,,* p/
;,4./
Rese&rch o! police s"ress h&s ce!"ere# o! "he !&"ure of police 6or)*
"h&" is* "he i!here!"* life%"hre&"e!i!' #&!'er of "he posi"io!/; The i!here!"
#&!'er i! polici!' lies l&r'ely i! co!"&c"s 6i"h o"her people &!#* i$por%
"&!"ly* police &re "he o!ly o!es "o 6ho$ socie"y &ccor#s "he ri'h" "o use*
or "hre&"e! "o use* force (S)ol!ic) Fyfe* +,,4* p/ ,B./ As 1&l)er
(+,,,. h&s s"&"e#* Ci"ie! #isrespec" &!# ch&lle!'es "o &u"hori"y &re &
source of o!% "he%0ob s"ress/ Eve! "hou'h such i!ci#e!"s &re s"&"is"ic&lly
i!freue!"* "hey loo$ l&r'e i! &! officer2s co!scious!ess (p/ 4B5./
S)ol!ic) &!# Fyfe (+,,4. si$il&rly !o"e# "h&" "he po"e!"i&l for use of
force is i! "he $i!#s of police* &!# i"s po"e!"i&l h&&r#s* ho6ever
s"&"is"ic&lly re$o"e* &re !ever f&r &6&y i! "he every#&y life of "he cop (p/
,B./ I" is i$por"&!"* "he!* "h&" police &""i"u#es &re sh&pe# by "he ever%
prese!" "hre&"s i! "heir 6or)i!' e!viro!% $e!"s* re'&r#less of 6he"her
"hey &re &c"u&lie# (S)ol!ic)* +,55./
This exe$plifies &
co'!i"ive rule of "hu$b )!o6! &s "he &v&il&bili"y heuris"ic* 6hich s"ipul&"es "h&"
"here is & co$$o! hu$&! "e!#e!cy "o 0u#'e "he li)elihoo# of occurre!ces i! "er$s
of ho6 reily i!s"&!ces co$e "o $i!#/ :ivi# eve!"s s"ic) i! our $e$ories* &!#
"heir 're&"er
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ++
e&se of rec&ll $isles us "o overr&"e "heir freue!cy rel&"ive "o less #r&$&"ic bu"&c"u% &lly $ore perv&sive eve!"s/ (Rosoff* Po!"ell* Till$&!* +,,-* p/ viii.
This $&y &ccou!" for "he rese&rch o! police officer &""i"u#es "h&" h&s
co!sis% "e!"ly sho6! "h&" officers perceive "heir occup&"io! "o be s"ressful
&!# #&!% 'erous (e/'/* Culle!* Li!)* Tr&vis* Le$$i!'* +,-4.*
re'&r#less of "he "rue co!#i"io!s ci"e# i! o"her s"u#ies (e/'/* P&""erso!*
+,,;K Pe!#le"o!* S"o"l&!#* Spiers* Hirsh* +,-,K Si'ler 1ilso!*
+,--K S"orch P&!&rell&* +,,5./
Al"hou'h s"u#ies h&ve sho6! "h&" "he police fu!c"io! h&s f&r $ore "o
#o 6i"h or#er $&i!"e!&!ce &!# service fu!c"io!s "h&! l&6
e!force$e!" (1&l)er* +,,,K 1ilso!* +,?4. &!# s"ill o"her rese&rch
i!#ic&"es "h&" "he use of force is & r&re (McE6e!* +,,5K 1or#e!* +,,3.&!# s"&"is"ic&lly i!fre% ue!" (1&l)er* +,,,* p/;;3. eve!"* "hese f&c"s
belie "he for$&l &!# i!for% $&l "r&i!i!' experie!ces of police/
They &re "r&i!e# i! self%#efe!se/ They &re "r&i!e# "o h&!#le & v&rie"y of offe!sive
6e&po!s* i!clu#i!' #ely o!es/ They &re "&u'h" ho6 "o #is&ble &!# )ill people
6i"h "heir b&re h&!#s/ No $&""er ho6 $&!y 6&r!i!'s $&y be issue# by superiors
&bou" li$% i"&"io!s o! "he use of force* !o $&""er ho6 $uch "&l) &bou" polici!' &s &
professio!* police "r&i!i!' co!"i!u&lly re$i!#s recrui"s "h&" coercive po6er is &
ce!"r&l fe&"ure of police life/ (S)ol!ic) Fyfe* +,,4* p/ ,3.
Rese&rch h&s fou!# "h&" police respo!# "o re&l* po"e!"i&l* or perceive#
"hre&"s "o &! officer2s s&fe"y or &u"hori"y 6i"h viole!ce/ S)ol!ic) (+,55.
!o"e# sy$bolic &ss&il&!"* & perso! 6hose &ppe&r&!ce &!# $&!!eris$ssu''es" "he perso! 6ill c&use "rouble* is perh&ps "he bes" ex&$ple of "his
&p% pro&ch/ As Cr&!) (+,,-. !o"e#*
Tr&i!i!' officers "e&ch recrui"s 6h&" "o loo) for i! "er$s of po"e!"i&l #&!'er* &!#
offi% cers "ell e&ch o"her s"ories &bou" "hi!'s "hey h&ve see! "h&" $&r) i!#ivi#u&ls
&s #&!% 'erousD& "ype of "&""oo* piece of clo"hi!' $&r)i!' & '&!' $e$ber* or "he
li)e/ (p/ +,.
