24
Appendices 77
Appendices
77
APP
EN
DIX
I V
alue
s us
ed in
the
Com
puta
tion
of E
nerg
y R
equi
rem
ents
kcal
jhea
d pe
r da
y
Mal
es
Fem
ales
Lact
atio
n Su
pple
men
t To
tal
Lact
atio
n Su
pple
men
t
0-5
mon
ths
600
80
680
600
80
6-11
44
0 52
0 96
0 44
0 52
0 12
-17
280
830
1110
28
0 83
0 18
-23
1250
2
year
s 13
60
3 15
60
4 17
20
5 18
70
6 20
10
7 21
40
8 22
60
9 23
80
10
2500
11
26
00
Tota
l
680
960
1110
12
50
1350
15
20
1670
17
90
1900
20
10
2110
22
10
2300
23
50
-..J
00
~
;::s ~
~
~ 'C> "' V:! ;:::
""" ""' f;;• ~
;::s
(") ~
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20-3
9 40
-44
45-4
9 50
-59
60-6
9 70
-79
2700
24
70
2560
26
47
2692
27
34
2734
26
66
2647
25
15
2515
23
82
2118
18
53
2400
25
84
2636
26
36
2552
24
68
2394
23
20
2320
22
04
2204
20
88
1856
16
24
Req
uire
men
t fo
r ad
ults
age
d 20
-39
calc
ulat
ed a
t 45
kca
ljkg
of b
ody
wei
ght
for
both
sex
es.
Req
uire
men
t fo
r ag
es 1
3-19
at
spec
ified
age
cal
cula
ted
as p
er c
ent
of r
equi
rem
ent
at a
ge 2
0-39
fo
r FA
O r
efer
ence
man
(Ta
ble
1.7)
in:
En
ergy
and
Pro
tein
Req
uire
men
ts,
Rep
ort
of a
Joi
nt
FAO
/WH
O A
d H
oc
Exp
ert
Com
mitt
ee
(Rom
e:
FAO
, 19
73)
and
appl
ied
to
requ
irem
ent
of
Gen
ieri
20-
39 y
ear
olds
. R
equi
rem
ent
for
ages
40
and
over
bas
ed o
n FA
O's
per
cen
t of
20-
39
year
old
ref
eren
ce m
an (
Tabl
e 1.
5) a
pplie
d to
Gen
ieri
20-
39 y
ear
olds
. R
equi
rem
ent
for
ages
12
and
unde
r, F
AO
's r
ecom
men
datio
ns f
or c
hild
ren'
s re
quir
emen
ts (
Tabl
e 1.
7),
i.e.
to i
nclu
de 'c
atch
up
'.
~ ('I) ~ ~ a· -..
..)
1.0
APP
END
IX I
I V
alue
s us
ed i
n th
e C
ompu
tatio
n of
Ene
rgy
Expe
nditu
re i
n Su
bsis
tenc
e A
gric
ultu
re i
n G
enie
ri V
illag
e, T
he G
ambi
a, W
est A
fric
a 00
0
Activ
ity
kcal
fmin
. Pe
rcen
tage
of t
ime
in f
ield
W
alki
ng
Aver
age
load
car
ried
(kg
) o
f wor
k W
orki
ng
Rest
ing
time
Und
er 1
6 16
and
ove
r m
in./d
ay
Mal
e la
bour
(5
8.82
kg/
man
mea
n)
~
Gro
undn
uts
(Ara
chis
hyp
ogae
a)
;::s C
lear
ing
land
bef
ore
('I)
plan
ting
5.3
82
18
24
0.4
0.7
~
'-:::
Rid
ging
and
pla
ntin
g 6.
2 84
16
24
0.
4 0.
7 ~
Plan
ting
on f
lat
3.4
83
17
24
0.4
0.7
..., W
eedi
ng
4.3
79
21
24
0.4
0.7
~
;::
Scar
ing
mon
keys
6.
0 2
98
24
0.4
0.7
~ "'
Lifti
ng
4.8
70
30
24
0.4
0.7
c;·
Win
drow
ing
3.8
61
39
24
0.4
0.7
~
;::s St
acki
ng
3.7
96
4 24
0.
4 0.
7 ("
') ('I
)
Bea
ting
4.6
67
33
24
0.4
0.7
Win
now
ing
2.9
67
33
24
0.4
0.7
Lat
e m
illet
(Pe
nnis
etum
typ
hoid
es v
ar.)
Cle
arin
g 5.
4 82
18
94
0.
8 1.
3 Pl
antin
g 3.
4 83
17
94
0.
8 1.
