AP Psychology

AP PsychologyMs. SimonSeptember 17-24, 2009Introduction to Research Methods

1Hindsight Bias The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

2Scientific TheoriesSet of principles that organize and predict behaviors or events

Link observed facts

Imply hypotheses that offer testable predictions3Subfields of PsychologyBasic Psychology- research

Applied Psychology- research put into practice as therapist

Psychiatry- a medical field- deals with mental disorders- prescribe medication-A white-coated scientist probing a rats brainbiological-An intelligence researcher measuring how quickly an infant becomes bored with a familiar picture-an executive evaluating a new healthy life-styles training program for employees- a traveler en route to another culture to collect data on variations in human values and behaviors-Someone at a computer keyboard analyzing data on whether adopted teens temperaments more closely resemble those of their adoptive parents or those of their biological parents-a therapist listening carefully to a clients depressed thoughts- a traveler en route to another culture to collect data on variations in human values and behaviors- a teacher or writer sharing the joy of psychology with others

4There are three main types of research methods in psychology: Descriptive

Correlational

Experimental 5Descriptive Study:

Case Study- psychologists study one individual in great depth in hopes of revealing universal principles

Patients with localized brain damage would be a good example6 Case Study ProsDetailed information

Unusual Cases

Inexpensive

Few ethical considerations7The Problem with the Case Study:

An individual may be atypical

Cannot generalize results

Difficult to Manipulate Variables

Difficult to quantify data

8Naturalistic ObservationObserve subjects in natural habitats without interacting

9Naturalistic ObservationProsConsRealisticNo manipulat-InexpensiveIon of variablesFew ethicalconsiderationObserver BiasObserver bias= influence on interpretations based on observers expectations10Survey MethodRelies on questions answered by a group of people in interviews or questionnaires

11Survey MethodExperimenter must identify the population to study

Random sampling picking members from a population randomly to ensure a representative sample

Population includes all the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn. Lets say our population is the Bronx High School of Science- why wouldnt we survey all the students?Suppose we make our population bigger- instead we have a voluntary survey, were looking to recruit 1,000 participants, but you must stay after school to take the survey.

How could we get a representative sample of the students (Answer on your quiz/reading assignment)Random sampling is easier said than done- even a survey administered at Bronx Science presents a problem.

(M and M experiment)12Survey MethodProsConsCan gather lots of dataHonest answers?Few ethical considerationsNeed many participantsInexpensiveWording EffectsUsually 1000s of participantsHonest answers- what if I instead was giving you a survey about an uncomfortable subject, like drug and alcohol use or sexual preference. Anonymous survey exampleEven when people are told that a survey they are taking is completely anonymous, observer bias is often a huge factor in their choices13Wording EffectsIn a study by AMNH, 88% of all respondents said that they were interested in plants and trees, but only 39% said they were interested in botany.

One out of five Americans (22 percent) doubted that the Holocaust had occurred. 12% said they werent sure

In a study by AMNH, 88% of all respondents said that they were interested in plants and trees, but only 39% said they were interested in botany.

The problems faced by black is brought on by blacks themselves. When asked to white people, 46% agreed to a black interviewer and 62% to a white interviewer.

Poorly worded questions- order of choices-SAT questionsCultural biasIs the wording too direct?

14What to Watch forOrder of choices

Is the time frame specified?

How personal or direct is the wording?

Is there a cultural bias?

Is the time frame specified?Do you think Congress will cut taxes?

Cultural bias- reference to soccer moms on the SATs several years ago. Soccer Mom is associated with a certain cultural group or demographic15Correlational StudiesCorrelational studies assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest without ascribing causes

Is a correlational study an experiment?Correlational studies can be done using Survey, naturalisticAn example would be a study relating college education to future incomeA demographic experiment looking at adolelscentsA longterm experiment looking at the outcome of patients given an antidepressant drug over the course of 50 years.16Correlation coefficient

Example: R= + .37

R= correlational coefficient+= direction of relationship1= strength of relationship(Make graph on board)17Correlational Studies

Positive- presence of one variable predicts the presence of anotherNegative- presence of one predicts the absence of another18Correlational StudiesProsConsInexpensiveConfounding variablesFew ethical considerationsIllusory correlationTimeDoes notObjectiveI mply causation19Illusory CorrelationWhen we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief

Tendency to see random coincidences as correlated-We pay more attention to unusual events which confirm our misconception- we dont pay attention to those that dont adopt and get pregnant and those that do adopt and dont get pregnant (confirmation bias)

20What is the correlation?1) good looks/popularity 2) self-esteem/depression 3) brain size/intelligence 4) money/happiness 5) Education/length of life+/ -/+/-/-

There is a strong correlation between people who ate oatmeal for breakfast as a child and cancer versus people who ate Frosted Flakes for breakfast as a childCancer and age

Smart start cereal

21Correlation: determining causation There is a strong correlation between people who ate oatmeal for breakfast as a child and cancer versus people who ate Frosted Flakes for breakfast as a child

Why?Age is the causation22Fridays Exam: What to StudyAbout 40% Historical Approaches, 60% Research Methods

Study mostly from Class Discussion!

