AP Psych Exam Review

Walenga

Research Methods: Important Terms• Hypothesis• Operational definitions• Variables• Theory• Population• Representative sample• Stratified sample• Random sampling• Sampling bias• Experiments

– Independent variable– Dependent variable– Confounding variables– Experimental group– Control group– Random assignment– Participant bias/subject expectancy effect– Experimenter bias/expectancy– Single-blind and double-blind design– Placebo effects– Replication

• Descriptive statistics– Frequency distribution– Measures of central tendency

• Mean • Median• Mode

– Normal distribution and curve– Measures of variability

• Range• Standard deviation

– Correlation• Correlation coefficient

– Positive correlation– Negative correlation

• Illusionary correlation– Inferential statistics

• Statistically significant• Ethical Guidelines

– Consent– Debriefed– Confidentiality– No psychological or physical harm– Use of animals ??

Research Methods

Research Methods

Correlation Coefficient

r = +0.65

Indicates directionof relationship

(+ or -)

Indicates directionof relationship

(+ or -)

Correlationcoefficient

Correlationcoefficient

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

Normal Curve

The mean, median, and mode of a normal distribution are identical and fall exactly in the center of the curve. This means that any score below the mean falls in the lower 50% of the distribution of scores and any score above the mean falls in the upper 50%. Also, the shape of the curve allows for a simple breakdown of sections. For instance, we know that 68% of the population fall between one and two standard deviations (See Measures of Variability Below) from the mean and that 95% of the population fall between two standard deviations from the mean. Figure 8.1 shows the percentage of scores that fall between each standard deviation.

Skewed DistributionAn asymmetrical distribution of scores, such as a curve with a bump on the left and tail to the right or most scores are bunched to the left or right of the mean • The mean is the largest or the mode or median are smaller than the mean• The mean is a less useful measure; while the median is more useful

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 71070

Mode Median Mean

One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars

Measures of VariabilityIndicate the dispersion or spread in a data set. How much the scores in a set of data vary from: a. Each Other

b. the MeanTell you if the scores are very different from one another or if they cluster around the mean.

RangeThe difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data.Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set.

Standard DeviationStandard DeviationReflects the average distance between every score and the mean. Tell you how different the scores are from the mean. Tells you whether scores are packed together or dispersed. Increasevariability = increase in standarddeviation

Statistical SignificanceResults are “statistically significantstatistically significant” when the probability that the

findings are due to chance is very low. EX: If the difference between two group means is statistically significant, a researcher

would conclude that the difference most likely exists in the population of interest. If the difference is not statistically significant,

a researcher would conclude that the difference occurred by chance – possibly because of an unrepresentative sample or

the presence of confounding variables.

“Very Low” means less than 5 chances in 100or

P < 0.05 level of significanceP < 0.05 level of significance

Biology: Important Terms• Neuron

– Glial cells– Dendrites– Nucleus– Soma– Axon– Myelin– Axon terminal buttons– Synapse/synaptic cleft– Neurotransmitters

• Excitatory• Inhibitory

– Receptor site– Reuptake– Neural networks

• Types of neurons– Afferent (sensory) neurons– Efferent (motor) neurons

• Neural Communication– Resting potential (Polarization)– Action potential– Depolarization– Repolarization– Hyperpolarization– Threshold– All or none principle– Refractory Period– Agonists vs antagonists

Neuron Structure

Neurons do NOT touch each other - the space in between is called the synapse.

Approx 15,000 synapses per neuron

(DETECT)

(ANNOUNCE)

How Neurons Communicate: Action Potential

How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission

Agonist vs. Antagonist

Neurotransmitters

Biology: Important Terms• Nervous System

– Central Nervous System• Brain • Spinal Cord

– Peripheral Nervous System• Somatic Nervous System

– Afferent (sensory) neurons– Efferent (motor) neurons

• Autonomic Nervous System– Sympathetic Nervous System– Parasympathetic Nervous System

Biology: Important Terms• The Brain

– Lateralization– Corpus callosum– Cerebral cortex

• Frontal lobe– Motor cortex

• Parietal lobe– Somatosensory cortex

• Temporal lobe• Occipital lobe• Association areas

– Wernicke’s area– Broca’s area

– Ablation– Lesion– Plasticity

• How Psychologists Look Into the Brain– EEG– CT or CAT scan– MRI and fMRI– TMS– PET scan

• Endocrine System– Hormones

HemispheresContralateral

control: right controls left and vice versa.

Left Hemisphere: logic and sequential tasks; language.

Right Hemisphere: spatial and creative tasks.