This poi!" is e$ph&sie# lo!' &f"er "he &ce$y experie!ce "hrou'h
for$&l $e&!s such &s v&!ce# "r&i!i!' pro'r&$s for officer s&fe"y*
$&!#&"ory &!% !u&l "r&i!i!' up#&"es* &!# freue!"ly pos"e# officer
s&fe"y bulle"i!s #e% si'!e# "o )eep officers up "o #&"e o! "he l&"es"$e!&ci!' 6e&po!ry &!# so for"h o! "he s"ree" &" & 'ive! "i$e/ As
H&ppeler* Slu#er* &!# Alper" (+,,B. poi!"e# ou"* Police vic&riously
experie!ce* le&r!* &!# re%le&r! "he po"e!"i&l for #&!'er "hrou'h 6&r
s"ories2 &!# fiel# "r&i!i!' &f"er 'ru&"io! fro$ "he
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+; POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
police &ce$y (p/ +77./ This is i! #i"io!* of course* "o "he i!for$&lles% so!s bei!' "&u'h" "hrou'h "he i!"erperso!&l co$$u!ic&"io! of
peers &!# colle&'ues/ Thus* "ypific&"io!s i!#ic&"i!' "he po"e!"i&l for
"rouble &!# #&!% 'er &rise fro$ "he co!cre"e #oi!' of police 6or)* &re
sh&re# by cops &!# be% co$e & p&r" of "he lore of & loc&l police cul"ure
(Cr&!)* +,,-* p/ +,./ Cr&!) (+,,-. &lso poi!"e# ou" "h&" i$&'es of #&!'er
i! polici!' &re &lso prese!" i! o"her i!flue!"i&l &re&s such &s "he $&ss
$e#i&/ As he su''es"e#* A recrui" 6oul# h&ve "o be r&ise# i! &!
isol&"io! ch&$ber "o i$&'i!e "h&" police 6or) 6&s !o" fr&u'h" 6i"h
subs"&!"i&l* recurri!' #&!'er (p/ +;-./
I" is cle&r "h&" police e!cou!"er &! &$&l'&$&"io! of 0ob%rel&"e# f&c"ors
"h&" #irec"ly &!# i!#irec"ly 6oul# "e!# "o resul" i! physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/
Culle! e" &l/ (+,-4. co$$e!"e# "h&" "his fe&r of #&!'er is bo"hfu!c"io!&l &!# #ysfu!c"io!&l bec&use police $us" be &6&re of "he
po"e!"i&l ris)s &rou!# "he$ 6hile* &" "he s&$e "i$e* such co!cer!s le "o
i!cre&se# s"ress/
&r"oll&s &!# 9&h! (+,,,. poi!"e# ou" "h&" "he e$o"io!&l re&c"io! "o
"he s"ressors "he! cre&"es & physiolo'ic&l respo!se* &!# "he shor" &!#
lo!'%"er$ effec"s #epe!# o! "he copi!' $ech&!is$ of "he i!#ivi#u&l
(p/ +,3./ 9e&l"hy copi!' $ech&!is$s esse!"i&lly co!sis" of "he use of
psycholo'ic&l "ech!iues "o re#uce physiolo'ic&l &rous&l/ 8se of such
"ech!iues &llo6s police officers "o $&i!"&i! e$o"io!&l s"&bili"y &!# &
se!se of perspec"ive o! "heir 0obs/ For officers 6ho l&c) such he&l"hy
copi!' $ech&!is$s* &!'ry &''ressio! "heory &r'ues "h&" "he chro!ic
physiolo'ic&l &rous&l 6ill resul" i! i!cre&se# percep"io! of "hre&"s*
i!cre&se# &''ressio! i! respo!se "o "hre&"s* &!# i!cre&se# "e!#e!cy "o
"r&!sfer &''ressio! o!"o visible &!# vul% !er&ble "&r'e"sDfor ex&$ple*
suspec"s/
INAILITY TO RESPON= TO T9E ACT8AL
SO8RCES OF C9RONIC ARO8SAL
A )ey f&c"or i! &!'ry &''ressio! "heory is "he i!#ivi#u&l2s i!&bili"y "o
re#uce physiolo'ic&l &rous&l by respo!#i!' "o i"s &c"u&l sources/ er!&r#
(+,,7. posi"e# "h&" i!!er%ci"y resi#e!"s l&r'ely c&!!o" #o &!y"hi!' &bou"
"he &c"u&l sources of "heir chro!ic &rous&l ("he s"resses &ssoci&"e# 6i"hpover"y* urb&! #e!si"y* &!# r&ci&l #iscri$i!&"io!./ Si$il&rly* police
officers &re 'e!% er&lly u!&ble "o #ress s"ruc"ur&l sources of 0ob%rel&"e#
s"ress (e/'/* #&!'er* ci"ie! hos"ili"y* i!"er!&l &!# ex"er!&l poli"ic&l
pressures* $e#i& rel&"io!s./ I! #i"io!* effor"s by police or'&!i&"io!s "o
#evelop e$ploy$e!" &ssis% "&!ce pro'r&$s "o &llevi&"e s"ress for "heir
e$ployees h&ve e!cou!"ere# #ifficul"ies/ M&!y police fe&r "he le&)i!'