Format: Multiple Choice, One short AP exam style essay question, short answer and/or matching

Go through class notes, then textbook, then the hand-outs in that order.23Research MethodsDescriptiveCorrelationalExperimentalExplains behavior using natural observationsassess the association between two or more characteristics of interestResearcher manipulates one variable and observes the effect on another variable 1) Case studies2) Naturalistic3) Surveys1) Causation2) Illusory correlation3) Correlational CoefficientExperimental DesignConfounding Variables, double-blind24Experimental MethodResearcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) and observes the effect on another variable (dependent variable)

Allows one to show a causal relationship

Illusory correlation

Scientific MethodDevelopmentalTime, expensive, artificial

25Q:How is the experimental group different from the control group?

A:The experimental group receives or reacts to the independent variable and the control group does not receive the independent variable

Q:Why is a control group needed?

A:Provides baseline for comparison

26 Confounding variable: external differences between the experimental group and the control group other than those resulting from the independent variable

A soccer coach wanted to improve the team's playing ability, so he had them run two miles a day. At the same time the players decided to take vitamins. In two weeks the team was playing noticeably better, but the coach and players did not know whether it was from the running or the vitamins.

Counterbalancing- technique where subjects serve as own control group. Half of subjects complete control condition first then experimental condition. Half do in the other orderQ:How could one choose which group to put your subjects in?Random assignment: method to assign subjects to groups that minimizes subject-relevant confounding variables (best if name out of hat or computer generated)

A soccer coach wanted to improve the team's playing ability, so he had them run two miles a day. At the same time the players decided to take vitamins. In two weeks the team was playing noticeably better, but the coach and players did not know whether it was from the running or the vitamins.

27Confounding Variables

1) Placebo Effect experimental results caused by expectations alone

In designing these double blind experiments, where neither the patients nor the experimenters knew which group they were in, were presented with a problemWhat about pharmaceudical studies, testing the effect of a drug on a patientOne group is given the drug, the other is not.In the book this is the example of subliminal tapes28Confounding VariablesDemand Characteristics- participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior accordingly

29 How can we control for confounding variables?

30 How can we control for confounding variables? 1) Random Assignment method of assigning subjects to groups to minimize pre-existing differences between those groups This is an example of Between subjects design: Participants in the experimental and control group are different individuals

31How can be control for confounding variables? 2) Within subjects design Technique where subjects serve as control and experimental group. 3) Twin Studies:

Twin studies come into play in nature versus nature32Confounding VariablesExperimenter bias- researchers expectations about the outcome of a study influence the results

Q: How can we eliminate experimenter bias?Whats the difference between the observer bias and the experimenter bias?

Eliminate experimenter bias:33How can we eliminate experimenter bias?Multiple Experimenters

2. Double blind procedure- research design in which neither the experimenter or the participants know who is in the experimental versus control group

Why do we need multiple experimenters?Operational definitions- the specific procedure used to determine the precense of a variablestudy testing the effectiveness of study, we cant really measure effectiveness if a scientific manner, so wed need to rely on an operational definition- that the score of the test will be used to determine how effective ones studying is. By using operational definitions in an experiment, we minimize experimental bias because were creating an objective standard, or a set of predetermined criteria.In other words, a lot less will be open for interpretation

34AP PsychologyMs. SimonSeptember 24, 2009Experimental Statistics

What does our data tell us? How can we make meaning from our numbers?35Do Now:From your reading: Why do we need operational definitions?Operational definition- way of defining a variable objectivelyExample- we say that a students performance on a test is the operational definition of good study habitsMAKING SOMETHING OBJECTIVE36How do psychologists present data?Frequency Distributions

Orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score or group of scoresHistorgram37StatisticsStatistical significance (p) is the likelihood that the observed difference between groups results from a real difference rather than chance alone

Whats a good p value?

When p