3 W
eedi
ng
4.3
83
17
94
0.8
1.3
Har
vest
ing:
fl
atte
ning
ste
ms
3.1
90
10
94
0.8
1.3
cutti
ng h
eads
3.
3 91
9
94
0.8
14.6
bu
ndlin
g 3.
3 91
9
94
0.8
14.6
E
arly
mill
et (
Penn
iset
um t
ypho
ides
var
.) C
lear
ing
5.0
82
18
Neg
ligib
le
0.4
0.7
Plan
ting
3.4
83
17
Neg
ligib
le
0.4
0.7
Wee
ding
4.
3 83
17
N
eglig
ible
0.
4 0.
7 Sc
arin
g bi
rds
6.0
2 98
N
eglig
ible
0.
4 0.
7 H
arve
stin
g:
flat
teni
ng s
tem
s 3.1
90
10
N
eglig
ible
0.
4 0.
7 cu
tting
hea
ds
3.3
91
9 N
eglig
ible
0.
4 12
.2
bund
ling
3.3
91
9 N
eglig
ible
0.
4 12
.2
Sorg
hum
(So
rghu
m s
pp.)
~
Cle
arin
g 5.
3 82
18
29
0.
4 0.
7 ~
Rid
ging
and
pla
ntin
g 6.
2 84
16
29
0.
4 0.
7 ("
I)
;::
Wee
ding
4.
3 83
17
29
0.
4 0.
7 ~
Har
vest
ing
3.2
90
10
29
0.4
10.7
;::;·
("
I)
Mai
ze (
Zea
May
s)
"' C
lear
ing
5.3
82
18
Neg
ligib
le
0.4
0.7
Rid
ging
and
pla
ntin
g 6.
2 84
16
N
eglig
ible
0.
4 0.
7 W
eedi
ng
4.3
83
17
Neg
ligib
le
0.4
0.7
Har
vest
ing
3.2
90
10
Neg
ligib
le
0.4
10.7
Fem
ale
labo
ur
(51.
56 k
g/w
oman
mea
n)
Find
i ( D
igita
ria
exili
s)
Bro
adca
stin
g an
d co
verin
g 3.
7 89
11
18
0.
8 1.
3 H
arve
stin
g 2.
8 90
10
18
0.
8 10
.1
00
.....
..
00
N
APP
EN
DIX
II
(con
tinue
d)
Activ
ity
kcal
fmin
. Pe
rcen
tage
of t
ime
in f
ield
W
alki
ng
Aver
age
load
car
ried
(kg
) o
f wor
k W
orki
ng
Rest
ing
time
Und
er 1
6 16
and
ove
r m
in./d
ay
Swam
p ric
e ( O
ryza
sat
iva)
tl-1
~
Hoe
ing
5.1
59
41
61
0.8
1.3
~
Pulli
ng g
rass
3.
9 73
27
61
0.
8 1.
3 ~
"-.::
Salt
test
2.
0 90
10
61
-
-'C>
Tr
ansp
lant
ing
4.2
75
25
61
0.8
4.5
.....
Scar
ing
bird
s 5.
5 2
98
61
0.8
1.3
V:l
$::
Har
vest
ing
3.0
91
9 61
0.
8 7.
7 ~
....,
Upl
and
rice
(Ory
za s
ativ
a)
i.;;•
Man
urin
g 3.
0 82
18
40
1.
7 2.
7 ~
~
Hoe
ing
and
broa
dcas
ting
5.3
58
42
40
1.5
2.5
(") ~
Wee
ding
3.
6 71
29
40
1.
5 2.
5 Th
inni
ng
3.4
71
29
40
1.5
2.5
Lifti
ng
3.4
77
23
40
1.5
5.8
Scar
ing
bird
s 5.
5 2
98
40
1.5
2.5
Har
vest
ing
2.8
91
9 40
0.
8 4.
4
Not
es to
App
endi
x II
C
hild
ren:
all
task
s, r
estin
g an
d w
alki
ng,
boys
11-
15 a
ge g
roup
mal
e ad
ult
rate
x 0
.8,
unde
r 11
yea
rs x
0.
7; g
irls
11-1
5 ag
e gr
oup
fem
ale
adul
t rat
e x
0.8.
R
estin
g in
fie
lds:
adu
lt m
ales
1.7
kca
ljmin
.; ad
ult f
emal
es 1
.5 k
caljm
in.
Wal
king
to
and
from
fie
lds:
with
out
load
, adu
lt m
ales
3.6
kca
ljmin
.; ad
ult
fem
ales
3.2
kca
l/min
.; en
ergy
co
st o
f lo
ad c
arry
ing
0.06
kca
ljkg
of lo
ad p
er m
inut
e.