Split Brain Patients: Testing the Divided Brain

Development: Important Terms• Types of Studies

– Cross-sectional– Longitudinal

• Early Physical Development– Zygote– Maturation– Teratogen (FAS)– Reflexes– Temperament

• Cognitive Development: Piaget– Schema

• Assimilation• Accommodation

– Habituation– Sensorimotor

• Object permanence– Preoperational

• Egocentrism• Animism• Symbolic thinking• Theory of Mind

– Autism– Concrete Operational

• Conservation

• Cognitive Development: Elkind– Adolescent egocentrism

• Personal fable• Imaginary audience• Invincibility fable

• Cognitive Development: Vygotsky– Zone of proximal development– Types of neurons

• Attachment: Harlow– Harlow monkey experiment– Contact comfort

• Attachment: Lorenz– Critical period– Imprinting

• Attachment: Ainsworth – Strange situation

• Secure attachment• Anxious/avoidant attachment• Anxious/ambivalent attachment

• Attachment: Erikson– Psychosocial development

• Attachment: parenting styles– Authoritarian– Permissive– Authoritative

• Moral Development: Kohlberg– Preconventional– Conventional– Postconventional

Behavioral Perspective Cognitive Perspective

Passive process - dominant influence during first few years of life

Starting around age 2 ½ , child accurately labels self as boy or girl, labels genders consistently, assigns occupations, toys, activities to stereotypical gender. By age 8, schema for gender is well developed

As cognitive complexity develops, gender schema theory takes over.

SCHEMAcognitive frameworks that

organize perceptions, such as concept of masculine and

feminine

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Kubler-Ross’ Stages of Death and Dying

Cognition: Important Terms• Thinking and Mental Representations

– Concept• Prototype

– Schema– Script– Mental model– Cognitive map

• Thinking strategies– Formal reasoning (deductive)

• algorithm– Informal reasoning (inductive)

• Heuristic• Availability heuristic• Representative heuristic• Anchoring/adjustment heuristic

• Problem Solving – Means-ends analysis– Analogies– Incubation– Insight

• Obstacles to Problem Solving– Mental set– Functional fixedness– Confirmation bias – Overconfidence– Belief perseverance– Illusory correlations– Hindsight bias– False consensus effect

• Language– Syntax– Semantics– Phonemes– Morphemes

• Development of Language– BF Skinner and behavioral theory– Noam Chomsky

• Universal grammar• Overregularization or overgeneralization

– Sapir-Whorf• Linguistic determinism

Mental Representations

Mental Representations

Elements of Language

Development of Language

Memory: Important Terms• Long-term potentiation• Encoding• Storage

– Sensory Memory• Iconic• Echoic

– Short-Term Memory• Working memory• Maintenance rehearsal• Chunking

– Long-Term Memory• Elaborative rehearsal• Explicit memory

– Episodic information– Semantic information– Hippocampus

• Implicit memory– Procedural– Cerebellum

• Improving Memory– Mnemonics

• Acronyms• Method of loci

• Retrieval– Priming– Retrieval cues and retrieval failure

• Encoding specificity principle• Context dependent memories• State dependent memory

– Mood congruence effect– Tip of the tongue phenomenon– Serial position effect– Flashbulb memories

• Forgetting– Ebbinghaus forgetting curve– Retroactive interference– Proactive interference– Suppression– Repression– Anterograde amnesia– Retrograde amnesia– Alzheimer’s

• Plagues• Acetylcholine

• Constructing Memories– Loftus and misinformation effect– Source amnesia– Imagination inflation

ExternalEvents

(iconic = visual info)

SensoryMemory

(echoic = auditory info

Short-Term(WORKING) Memory

Long-TermMemory

SensoryInput

Attention &Attention &EncodingEncoding

EncodingEncodingRetrievalRetrieval

Automatic, not attention or interpretation Function = hold info long enough to be

processed for basic physical characteristics Capacity = large

Duration = very brief; (visual info - .025sec / auditory info = 3-4sec)

Function = info is actively worked onCapacity = 7 +/- 2

Duration = 20 sec; however, can increase it with maintenance

rehearsal (conscious repetition of info either to maintain it in consciousness

or to encode it for storage)

Function = organizes and stores info; more passive form of storage

Capacity = unlimitedDuration =permanent????

Memory = persistence of learning over time!

SemanticFacts/General

Knowledge

EpisodicExperienced

events

ProceduralSkills

Motor/Cognitive

Classical Conditioning

Explicit (Declarative)knowing you know something

conscious recall

Implicit (Non-declarative)knowing how to do something

(but not know you know)without conscious recall

Types of Long-Term MemoryTypes of Long-Term Memory

Medial Temporal Lobe / Hippocampus / Frontal Lobe

Cerebellum

Interference

Proactive Interference = Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later.