of co!fi#e!"i&l i!for$&"io! "o
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +4
superiors &!# colle&'ues* 6here&s o"hers #o !o" see) help for fe&r ofbre&)% i!' "he $ol# of "he "ri"io!&l* "ou'h cop (Fi!! To$*
+,,?./ Thus* &"%ris) officers freue!"ly re$&i! i! s"ressful si"u&"io!s/
Such si"u&"io!s $&y be ex&cerb&"e# by &!o"her co$po!e!" of &!'ry
&''ressio! "heory* soci&l isol&"io!/
SOCIAL ISOLATION OF POLICE OFFICERS
Soci&l isol&"io! &$o!' police c&! "&)e pl&ce i! bo"h "heir 6or) &!#
per% so!&l e!viro!$e!"s/ As S)ol!ic) (+,55. !o"e#* The ele$e!" of
#&!'er iso% l&"es police$e! soci&lly fro$ "he se'$e!" of "he ci"ie!ry
6hich he re'&r#s &s sy$bolic&lly #&!'erous &!# &lso fro$ "he
co!ve!"io!&l ci"ie!ry 6i"h 6ho$ he i#e!"ifies (p/ BB./ S)ol!ic) &!#Fyfe (+,,4. s"&"e# "h&" bec&use police "e!# "o perceive sy$bolic
&ss&il&!"s &s po"e!"i&lly "hre&"e!i!' &!# #&!'erous* police beco$e
&pprehe!sive/ This &pprehe!sio! "he! se"s police &p&r" &!# "e!#s "o
isol&"e "he$ fro$ "hose 6ho$ "hey &re polici!' (S)ol!ic) Fyfe*
+,,4* p/ ,?./ &r"oll&s &!# 9&h! (+,,,. re$&r)e# "h&" $os" rese&rchers
&'ree "h&" "he isol&"io! is self%i$pose#* bu" i" c&! &lso be &r'ue# "h&" "he
very !&"ure of "he 0ob forces soci&l isol&"io! o! "he officer (p/?B./ Cr&!)
(+,,-. re$&r)e# "h&" suspicio!* i"self pre#ic&"e# pri$&rily o! #&!'er* of
course* is vi"&l &s & soci&l s)ill for police/ So i$por"&!"* i! f&c"* "h&" i" is
!o" surprisi!' "h&" "he $ore s)ille# officers beco$e i! "heir cr&f"* "he
$ore "hey "e!# "o re"re&" "o "heir o6! )i!# for soci&l &!# e$o"io!&l sup%
por" (p/ +74./ =&!'er is !o" "he o!ly or !ecess&rily "he pree$i!e!"
re&so! for "he isol&"io! of police/
Rese&rch h&s sho6! "h&" police &re #is"rus"ful of o"her $e$bers of
"heir or'&!i&"io!s* superiors &!# co$$&!# s"&ff i! p&r"icul&r* i!
#i"io! "o bei!' suspicious or #is"rus"ful of o"her &c"ors i! "he cri$i!&l
0us"ice sys"e$ &!# of civili&!s (Sel"er* Ao!e* 9o6&r#* +,,5K 1es"ley*
+,?7./ 1ilso! (+,?4. su''es"e# "h&" police li)ely overs"&"e "he prese!ce
of ci"ie! hos"il% i"y* $uch li)e "hey #o "he prese!ce of #&!'er
previously s"&"e#/ 1&l)er (+,,,. believes "his $&y be &""ribu"&ble "o "he
selec"ive co!"&c" police h&ve 6i"h "he public (i/e/* police #o !o" h&ve
re'ul&r co!"&c" 6i"h & cross sec"io! of "he co$$u!i"y* p/ ;;7./ I" $&y
&lso be p&r"i&lly expl&i!e# "hrou'h "he selec"ive percep"io! by police
of "he public/ As $e!"io!e# previously* police* li)e o"her people* &re
$ore li)ely "o re$e$ber u!ple&s% &!" or "r&u$&"ic eve!"s $ore "h&!
or#i!&ry o!es (see Groe'er* +,,?./ These f&c"ors c&use police "o vie6
"he$selves &s & #is"i!c" 'roup &p&r" fro$ soci% e"y (:&! M&&!e!* +,?B./
Sher$&! (+,-;. &r'ue# "h&" "his us versus "he$
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+B POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
&""i"u#e c&uses "he police "o shif" "he focus o! "he cri$i!&l ele$e!" &s &!vers&ry "o "he public &s & 6hole/ Cl&r) (+,53. co!clu#e# "h&" i! or#er
"o &voi# "he #isco$for" i!volve# i! $&!y police%ci"ie! i!"er&c"io!s*
police "e!#e# "o soci&lie $os" 6i"h fello6 officers* "hus fur"her isol&"i!'