Occ
asio
nal h
elp
by m
ale
labo
ur o
n cr
ops
norm
ally
cul
tivat
ed b
y fe
mal
e la
bour
: fe
mal
e ra
te x
1.1
. O
ccas
iona
l hel
p by
fem
ale
labo
ur o
n cr
ops
norm
ally
cul
tivat
ed b
y m
ale
labo
ur:
mal
e ra
te x
0.9
. So
urce
s co
nsul
ted
by P
. D
. M
artin
: R
. H
. Fo
x, '
A S
tudy
of
Ene
rgy
Exp
endi
ture
of
Afr
ican
s E
ngag
ed i
n V
ario
us R
ural
Act
iviti
es',
Ph.D
. Th
esis
, L
ondo
n U
nive
rsity
(19
53);
P.
G.
Phill
ips,
'T
he M
etab
olic
Cos
t of
C
omm
on W
est
Afr
ican
Agr
icul
tura
l A
ctiv
ities
', J.
Tr
op.
Med
., 57
(19
54)
12-2
0; J
. V
. G
. A
. D
urni
n an
d R
. Pa
ssm
ore,
Ene
rgy,
Wor
k an
d Le
isur
e (L
ondo
n: H
eine
man
n E
duca
tiona
l B
ooks
, 19
67);
N.
G.
Nor
gan,
A
. Fe
rro-
Luz
zi a
nd J
. V
. G
. A
. D
urni
n, 'T
he E
nerg
y an
d N
utri
ent
Inta
ke a
nd t
he E
nerg
y E
xpen
ditu
re o
f 20
4 N
ew G
uine
an A
dult
s',
Phil.
Tr
ans.
R.
Soc.
Lo
nd.,
B.2
68
(197
4) 3
09-4
8; E
. M
ontg
omer
y an
d A
. Jo
hnso
n, 'M
achi
guen
ga E
nerg
y E
xpen
ditu
re',
J. E
colo
gy o
f Foo
d an
d N
utri
tion,
6 (
1977
) 97
-105
. So
urce
of l
abou
r da
ta a
pplie
d to
agr
icul
ture
: M
. R
. H
asw
ell,
Econ
omic
s o
f Agr
icul
ture
in
a Sa
vann
ah
Villa
ge,
Col
onia
l R
esea
rch
Stud
ies,
No.
8 (
Lond
on:
HM
SO,
1953
), A
ppen
dix
VI:
num
ber
of h
ours
and
nu
mbe
r of
day
s w
orke
d by
all
farm
ers,
by
crop
, by
ope
ratio
n, b
y m
onth
, su
b-di
vide
d in
to a
ge-s
ex g
roup
s ra
ngin
g fr
om u
nder
10
year
s to
ove
r 60
yea
rs, i
n G
enie
ri v
illag
e, 1
949.
:t.. ~ ~ ;:s ~ a· 00
(.;.)
84 Energy for Subsistence
APPENDIX III Values used in the Computation of Energy Expenditure in Non-agricultural Activities in Genieri Village,
The Gambia, West Africa*
Activity
Sleep Routine
Fetching water Walking to well Drawing water Returning with load
Fetching wood Pounding foodgrain Winnowing foodgrain Preparing meals Sweeping compounds Washing clothes Child care Eating Personal hygiene
Leisure Sedentary, e.g. sitting, chatting Light, e.g. standing Moderate, e.g. strolling Heavy, e.g. walking, visiting Energetic, e.g. drumming, dancing
Seasonal and part-time House repairs Repair of tools and implements Tending animals Marketing and trading
Adult males Adult females kcaljmin.
1.0
4.4
1.5 2.3
1.4 1.5 2.9 3.6 5.5
3.5 1.8 3.0 2.1
0.85
3.3 4.6 4.3 3.8 4.9 2.5 1.5 3.1 2.9 1.6 1.3 2.1
1.2 1.3 2.5 3.2 4.8
*Time spent on non-agricultural activities were locally observed and recorded in 1979 by E. M. Fye, the author's personal assistant 1947-50, 1962, and 1973-4; see Haswell (1975).
Water collection of 1 gallon/capita per day is provided by a one-hour daily journey to the well by all female farmers, each carrying 3.5 gallons. Forty minutes of the hour is spent waiting and chatting.
Appendices 85
All grain production pounded and winnowed at 13 min./kg, adjusted seasonally according to consumption pattern.
Wood requirement estimated at 2 kg/capita per day, collected by men at 14 kg per 1.5 hour trip and by women at 10 kg per 1 hour trip, mostly collected on days when no agricultural work is performed.