Retroactive Interference = Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier.

PastPast PresentPresent

PastPast PresentPresent

InterferenceInterference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items. One memory competing with or replacing another memory

EX: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today

EX: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number.

Memory Loss• Anterograde amnesia – means forward; can’t form new memories.

– Effects of the accident are working forward in time and patient is unable to remember things that have happened since the accident

• Retrograde amnesia – means backward; can’t remember old memories . • Hit by a car at noon on Tuesday. Patient regained consciousness

Tuesday night and it is now Wednesday. Patient can’t remember the accident or anything that happened Tuesday morning before the accident.

Motivation: Important Terms• Theories

– Instinct theory– Drive Reduction

• Need, Drive, Homeostasis– Incentive theory– Optimum Arousal

• Yerkes-Dodson law– Maslow’s Hierarchy o f Needs

• Self-actualization • Achievement and Work

– Self-efficacy– Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation– Flow– Task Leadership vs. Social Leadership– Industrial-organizational psychologists

• Personnel• Organizational

• Hunger– Lateral hypothalamus

• Orexin– Ventromedial hypothalamus

• Leptin– Ghrelin– Glucose– Insulin– Set point theory

• Glucose• Body weight• Basal metabolic rate

– Anorexia nervosa– Bulimia nervosa

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Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones that are related to hunger.

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

StomachIncreases hunger

Insulin increase

PancreasIncreases hunger

Leptin increase Fat cellsDecreases hunger

PPY increaseDigestive tract

Decreases hunger

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Yerkes-Dodson Law• Some arousal is necessary• High arousal is helpful on easy tasks but harmful for difficult

tasks.

Emotion: Important Terms• Theories

– James-Lange theory• Facial-feedback hypothesis

– Cannon-Bard theory– Two-factor theory

• Transferred excitation (spill-over effect(• Emotional Expression

– Paul Ekman and cultural expression– Polygraph

• Biological Aspects of Emotion– Amygdala– Autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic and

parasympathetic• Anger

– Spill-over effect– Catharsis hypothesis– Frustration-aggression principle

• Happiness– Feel-good, do-good phenomenon– Subjective well-being– Adaptation level phenomenon– Relative deprivation

• Stress– Stress, Stressors, Strain– Causes

• Approach-approach conflict• Avoidance-avoidance conflict• Approach-avoidance conflict

– Biological Aspects of Stress• Adrenal glands• Noripinephrine• Epinephrine

– General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)• Alarm stage• Resistive stage• Exhaustive stage

– Beating Stress• Perceived control

– Internal locus– External locus– Learned helplessness

• Optimistic vs. pessimistic explanatory styles• Type A vs Type B personality• Biofeedback and meditation

Stressor, Strain, Stress

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The Stress Response System

The hypothalamus and the pituitary

gland also respond to stress (slow) by

triggering the outer adrenal glands to

secrete glucocorticoids

(cortisol).

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The Stress Response System

Canon proposed that the stress response (fast) was a fight-or-

flight response marked by the outpouring of epinephrine and

norepinephrine from the inner adrenal glands, increasing

heart and respiration rates, mobilizing sugar

and fat, and dulling pain.

Cognitive Appraisal

Sensation: Important Terms• Sensory Receptors• Transduction• Psychophysics• Factors that Affect Sensation

– Absolute threshold– Signal detection theory– Difference threshold (just noticeable difference)– Sensory adaptation– Subliminal stimulation– Sensory interaction– Visual capture

• Vision– Light waves– Cornea, Pupil, Iris, Lens (Accommodation)– Retina

• Photoreceptors: Rods, Cones (Fovea), Bipolar cells, Ganglion cells)

– Optic nerve (Blind spot)– Primary visual cortex

• Feature detectors• Parallel processing

– Color Vision• Hue/color (wavelength)• Intensity/Brightness (amplitude)• Saturation (purity)• Color Mixing: Subtractive vs. additive• Trichromatic theory of color vision• Opponent process theory of color vision

– Afterimage

• Hearing– Sound waves

• Pitch (frequency)• Loudness (amplitude)• Timbre (purity)

– Outer ear: pinna, auditory canal, eardrum– Middle ear: hammer, anvil, stirrup, oval window– Inner ear: cochlea, basilar membrane, auditory nerve– Frequency theory– Place theory– Volley principle– Auditory localization– Conduction hearing loss– Sensorineural hearing loss