"he$% selves fro$ "he public/ This c&! be s&i# of bo"h "he officers2 6or)
e!viro!% $e!"s &!# "heir soci&l or perso!&l e!viro!$e!"s/
Li)e fe6 o"her professio!s* police &re freue!"ly i!"ro#uce# soci&lly &s
police officers/ Curre!" &!# for$er officers &li)e c&! e&sily i#e!"ify 6i"h
fello6 "&les of bei!' i!"ro#uce# &s $y frie!# oh!* "he cop/ Fur"her
#% i!' "o "he soci&l isol&"io!* !ei'hbors &re uic) "o poi!" ou" 6here
&! officer lives* &!# "hey feel free "o )!oc) o! his or her #oor i!s"e of
c&lli!' ,++* &l$os" &s "hou'h he or she 6&s & priv&"e securi"y 'u&r# for
"he !ei'hbor% hoo# (&r"oll&s 9&h! +,,,* p/ ?B./ S)ol!ic) &!# Fyfe(+,,4. &r'ue# "h&" "his "6e!"y%four%hour%&%#&y i#e!"i"y / / / 'e!er&"es
po6erfully #is"i!c"ive 6&ys of loo)i!' &" "he 6orl# &!# co'!i"ive &!#
beh&vior&l respo!ses (p/ ,;./
Accor#i!' "o &!'ry &''ressio! "heory* soci&l isol&"io! 6oul# $&)e
police "e!# "o see "hre&"s fro$ &!# respo!# &''ressively "o o"her people
i! "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!"* eve! if "hose o"her people h&ve #o!e
!o"hi!' "hre&"e!i!'/ This 6oul# cre&"e & hi'hly #&!'erous
e!viro!$e!"* 6hich 6oul# fur"her i!cre&se everyo!e2s &rous&l &!# "hus
fur"her i!cre&se every% o!e2s "e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o
respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h $ore &''ressio!/ Fur"her$ore* soci&l isol&"io!
6oul# $e&! "h&" "hese chro!i% c&lly &rouse# &!# hi'hly &''ressive
people (i/e/* police. i!"er&c" $&i!ly 6i"h e&ch o"her/ I! such & si"u&"io!*
"hese p&""er!s of "hi!)i!' (seei!' $ore "hre&"s* respo!#i!' "o "hre&"s 6i"h
$ore &''ressio!. 6oul# "e!# "o beco$e subcul"ur&l i! "he se!se "h&" "hey
6oul# sep&r&"e fro$ "he s"ruc"ur&l co!#i% "io!s "h&" ori'i!&lly '&ve rise "o
"he$ &!# 6oul# be p&sse# fro$ perso! "o perso! i! i!"erperso!&l
co$$u!ic&"io!/ 1he! "hese f&c"ors &re co$bi!e# 6i"h "he i!&bili"y of
perso!s "o #efuse "he &rous&l* people h&ve & "e!#e!cy "o "r&!sfer
&''ressio! "o visible &!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s/ For civili&!s* "his $&y
su''es" cer"&i! s"ereo"ypic&l ou"co$es (i/e/* )ic) "he c&"* yell &" "he )i#s*
be&" up "he 6ife./ For police* "his $&y $&!ifes" i! "he be&"i!' of suspec"s
&!# o"hers 6ho feel "hey c&!!o" pro"ec" "he$selves/ 8!#er co!#i"io!s of
soci&l isol&"io!* "his "r&!sferre# &''ressio! fur"her i!cre&ses "he
#&!'erous% !ess of "he i$$e#i&"e e!viro!$e!" &!# "e!#s "o fur"her
i!cre&se everyo!e2s chro!ic &rous&l/ The resul" of &ll "hese i!"er&c"ive
i!flue!ces 6oul# be 6h&" er!&r# (+,,7. c&lle# & subcul"ure of &!'ry
&''ressio!/
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +3
S"ruc"ur&l Sources I!&bili"y "o re#uce s"ressby
of Police S"ress #ressi!' i"s s"ruc"ur&l sources
Chro!ic Physiolo'ic&l Arous&l Psycholo'ic&l
I! Police Officers $e"ho#s "o re#uce
physiolo'ic&l &rous&l>
Copi!'
More Te!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!#
Thre&"e!i!' "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h $ore
E!viro!$e!" &''ressio!> &u"hori"&ri&!perso!&li"y
Te!#e!cy "o #ispl&ce
&''ressio! o!"o visible Soci&l Isol&"io! of Police Officers
&!# vul!er&ble "&r'e"s>
Suspec"s* e"c/
I!"erperso!&l co$$u!ic&"io! &bou"
"he prev&le!ce of "hre&"s &!# "he
&ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive
respo!ses "o "he$> "he police subcul"ure
Police Use of Extra-e!al Force
FIGURE "# Police Extrale!al Force as A$!r% A!!ressio$
POLICE EJTRALEGAL FORCE AS ANGRY AGGRESSION
8si!' "he ele$e!"s previously #escribe#* 6e prese!" "he follo6i!'