Total leisure time apportioned as follows:
Men Women Agri- No agri- Agri- No agri-
cultural cultural cultural cultural work days work days work days work days
% % % %
Sedentary 55 40 70 55 Light 20 30 20 30 Moderate 15 15 10 10 Heavy 10 10 3 Energetic 5 2
100 100 100 100
86 Energy for Subsistence
APPENDIX IV The Energy Content of Some Fuels, Fertilisers and Crop Residues
Wood (oven dry)• Substitute fuels
Crop residuesb Dungb
Charcoal• Oil
Motor spiritc Diesel" Paraffin•
Fertiliserd Nitrogen Phosphate Potash
kcaljkg 4700
3600 2400 7100
11210 10890 10400
19100 3350 2150
Power output of draught animals and energy cost of tractor use kcalfhr
Animal power output West Bengal draught oxene
Tractor use (fuel only)r Diesel, 49 hp8
Per total hour Per effective hour
Diesel, 38 hp8
Per total hour Per effective hour
Diesel, single cylinder 26.5 hph Average per tractor meter hour Operation
2 furrow mouldboard plough 2 furrow disc plough Disc harrow
Diesel, 2 wheeled hand tractor 10 bpi
448
41900 49200
26400 35600
29200
20600 16900 18100 16400
•D. Earl, Forest Energy and Economic Development (Oxford, 1975).
b Ashok V. Desai, private communication. cThe Economist Measurement Guide and Reckoner (London:
Economist Newspaper Ltd, 1975): equivalent to 9117 kcal/1. for diesel and 8352 kcalfl. for motor spirit.
Appendices 87
dG. Leach, Energy and Food Production (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1975).
eA. Makhijani and A. Poole, Energy and Agriculture in the Third World, The Ford Foundation (Ballinger, 1975); i.e. power output of 0.7 hp.
ipuel consumption per hour is however influenced by the conditions prevailing in the location of operation, and is an indication of the efficiency of use of power, whereas fuel consumption per hectare indicates efficiency of equipment.
gH. Lonnemark, Multifarm Use of Agricultural Machinery (Rome: FAO, 1967); fuel consumption recorded in field operations of a government hire service in East Africa.
hT. B. Muckle and M. Mukolwe, 'The Purpose and Method of Testing Procedures as Carried Out at the Agricultural Machinery Testing Unit, Nakuru, Kenya', West Africa Rural Technology Meeting, organised by the Ministry of Agriculture, The Gambia and the Commonwealth Secretariat, London, May 1979.
iJ. Hamid, 'Agricultural Mechanisation: a Case for Fractional Technology' in Tan Bock Thiam and Shao-er Ong (eds), Readings in Asian Farm Management (Singapore! Singapore University Press, 1979).
Notes
NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE
1. J. M. Kowal and A. H. Kassam, Agricultural Ecology of Savanna: A Study of West Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).
2. Ibid., pp. 215-17. 3. J. V. G. A. Durnin and R. Passmore, Energy, Work and
Leisure (London: Heinemann, 1967). 4. N. G. Norgan, A. Ferro-Luzzi and J. V. G. A. Durnin,
'The Energy and Nutrient Intake and the Energy Expenditure of 204 New Guinean Adults', Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B 268 (1974), 309-48.
5. Durnin and Passmore (1967), p. 110. 6. M. R. Haswell, 'Some Factors Affecting Income Yield on
Family Farms' in The Farm Economist, vol. VII, nos 11-12 (Oxford: Institute of Agricultural Economics, 1954), pp. 432-4.
7. Durnin and Passmore (1967), p. 66. 8. J. H. Lawton, 'The Energy Cost of "Food-Gathering"', in
B. Benjamin, P. R. Cox and J. Peel (eds), Resources and Population (London: Academic Press, 1973).
9. M. R. Haswell, The Changing Pattern of Economic Activity in a Gambia Village, Department of Technical Co-operation Overseas Research Publication No. 2 (London: HMSO, 1963).
10. Norgan eta/. (1974) op. cit. 11. M. R. Haswell, Economics of Agriculture in a Savannah Vil
lage, Colonial Research Study No. 8 (London: HMSO, 1953).
12. Five kcal per minute is the biologists' optimal !evel (private communication by N. G. Norgan).
13. A. Makhijani and A. Poole, Energy and Agriculture in the Third World (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, The Ford Foundation, 1975), pp. 38-9.