• Smell– Olfactory nerves and olfactory bulb

• Taste– Taste buds: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami

• Pain– Gate-control theory– Sensory homunculus

• Kinesthetic sense• Vestibular sense

– Semicircular canals

Sensing the World: Basic Principles • Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest difference

between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time.– Weber’s Law = regardless of magnitude, two stimuli must differ by a constant

proportion for the difference to be noticeable. • Light intensity – 8%• Tone frequency - .3%• Weight – 2%

– EX: Lemon Lab – if you lemon weighs 6 oz then the next lemon will have to weigh .12 oz heavier or .12 oz lighter in order to detect the difference between lemon

– JND varies according to the strength or intensity of the original stimulus. The greater the stimulus the greater the change necessary to produce JND• EX: If a farmer grows giant lemons, a greater difference threshold will be

needed to determine a change from a 500 oz lemon, such as a change of 10 oz versus .12 oz with a 6 oz lemon.

Sensing the World: Basic Principles • Difference Threshold (just noticeable difference or jnd) = the lowest difference

between two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time.– Fechner’s Law – larger and larger increases in stimulus intensity are

required to produce perceptible increments in the magnitude of sensation. Constant increments in stimulus intensity produce smaller and smaller increases in perceived magnitude of sensation.

• Scene #1: dark room – add one light bulb – difference in light is striking

• Scene #2: same room – add a second light bulb – the amount of light is doubled but the room does not seem twice as bright

• Scene #3: same room – add a third light bulb, it adds just as much light as the second, but you barely notice the difference

– Three equal increases in stimulus intensity produces progressively smaller differences in the magnitude of sensation

Visual Processing: light waves cornea pupil (iris) lens retina (rods and cones – trichromatic theory bipolar ganglion – start of opponent process) optic nerve (blind spot) thalamus occipital lobe (visual cortex – end of opponent process) feature detectors abstraction (cells in parietal and temporal lobe combine info from feature detectors) PERCEPTION

“Blue”

“Green”

“Red”

Blue

Wavelength Input Cone Signal to Brain

Theories of Color Vision: Trichromatic Theory

Equal Parts Red and Green =Yellow

Pitch – high or lowness of sound

• The greater the number of cycles per second, the higher the pitch. Longer the wave = lower the pitch / Shorter the wave = higher the pitch

• Frequency – number of cycles per second as expressed in the unit Hertz. • Hertz – A unit expressing the frequency of sound waves. One Hertz, or 1Hz,

equals one cycle per second.• Human hearing detect sounds ranging in frequency from 20Hz –

20,000Hz

Loudness

• The higher the amplitude of a wave, the louder the sound.

• Amplitude – strength or height of wave. • Decibel – A unit expressing the loudness of a sound,

abbreviated dB.• Perceived loudness doubles about every 10 decibels. The

absolute threshold for hearing is arbitrarily defined as 0 decibels.

Perceiving PitchPlace Theory (Traveling Wave Theory)

= pitch determined by point of maximal vibration on basilar membrane.Different pitches activate different places of the cochlea’s basilar membrane.

Only applicable to high pitched sounds – over 5000 Hz Only applicable to high pitched sounds – over 5000 Hz (low pitched sounds do not localize as well)(low pitched sounds do not localize as well)

Frequency Theory = frequency of a tone (or pitch) matches the rate

at which the hair cells fire or the rate of nerve impulsestraveling up the auditory nerves (i.e., 1KHz tone cause

hair cells to fire 1k times/sec) Only applicable to sounds under 1000 Hz Only applicable to sounds under 1000 Hz

(individual neurons cannot fire faster than 1000 times/sec)(individual neurons cannot fire faster than 1000 times/sec)

Volley Theory = receptors in the ear fire in sequence. Several

neurons together, firing in sequence, can send amore rapid series of impulses to the brain than one.

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TouchSensory receptors located around the roots of hair cells fire when

surface of skin is touched (mechanical and thermal energy).

The sense of touch is a mix of four distinct skin senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

Only pressure has identifiable receptors. All other skin sensations are variations of pressure, warmth, cold and pain.

Two pathways: #1 – signals from thermal receptors + pain signals; #2 – signals from tactile stimulation (pressure)

Hot = warm ( firing) +cold ( firing)Wet = pressure + coldTickling itch = pressure + pain

Sensory Homunculus

Homunculus - Latin for "little human“; any

representation of a human being.

The Motor Cortex is the area at the rear of the

frontal lobes that control voluntary movements. The Sensory Cortex

(parietal cortex) receives information from skin

surface and sense organs.