expl&!&"io! of police use of ex"r&le'&l force/
Fi'ure + illus"r&"es ho6 &!'ry &''ressio! "heory &pplies "o ex"r&le'&l
force by police/ The ch&i! of c&us&"io!s s"&r"s 6i"h "he s"ruc"ur&l sourcesof 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress for police officers (i/e/* #&!'er* ci"ie! hos"ili"y*
i!"er!&l &!# ex"er!&l poli"ic&l pressures* $e#i& rel&"io!s* &!# so
for"h./ Police
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+5 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
officers l&r'ely #o !o" h&ve "he &bili"y "o #ress "he &c"u&l c&uses of "hiss"ress/ This co!flue!ce of s"ress &!# "he i!&bili"y "o re#uce s"ress
$&!ifes"s i"self i! "he chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l of police officers/ A"
"his poi!"* officers esse!"i&lly h&ve "6o possible respo!ses/ So$e
i!#ivi#u&ls $&y use psycholo'ic&l (copi!'. $e"ho#s for$&lly or* $ore
li)ely* i!for$&lly &!# u!)!o6i!'ly "o re#uce &rous&l/ Thus* "he
biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l co$po!e!"s of &!'ry &''ressio! "heory
6oul# help "o expl&i! i!#ivi#u&l% level #iffere!ces &$o!' police
officers i! si$il&r occup&"io!&l circu$% s"&!ces/ I" is i$por"&!"*
ho6ever* "h&" chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l re#uces "he &bili"y "o cope
6i"h &rous&l/ This 'e!er&"es eve! $ore &rous&l* 6hich "he! les "o "he
seco!# possibili"yD"he "e!#e!cy "o perceive & 6i#er v&ri% e"y of eve!"s
&s "hre&"e!i!' eve! i! si"u&"io!s i! 6hich people h&ve #o!e !o"hi!'"hre&"e!i!' &!# "he "e!#e!cy "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h i!cre&se#
&''ressio!/ This "he! resul"s i! o!e or $ore ou"co$es/ I!#ivi#u&l officers
$&y #evelop & "e!#e!cy "o #ispl&ce "he &''ressio! o!"o visible &!#
vul!er&% ble "&r'e"s (&s oppose# "o "he l&r'ely i!visible &!# i!vul!er&ble
s"ruc"ur&l sources of 0ob%rel&"e# s"ress "h&" &c"u&lly 'e!er&"e "he
officer2s chro!ic physiolo'ic&l &rous&l./ This "he! co!s"i"u"es "he
officer2s use of ex"r&le'&l force/
As i! er!&r#2s (+,,7. ori'i!&l "heory* $ul"iple fee#b&c) loops "e!# "o
resul" i! & spir&l i!"o i!cre&se# viole!ce* #escribe# &s & subcul"ure of
&!'ry &''ressio! (p/ -?./ The "e!#e!cy "o see i!cre&se# "hre&"s $&y
resul" i! i!cre&se# soci&l isol&"io! of police officers* &!# i" rei!forces "he
subcul"ur&l v&lues &!# !or$s expresse# i! perso!&l co$$u!ic&"io!s
&$o!' police offi% cers &bou" "he prev&le!ce of "hre&"s &!# "he
&ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "he$/ E&ch of "hese ou"co$es
"he! i!cre&ses "he "e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s
6i"h $ore &''ressio!/ This fee#% b&c) loop &lso c&uses &! i!cre&se i! "he
over&ll &''ressive!ess of "he e!vi% ro!$e!"* fur"her hei'h"e!i!' &rous&l
&!# "herefore i!cre&si!' &''ressio!/ I! #i"io!* "he use of ex"r&le'&l
force i"self fur"hers soci&l isol&"io!* serves "o i!cre&se "he "e!#e!cy "o see
$ore "hre&"s* &!# is i!"erperso!&lly co$$u% !ic&"e# be"6ee! policeD
for$&lly "hrou'h "r&i!i!' &!# i!for$&lly "hrou'h perso!&l #iscussio!s/
CONCL8SION
I! 'e!er&l* "he police cul"ure h&s bee! "he $ore pro$i!e!" expl&!&"io!
for police beh&vior* i!clu#i!' "he police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ Our !e6
propose# "heory shoul# !o" be i!"erpre"e# &s #iscou!"i!' "h&" expl&!&"io!/
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +?
R&"her* our "heory expl&i!s "he police cul"ure i"self/ I! "his* i" is si$il&r "o"heories i! cri$i!olo'y i! 6hich "here !o6 is & f&irly bro &'ree$e!"
"h&" sh&re# subcul"ur&l beliefs h&ve "heir ori'i!s i! "he sh&re#
experie!ces &ssoci&"e# 6i"h p&r"icul&r loc&"io!s i! "he soci&l s"ruc"ure
(e/'/* :ol#* er% !&r#* S!ipes* ;77+./ Esse!"i&lly* "he &r'u$e!" is "h&"
si$il&r "hi!)i!' p&"% "er!s &rise fro$ si$il&r experie!ces &!# "he! &re
"r&!s$i""e# i! i!"erper% so!&l co$$u!ic&"io!s "o beco$e subcul"ur&l/ 1e
$&)e & si$il&r &r'u$e!" here 6i"h respec" "o "he sh&re# experie!ces
&ssoci&"e# 6i"h polici!' &!# "he co!seue!" e$er'e!ce of sh&re# beliefs
i! & police cul"ure/
y 'rou!#i!' "he police cul"ure i! "he sh&re# experie!ces of polici!'*
6e $ove &6&y fro$ "he vie6 "h&" "here is so$e "ype of $o!oli"hic police
sub% cul"ure i!"o 6hich &ll police officers &re soci&lie#/ Such & vie6#oes !o" e!"irely reflec" "he sophis"ic&"io! of curre!" "heories of "he
police subcul% "ure* bu" i" s"ill represe!"s & )i!# of "r&p "h&" is #ifficul" for
"hese "heories "o &voi#/ Our "heory* 6e believe* provi#es & $ore re&lis"ic
vie6 of "he police subcul"ure bec&use i" is #escribe# i! "he co!"ex" of "he
l&r'er s"ruc"ur&l co!% #i"io!s of police 6or)/
I!#ivi#u&l #iffere!ce "heories h&ve bee! less pro$i!e!" i! "he expl&!&%
"io!s of police beh&vior* i!clu#i!' police use of ex"r&le'&l force/ As 6i"h
"he police cul"ure* ho6ever* our propose# "heory shoul# !o" be
i!"erpre"e# &s #iscou!"i!' "hese expl&!&"io!s/ I!s"e* 6e expl&i! such
psycholo'ic&l #if% fere!ces &s $i'h" be fou!# &$o!' police officers/ I!