Gate-Control Theory

• Small fibers (pain + temp) = open gate = pain. When tissue is injured, the small fibers activate and open the neural gate– Slow pathway – lags a second or two

behind the fast system; longer lasting, aching pain

– Fast pathway – registers pain and relays it to the cortex in a fraction of a second

• Large fibers (tactile – pressure or vibration) = close gate = no pain. – Stimulate (massage, rub, acupuncture)

gate closing activity to treat pain.– Also closed by signals from the brain –

attention and expectations • Endorphins can also close gate• Brain (attention and expectations) also

close gate

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Spinal cord contains neurological “gates” that either block pain or allow it to be sensed.

Perception: Important Terms• Perceptual Organization

– Bottom-up processing– Top-down processing– Gestalt laws

• Depth Perception– Monocular cues– Binocular cues

• Retinal disparity• Convergence

• Perceptual Constancies– Shape constancy– Color constancy– Brightness constancy– Size constancy

• Perception of Movement– Stroboscopic motion– Phi phenomenon

• Selective attention– Change blindness– Inattentional blindness– Cocktail party effect

• Observe Characteristics– Expectations

• Perceptual set• Context effects

– Cognitive style• Field independent (sharpeners)• Field dependent (levelers

– Culture

Consciousness: Important Terms• Levels

– Conscious– Preconscious– Unconscious

• Circadian rhythms• Stages of sleep

– NREM – REM

• Functions– REM rebound– Restorative theory– Adaptive theory– Behavioral theory

• Sleep Disorders– Narcolepsy– Sleep apnea– Sleep walking (somnambulism)– Night terrors– Nightmares

• Dream Theories– Psychoanalysis

• Manifest content• Latent content

– Activation-synthesis theory• Hypnosis

– Posthypnotic suggestions– Posthypnotic amnesia– Higard’s split consciousness

• Hidden observer• Psychoactive drugs

– Blood-brain barrier– Agonist vs. antagonist– Psychological dependency– Physical dependency

• Withdrawal symptoms– Tolerance

Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages. Sleep is divided into two major states: NREM and REM. With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and the duration of REM sleep increases.

1 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 3 4 3 2 REM 2 REM 2 REM

Sleep Stages

Learning: Important Terms• Behaviorism• Classical Conditioning

– Pavlov– Unconditioned (UCS/US)– Unconditioned response (UCR/UR)– Neutral stimulus (NS)– Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Conditioned response (CR)

• Short-delayed conditioning– Generalization– Discrimination– Extinction– Spontaneous recovery (reconditioning)– Second or Higher order conditioning– Watson and Little Albert– Phobias

• Flooding• Systematic desensitization

– Conditioned taste aversion• Biological preparedness

• Operant Conditioning– Instrumental Learning / Law of effect– Reinforcement

• Positive• Negative

– Punishment• Positive • Negative

– Primary reinforcer– Secondary (conditioned) reinforcer– BF Skinner– Shaping– Continuous reinforcement– Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

• Fixed ratio• Variable-ratio• Fixed –interval• Variable-interval

– Behavior modification• Token economy

– Overjustification effect– Latent learning

• Observational Learning– Modeling– Mirror neurons– Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Intelligence: Important Terms• Psychometrics• Galton / Eugenics• Spearman / g-factor

– Factor analysis• Sternberg / triarchic theory

– Analytical– Creative– Practical

• Gardner / multiple intelligence• Emotional intelligence• Creativity

– Divergent thinking– Convergent thinking

• Mental retardation• Autism spectrum disorder• Savant syndrome

• Testing– Binet and IQ

• [Mental age (MA) / Chronological age (CA)] X 100

– Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WAIS)– Normal curve– Aptitude tests– Achievement tests– Reliability– Validity– Standardization– Flynn Effect

Personality: Important Terms• Psychodynamic / Freud

– Preconscious– Conscious– Unconscious

• ID– Pleasure principle

• Ego– Reality principle

• Superego• Defense mechanisms• Psychosexual stages: oral stage,

anal stage, phallic stage (Oedipus complex, Electra complex, identification), latency stage, genital stage

– Fixation– Neo-Freudians

• Carl Jung– Collective unconscious– Introvert vs. extrovert

• Alfred Adler– Inferiority complex– Birth order

• Karen Horney– Womb envy

• Projective tests– Rorschach Inkblot– TAT test

• Trait Theory– Gordon Allport

• Central (source) traits• Secondary (surface) traits

– Raymod Cattell• Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire• Factor analysis

– Hans Eysenck• Introversion-extraversion• Emotional-stability

– Big Five Model: Openness, Cosncientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

– Objective Tests• Social Cognitive Theory

– Julian Rotter• Internal vs. external locus of control• Learned helplessness

– Albert Bandura• Reciprocal determinsm• Self-efficacy

• Humanist Theory– Self-concept– Self-esteem– Self-serving bias– Carl Rogers

• Actualizing tendency• Growth-promoting environment: acceptance (unconditional positive regard),

genuineness (congruency between ideal and real self), empathy– Abraham Maslow

• Self-actualization• Hierarchyuof nedds

Assessing Traits: Factor Analysis

FACTOR ANALYSISStatistical method that finds relationships among many different or diverse items and allows them to be grouped together

FACTOR ANALYSIS EXAMPLES1.Charles Spearman, who hypothesized that the enormous variety of tests of mental ability--measures of mathematical skill, vocabulary, other verbal skills, artistic skills, logical reasoning ability, etc.--could all be explained by one underlying "factor" of general intelligence that he called g. 2.Various measures of the activity of the autonomic nervous system--heart rate, blood pressure, etc. Increase and decrease together.

Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorEX: Keirsey Temperament Sorter

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor Inventory

Excitement

Imp

ati

en

t

Irritable

Boiste

rou

s

Basictrait

Superficialtraits

Impulsive

Sympathetic

AppreciativeTactful

Feeling Type

Personality

Abnormal Psychology: Important Terms• Medical Model• Biopsychosocial Perspective

– Diathesis-Stress Model• Neurotic vs psychotic• Psychological disorder: atypical, disturbing,

maladaptive, personal distress, unjustifiable• DSM-IV

– Rosenhan study• Biological Perspective (brain abnormalities, chemical

imbalances, heritability, drug therapy, ECT, Deep Brain Stimulation

• Psychodynamic Perspective (repression, unconscious conflicts, free association, dream analysis, transference, resistance)

• Cognitive Perspective (irrational thoughts, self-defeating thoughs, rational emotive behavior therapy (albert ellis), cognitive theraphy (aaron beck), cognitive-behavioral therapy

• Humanistic Perspective (distorted sense of self, growth-thwarting environment, client centered therapy, active listening)

• Behavioral Perspective (maladaptive behaviors, counterconditioning (flooding, systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning(, behavior modification (token economy)

• Anxiety Disorders (generalized anxiety, phobias, OCD, Panic, PSD)– Lack of serotonin and GABA– Too much glutamate– Overactive amygdala and underactive frontal lobe

• Dissociative Disorders (DID, dissociative amnesia, dissociateve fugue)– Eye movement desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

• Somatoform Disorders (conversion, hypochondriasis, somatization, pain , body dysmorphic)

• Mood Disorders (unipolar – major depressive, dysthymic, seasonal affective , and bipolar)– Low serotonin and low norepinephrine = depression– Low serotonin and high norepinephrine = mania

• Ruminating response style; Learned helplessness• SSRI’s, such as prozac, zoloft, paxil• ECT or TMS• Schizophrenia

– Positive symptoms – hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking

– Negative symptoms – apathy, no emotion, expressionless faces, rigid bodies, social withdrawal, no speech

– Types: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, residual

– Too much dopamine or dopamine receptors– Prenatal viruses

• Antipsycholtics, such as Thorazine or Clozaril• Personality Disorders

– Cluster A: Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal– Cluster B: Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Histrionic– Cluster C: Dependent, OCD, Avoidant

Social Psychology: Important Terms• Attribution

– Fundamental attribution error (actor-observer bias)• Attitude

– Central route to persuasion– Peripheral route to persuasion– Cognitive dissonance– Foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face technique– Role-playing (Zimbardo)

• Group Behavior– Deindividuation– Social facilitation vs. social interference (inhibition)– Social loafing– Group polarization– Groupthink

• Conformity– Normative social influence (Asch experiment)– Informational social influence

• Obedience (Milgram experiment)• Aggression

– Frustration-aggression principle– Catharsis hypothesis– Spill-over effect

• Altruism– Reciprocity norm

• Bystander effect– Diffusion of responsibility

• Prejudice– Stereotyping– Discrimination– In-group bias– Self-fulfilling prophecy– Scapegoat theory– Just world phenomenon– Other race effect

• Conflict resolution– Social trap– Prisoner’s dilemma – GRIT

• Attraction– Passionate vs. companionate love– Similarity– Proximity

• Mere exposure effect– Physical attractiveness

Fundamental Attribution Error• How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we

react to it

Negative behavior

Situational attribution“Maybe that driver is ill.”