p&r"icul&r* our "heory &sser"s "h&" psycholo'ic&l #iffere!ces* such &s "he
"e!#e!cy "o see $ore "hre&"s &!# "o respo!# "o "hre&"s 6i"h i!cre&se#
&''ressio!* &re co!se% ue!ces of "he chro!ic physiolo'ic&l s"ress police
officers experie!ce o! "heir 0obs/ Our "heory #iffers fro$ "hese e&rlier
"heories i! "h&" 6e &ssu$e "h&" o! "he 6hole* police officers h&ve !or$&l
psycholo'ic&l ch&r&c"eris"ics fro$ "he s"&r"/
Fu"ure rese&rch "o "es" "his "heory coul# i!clu#e $e&sure$e!"s of
physio% lo'ic&l&rous&l of police officers 6hile o! "heir 0obs/ I" coul# &lso
#evelop sce!&rios "h&" &s) police officers* co$p&re# 6i"h !o!police
co!"rol 'roups* "o &ssess "he "hre&"s i!volve# i! p&r"icul&r si"u&"io!s &!#
"he &ppropri&"e!ess of &''ressive respo!ses "o "hose si"u&"io!s/ If "he
"heory is suppor"e# by "his rese&rch* "he! policy i$plic&"io!s coul#
i!clu#e #isse$i!&"io! "o police officers of psycholo'ic&l $e"ho#s "o
re#uce physiolo'ic&l s"ress/ I" coul# &lso i!clu#e #iscussio!s of "he
biolo'ic&l &!# psycholo'ic&l rese&rch "h&" les "o "he #is"or"io!s of
percep"io!s &bou" "hre&"s &!# "he &ppropri&"e respo!ses "o "hre&"s/ If
officers beco$e &6&re of "hese co'!i"ive "e!#e!cies* "he! "hey $&y be
$ore ope! "o $&i!"&i!i!' & b&l&!ce# perspec"ive o!
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+- POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
&ppropri&"e respo!ses i! "he co!"ex" of "heir 0obs/ A" le&s" so$ei!#ivi#u&l officers i!for$&lly* &!# perh&ps u!)!o6i!'ly* use such
co'!i"ive s"ruc"ur% i!' "ech!iues/ Th&" is* "hey &voi# "he police
subcul"ure i!"erpre"&"io! &!# u!#ers"&!# "heir si"u&"io! $ore broly/
The issue 6oul# be "o for$&l% ie "hese i!for$&l "ech!iues i! so$e
6&y/ The &""e$p"e# 'o&l 6oul# be "h&" r&"her "h&! "he i!for$&l police
cul"ure &c"i!' &s "he sh&re# $e#iu$ for i!"erpre"i!' eve!"s (e/'/* i! "he
loc)er roo$.* "here be so$e process for #evelopi!' &! ul"i$&"ely $ore
re&lis"ic i!"erpre"&"io!/4
NOTES
+/ This #escrip"io! of excessive force exclu#es fro$ co!si#er&"io! "he ille'&l force
use# by police officers "o &chieve cle&rly ille'&l 'o&lsDfor ex&$ple* 6he! officers
sh&)e #o6! people for bribes &!# p&y%offs* 6he! officers ex&c" reve!'e "o s&ve f&ce*
&!# so for"h/ Thus* rece!" hi'h%profile c&ses of police &c"ivi"ies !o" u!#er co!si#er&"io!
i!clu#e "he R&$p&r" sc&!#&l i! Los A!'eles &!# "he Loui$& i!ci#e!" i! Ne6 Yor) Ci"y/
The expl&!&"io! of "hese eve!"s prob&bly i!volves &ll of "he s&$e ele$e!"s &s "he
expl&!&"io! of si$il&r eve!"s by cri$i!&ls 6ho &re !o" police (e/'/* :ol#* er!&r#*
S!ipes* ;77+./
;/ Accor#i!' "o "he N&"io!&l Cri$e :ic"i$i&"io! Survey (ure&u of us"ice S"&"is"ics*
;77+.* o! &ver&'e* ;5+ ou" of every +*777 police officers 6ere "he vic"i$s of viole!"