Dispositional attribution“Crazy driver!”

Tolerant reaction(proceed cautiously, allowdriver a wide berth)

Unfavorable reaction(speed up and race past theother driver, give a dirty look)

Cognitive Dissonance

Social Facilitation/Interference• Linked social

interference and facilitation to arousal level

• High arousal improves simple or well-learned tasks

• High arousal worsens complex or poorly-learned task Worsened performance

of nondominant responses(social Interference)

Improved performanceof dominant responses(social facilitation)

Increased drive orarousal

Presence of others

Group Polarization

example: risky-shift effect• groups with a tendency to take risks exaggerate risk-taking decisions• groups with a tendency to be conservative exaggerate safe responses

IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN PSYCHOLOGY

Kaley Schur

Charles Darwin(History of Psychology)

• Theory of natural selection influences the modern evolutionary perspective

William Wundt(History of Psychology)

• First psych research laboratory in GERMANY; pioneered the term introspection; where subjects reported what was happening to them

William James(History of Psychology)

• Prominent in establishing psychology in the US. He emphasized studying the purpose or function of behavior and mental processes

G Stanley Hall(History of Psychology)

• First psych research laboratory in the US; first president of the American Psychological Association (APA); taught by William James

Mary Whiton Calkins(History of Psychology)

• Taught by William James as well; Denied a Ph.D at Harvard due to sexism; established a psych lab at Wellesley and served as first female president of the APA

Margaret Floy Washburn(History of Psychology)

• First American woman to get a Ph.D in psychology; best known for her experimental work in animal behavior

Sigmund Freud(History of Psychology)

• Founded the psychoanalytic school of thought and developed the theory of defense mechanisms, particularly repression; believed childhood experiences influence adult personality; believed dreams provided a particular important insight into unconscious motives

John B. Watson(History of Psychology)

• Behaviorist who believed the only thing worth is observable behavior.

Paul Broca(Biological Bases of Behavior)

• Discovered speech production is located in the lower left frontal lobe; coined Broca’s area which revolutionized the understanding of speech production

Carl Wernicke(Biological Bases of Behavior)

• Discovered that damage to the left temporal lobe caused deficits in language comprehension; coined Wernike’s area

Roger Sperry(Biological Bases of Behavior)

• Best known for work on split brain patients; particularly that the right and left hemisphere have specialized functions

Michael Gazzaniga(Biological Bases of Behavior)

• Continued Sperry’s work on split brain patients

Ernst Weber(Sensation and Perception)

• Discovered just noticeable difference and Weber’s law

Gustav Fechner(Sensation and Perception)

• Demonstrated that mental processes can be quantified

David Hubel(Sensation and Perception)

• Discovered feature detectors- specialized neurons in the occipital lobe that have the ability to respond to specific features of an image

Torton Wiesel (Sensation and Perception)

• Teamed with Hubel to expand the knowledge of sensory processing and perception

Ernest Hilgard(States of Consciousness)

• Renowned for his research on hypnosis and pain control, created the term disassociation when it came to hypnosis

Ivan Pavlov(Learning)

• Originally studied digestion and is famous for his pioneering work on classical conditioning

John Garcia(Learning)

• Famous for pioneering work on taste aversion; his perspective supports the evolutionary perspective that being biologically prepared to quickly associate nausea with food or drink is adaptive

Robert Rescorla(Learning)

• Research indicated that the CS must be a reliable signal that predicts of the UCS; furthered Pavlov’s research

Edward Thorndike(Learning)

• Conducted the first systematic investigation of animal behavior and coined the term “law of effect” which simply stated that satisfying behaviors are more likely to be repeated and vice versa

BF Skinner(Learning)

• Like Watson, believed in observable behavior and came up with Operant Conditioning

Edward Tolman(Learning)

• Known for his work on cognitive maps and mental representations; realized learning is more complex than Skinner believed

Wolfgang Kohler(Learning)

• Studies included a Chimp named Sultan who had a banana outside of cage and a stick inside, realized that animal gains insight; and realized that that is the “aha moment”

Albert Bandura(Learning)

• Famous bobo doll experiment; monkey see- monkey do; father of observation learning

George A. Miller(Cognition)

• Magical 7 plus or minus 2 in STM (Working Memory)

Herman Ebinghaus(Cognition)

• Father or memory research, known for the forgetting curve

Elizabeth Loftus(Cognition)

• Known for misinformation effect; key in noting the weakness in eye witness testimony

Noam Chomsky(Cognition)