cri$es i! "heir 0obs e&ch ye&r be"6ee! +,,4 &!# +,,,/ The seco!# &!# "hir# $os"
#&!'erous occup&% "io!s* respec"ively* 6ere correc"io!s officer (+35 viole!" vic"i$i&"io!s
per +*777 e&ch ye&r. &!# "&xi #river (+;- viole!" vic"i$i&"io!s per +*777 e&ch ye&r./
4/ 9&!s Toch (+,?B.* i! his boo) o! viole!ce &$o!' police i! O&)l&!#* $ore or less
#i# "his by e!'&'i!' "he $os" viole!" officers i! "he #ep&r"$e!" i! & pro0ec" i! 6hich "hey
pro% cesse# viole!" eve!"s/
REFERENCES
A#or!o* T/ (+,37./ The authoritarian personality/ Ne6 Yor)>
9&rper/
&lch* R/ (+,?;./ Police perso!&li"y> F&c" or fic"io!Qournal of Criminal 'aw,
Criminology and Police Science* -* +75%++,/
&r"oll&s* C/* 9&h!* L/ =/ (+,,,./Policing in America/ os"o!> Ally! &co!/
&yley* =/* Me!#elsoh!* 9/ (+,5,.//inorities and the police/ Ne6 Yor)> Free Press/
er!&r#* T/ (+,,7./ A!'ry &''ressio! &$o!' "he "ruly #isv&!"&'e#/ Criminology* 01*?4%
,5/
er!&r#* T/ (+,,4./ The i!"e!" "o h&r$/ I! A/ :/ 1ilso! (E#/.*2omicide3 The
victim4offender connection (pp/ ;4%B+./ Ci!ci!!&"i* O9> A!#erso!/
ure&u of us"ice S"&"is"ics/ (;77+./ 5iolence in the worplace, 677!77/ 1&shi!'"o!*
=C> Au"hor/
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS +,
C&r"er* =/ (+,,B./ Theore"ic&l #i$e!sio!s i! "he &buse of &u"hori"y by police officers/I! T/ &r)er =/ C&r"er (E#s/.* Police deviance (4r# e#/* pp/ ;?3%;??./ Ci!ci!!&"i*
O9> A!#erso!/
C&r"er* =/* Rele"* L/ (+,,,./ The police and the community (5"h e#/./ E!'le6oo#
Cliffs* N> Pre!"ice 9&ll/
Cl&r)* / (+,53./ Isol&"io! of "he police> A co$p&riso! of "he ri"ish &!# A$eric&! si"u&%
"io!s/ournal of Criminal 'aw, Criminology, and Police Science* 8-* 47?%4+,/
Cr&!)* / (+,,-./ Understanding police culture/ Ci!ci!!&"i* O9> A!#erso!/
Culle!* F/* Li!)* /* Tr&vis* L/* Le$$i!'* T/ (+,-4./ P&rox i! polici!'> A !o"e o!
per% spec"ives of #&!'er/ournal of Police Science and Administration* 66* B3?%B5;/
Fi!!* P/* To$* / (+,,?./ 9eveloping a law enforcement stress program for officers
and their families/ 1&shi!'"o!* =C> Gover!$e!" Pri!"i!' Office/
Frie#rich* R/ (+,-7./ Police use of force> I!#ivi#u&ls* si"u&"io!s &!# or'&!i&"io!s/Annals
of the American Academy of Social and Political Sciences* B3;* -;%,?/
Fyfe* / (+,-,./ The spli"%seco!# sy!#ro$e &!# o"her #e"er$i!&!"s of police viole!ce/ I!R/ =u!h&$ G/ Alper" (E#s/.* Critical issues in policing (pp/ B53%B?,./
Prospec" 9ei'h"s* IL> 1&vel&!#/
G&i!es* L/* H&ppeler* :/* :&u'h!* / (+,,?./Policing in America (;!# e#/./ Ci!ci!!&"i*
O9> A!#erso!/
G&i!es* L/* :&! Tuber'e!* N/ (+,-,./ ob s"ress i! police 6or)> A! explor&"ory
&!&lysis i!"o s"ruc"ur&l c&uses/American ournal of Criminal ustice* 6* +,?%;+B/
Groe'er* / (+,,?./ /emory and remembering3 (veryday memory in context/ Rei!'*
MA> A##iso!%1esley/
9erber"* S/ (+,,-./ Police subcul"ure revisi"e#/ Criminology* -* 4B4%45,/
H&!i&* R/* M&c)ey* 1/ (+,??./ Police viole!ce &s & fu!c"io! of co$$u!i"y ch&r&c"eris"ics/
Criminology* 68* ;?%B-/
H&ppeler* :/* Slu#er* R/* Alper"* G/ (+,,B./ :orces of deviance3 Understanding the
dar side of policing/ Prospec" 9ei'h"s* IL> 1&vel&!#/
M&lloy* T/ E/* M&ys* G/ L/ (+,-B./ The police s"ress hypo"hesis> A cri"ic&l ev&lu&"io!/Criminal ustice and ;ehavior* 66* +,?%;;,/
M&!!i!'* P/* :&! M&&!e!* / (E#s/./ (+,?-./ Policing3 A view from the street/ S&!"&
Mo!ic&* CA> Goo#ye&r/
McE6e!* T/ (+,,5./ The relev&!ce of police recrui"s2
b&c)% 'rou!#s &!# "r&i!i!'/ I! =/ or#u& (E#/.* The police3 Six sociological essays
(pp/ +54%
;3;./ Ne6 Yor)> oh! 1iley/
Nie#erhoffer* A/ (+,5?./;ehind the shield3 The police in urban society/ G&r#e! Ci"y* NY>
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O'le* R/* M&ier%H&")i!* =/* er!&r#* T/ (+,,3./ A "heory of ho$ici#&l beh&vior &$o!'
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&!# prob&"io!@p&role officers/ Criminal ustice and ;ehavior* 67* ;57%;-3/
Pe!#le"o!* M/* S"o"l&!#* E/* Spiers* P/* Hirsh* E/ (+,-,./ S"ress &!# s"r&i! &$o!' police*
firefi'h"ers* &!# 'over!$e!" 6or)ers> A co$p&r&"ive &!&lysis/ Criminal ustice
and ;ehavior* 6-* +,5%;+7/
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;7 POLICE 8ARTERLY (:ol/ 5* No/ +* M&rch ;774.
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&ssess$e!"
of police c&!#i#&"es/ I! A/ Nei#erhoffer A/ lu$ber' (E#s/.* The ambivalent
force3 Perspectives on the police/ 1&l"h&$* MA> Gi!!/
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crime and the looting of America/ E!'le6oo# Cliffs* N> Pre!"ice 9&ll/
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offi% cers i! "he =is"ric" of Colu$bi&/Police Studies* 67* 44/
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ournal of *esearch in Crime and 9elin$uency* 6>* 5,%+77/
Sher$&!* L/ (+,-;./ Le&r!i!' police e"hics/ Criminal ustice (thics* 6* +7%+,/Si'ler* R/* 1ilso!* C/ (+,--./ S"ress i! "he 6or)pl&ce> Co$p&ri!' police s"ress 6i"h
"e&cher s"ress/ournal of Police Science and Administration* 6-* +3+%+5;/
S)ol!ic)* / (+,55./ustice without trial3 'aw enforcement in a democratic society/ Ne6
Yor)> oh! 1iley/
S)ol!ic)* /* Fyfe* / (+,,4./Above the law3 Police and the excessive use of force/ Ne6
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S"orch* /* P&!&rell&* R/ (+,,5./ Police s"ress> S"&"e%"r&i" &!xie"y i! rel&"io! "o occup&%
"io!&l &!# perso!&l s"ressors/ournal of Criminal ustice* 0?* ,,%+7?/
Terry* 1/ C/ (+,-4./ Police s"ress &s &! i!#ivi#u&l &!# $i!is"r&"ive proble$> So$e
co!cep% "u&l &!# "heore"ic&l #ifficul"ies/ournal of Police Science and Administration*
66* +35%
+53/
Toch* 9/ (+,?B./Agents of change% A study in police reform/ Ne6 Yor)> 9&ls"e#/
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'aw, Criminology and Police Science* -0* 33+%33,/
:&! M&&!e!* / (+,?4./ Observ&"io!s o! "he $&)i!' of police$e!/2uman &rgani#ation* 0*
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:&! M&&!e!* / (+,?B./ 1or)i!' "he s"ree"> A #evelop$e!"&l vie6 of police beh&vior/
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:ol#* G/* er!&r#* T/* S!ipes* / (;77+./ Theoretical criminology (3"h e#/./ Ne6
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1es"ley* 1/ (+,34./ :iole!ce &!# "he police/American ournal of Sociology* 87* 4B%
B+/ 1es"ley* 1/ (+,35./ Secrecy &!# "he police/ Social :orces* ?* ;3B%;3?/
1es"ley* 1/ (+,5,./ :iole!ce &!# "he police/ I! R/ ui!!ey (E#/.* Crime and @ustice in
soci! ety/ os"o!> Li""le* ro6!/
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moral! ity/ C&$bri#'e> MIT Press/
1ilso!* / (+,?4./ 5arieties of police behavior/ Ne6 Yor)> A"h&!eu$/
1or#e!* R/ (+,-,./ Si"u&"io!&l &!# &""i"u#i!&l expl&!&"io!s of police beh&vior> A
"heore"ic&l re&ppr&is&l &!# e$piric&l &ssess$e!"/'aw Society *eview* 0* 55?%?++/
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Griffi!* er!&r# @ ANGRY AGGRESSION AMONG OFFICERS ;+
1or#e!* R/ (+,,3./ The c&uses of police bru"&li"y> Theory &!# evi#e!ce o! police useof force/ I! 1/ Geller 9/ Toch (E#s/.* And @ustice for all (pp/ 4+%57./ 1&shi!'"o!*
=C> Police Execu"ive Rese&rch Foru$/
Sean P. Briffin is an assistant professor of sociology at Clemson
University. 2e received his Ph.9. from Penn State University in 0. 2is
research inter! ests include organi#ed crime, white!collar crime,
comparative criminology, and various law enforcementDrelated issues.
Thomas . ;ernard is a professor of criminal @ustice and sociology at The
Pennsylvania State University. 2is wor has focused on criminology and
criminal @ustice theory as well as on @uvenile @ustice.