• Renowned linguist that noted that children have an innate capacity to learn and produce speech; coined the term language acquisition device

Abraham Maslow(Motivation and Emotion)

• Humanist who is known for his hierarchy of needs; believed highest level is “self actualization”

Stanley Schacter(Motivation and Emotion)

• Known for the two- factor theory of emotion; where emotion depends of physical arousal and then cognitively labeling that arousal

Hans Selye(Motivation and Emotion)

• Studied stress and coined “general adaption syndrome” (alarm reaction; resistance, exhaustion)

Alfred Kinsey(Motivation and Emotion)

• Pioneering researcher on human sexuality

Mary Ainsworth(Developmental Psychologists)

• Did research on the “strange situation” (relationship between infant and mothers) and came up with the terms secure and insecure attachment

Harry Harlow(Developmental Psychologists)

• Famous for experiment on rhesus monkeys and found that touch plays a key role in developing healthy physical growth and normal socialization

Konrad Lorenz(Developmental Psychologists)

• Studying animals and is known for his study on imprinting which is defined as learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

Jean Piaget(Developmental Psychologists)

• Focused on cognitive development differs throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescence to understand the world (Small People Can’t Fight)

Lev Vygotsky(Developmental Psychologists)

• Famous for his belief that children learn their cultures habits of mind through a process called internalization or inner speech

Diana Baumrind(Developmental Psychologists)

• Known for her work on parenting styles (permissive; authoritative; authoritarian)

Erik Erikson(Developmental Psychologists)

• Coined the term psychosocial stages of development and was interested in how adolescence go through role confusion to form identity

Lawrence Kohlberg(Developmental Psychologists)

• Used hypothetical moral dilemmas to study moral reasoning (Pre conventional- Conventional- Post Conventional

Alfred Adler(Personality)

• Best known for critiquing Kohlberg’s theory since all participant were male- argued woman tend to focus on caring and compassion- tend and befriend

Carl Jung(Personality)

• Neo- Freudian; who pioneered the use of psychiatry in both social work and early childhood education- urged patients to through words such as self-determination and courage to alter their interpretations of life events

Carl Rogers(Personality)

• Neo Freudian who developed the concept of the collective unconscious; believed that the collective unconscious includes shared human experiences that are embodied in myths and cultural archetypes

Paul Costa & Robert McCrea(Personality)

• Went against Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and believed people are innately good and are motivated to achieve their full potential or self actualize

Francis Galton(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Came up with the Five

Factor Model of Personality (CANOE) Conscientiousness; Agreeableness; Neuroticism, Extroversion, and Openness

Charles Spearman(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Proposed that

intelligence is a single, underlying factor, which he coined general intelligence of the g factor

Robert Sternberg(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Known for the triachic

model that distinguishes analytic, practical, and creative intelligences

Howard Gardner(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Disagreed with

Spearman, and proposed multiple intelligences that include linguistic, logic-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Alfred Binet(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Invented first usable

intelligence test that noted the distinction between a child’s mental and chronological ages

Lewis Terman(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Best known as the

inventor of the Stanford- Binet IQ test; simply divided mental age by chronological age and multiplied by a 100

David Wechsler(Testing and Individual

Differences)• Instead of Terman’s

approach, Wechsler determined how far a person’s score deviates from a bell shaped normal distribution of scores. Most intelligence tests use this system

Dorothea Dix(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)

• Reformer who documented how poor and deplorable conditions were for the insane poor. Helped persuade state legislatures to create the first generation of American mental hospitals.

Albert Ellis(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)

• Known for rational- emotive therapy where he helped his client’s dispute irrational beliefs and replace them with rational interpretations of events.

Aaron Beck(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)

• Father of cognitive therapy- his theories are used to treat clinical depression

Mary Cover Jones(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)

• Conducted pioneering research in applying behavioral techniques to therapy “known as the mother of behavior therapy”

Joseph Wolpe(Treatment of Abnormal Behavior)

• Furthered Jone’s work by inventing systematic desensitization- where he taught his patients to relax deeply and he then created situations that would cause anxiety by working with minor ones and then with more top level anxiety producing situations.

Leon Festinger(Social Psychology)

• Best known for his work on cognitive dissonance- realized most people change attitude when their attitudes and actions are inconsistent

Philip Zimbardo(Social Psychology)

• Known for the Stanford Prison study- showed the power of role playing

Solomon Asch(Social Psychology)

• Known for line experiment that showed the powers of normative social influence

Stanley Milgram(Social Psychology)

• Famous for “shock study” that showed that humans tend to be very obedient to authority