14. Applying the low heat energy value of air dry wood of
88
Notes 89
16 MJ per kg (3824 kcal per kg), Bialy concludes 'the energy used for cooking is about twice the food energy consumed'. For further details, see J. Bialy, 'Firewood Use in a Sri Lankan Village: a Preliminary Survey', unpublished paper, School of Engineering Science, University of Edinburgh (1979).
15. Protein-Calorie Advisory Group (PAG) of the United Nations System, Women in Food Production, Food Handling and Nutrition: with special emphasis on Africa (United Nations Publications, 1977), pp. iv, 8-9.
16. The United Africa Company financed the early movement of the crop; see Margaret Haswell, The Nature of Poverty (London: Macmillan, 1975), pp. 74-80.
17. D. P. Gamble, Economic Conditions in Two Mandinka Villages: Kerewan and Keneba (London: Colonial Office, 1955).
NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO
1. J. Saidy, 'The Gambian Village that Missed Its Chance to make History', The Gambian News Bulletin, ~o. 110, 16 September 1976.
2. Haswell (1953). 3. The process by which all animals and pre-agricultural man
obtained their food. 4. J. H. Lawton in Resources and Population (1973). 5. M. R. Haswell, Tropical Farming Economics (London:
Longman, 1973), p. 61. 6. Based on values computed in Appendix I. 7. Haswell (1973), p. 103. 8. Norgan eta/. (1974). 9. M. G. M. Rowland, A. A. Paul, A. M. Prentice, E. M.
Muller, M. A. Hutton, R. A. E. Barrell and R. G. Whitehead, 'Seasonal Aspects of Factors Relating to Infant Growth in a Rural Gambian Village', paper read at a conference on 'Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty' held at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex and the Ross Institute of Tropical Hygiene, 3-6 July 1978.
10. Paper presented at the West Africa Rural Technology Meeting and published in Proceedings of the West Africa Rural Technology Meeting, Yundum, The Gambia, and Dakar, Senegal, 14-22 May (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1979).
90 Notes
NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE
1. See Table 1.2 (p. 7). 2. Norgan eta/. (1974), pp. 318, 321-2. 3. Derived from Haswell (1975), pp. 39, 101. 4. G. M. Culwick, A Dietary Survey among the Zande of the
Southwestern Sudan (Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan Government, 1950).
5. Gamble (1955), p. 1. 6. Ibid., pp. 1-2. 7. J. A. DeBoer and D. E. Welsch, 'Constraints on Cattle and
Buffalo Production in a Northeastern Thai Village', in R. D. Stevens (ed.), Tradition and Dynamics in SmallFarm Agriculture (Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1977), pp. 122-4.
8. This refers to those four of the six compounds d:Pawn in the randomised sample in 1973 which were in existence in 1949: detailed records of all inputs and outputs were obtained in 1973-4 for these households; see Haswell (1975).
9. See Table 2.1. 10. J. Saidy, 'The Gambian Village that Missed its Chance to
make History', The Gambian News Bulletin, No. 110, 16 September 1976.
11. M. Sharma, The Politics of Inequality, Asian Studies at Hawaii, No. 22 (1978).
12. Ibid., p. 118. 13. Between 1974 and 1979 a quarrel developed over debt
repayments between this household (one of the sample households in the 1973-4 re-survey: see Haswell, 1975) and the traditional village money-lender, and by 1979 the entire family had left and the compound found to be abandoned.
14. W. R. Rufener, 'Cattle and Water Buffalo Production in Villages of North-east Thailand', unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, September 1971.
15. DeBoer and Welsch (1977). 16. Measurements made during the 1973-4 re-survey for the
author by the late A. K. Rahman, MBE, Medical Research Council Laboratories, Fajara, The Gambia.
NOTES TO CHAPTER FOUR
1. Durnin and Passmore (1967). 2. H. Bunting, 'Towards a Better Age', New Scientist, 29
March (1979), 1044. 3. F. Cancian, Change and Uncertainty in a Peasant
Notes 91
Economy: The Maya Corn Farmers of Zinacantan (Stanford, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972).
4. H. Ruthenberg, Farming Systems in the Tropics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971).
5. Lawton (1973) states: 'assuming that an average cereal crop will receive approximately 1.5 cwt of N fertiliser per acre per annum (the actual figure is very variable; some like barley on rotation after sugar-beet may receive none) and since the energy cost of manufacturing synthetic nitrogen fertiliser can be as high as 35 x 106 kcal per ton, the cost of manufacturing the fertiliser used on the crop comes to an additional 2.6 x 106 kcal per acre per annum. This alone is nearly half the energy yielded by the crop it is used to fertilise.'
6. Genetic Evaluation and Utilization Program, IRRI Annual Report (1975), pp. 74-81.
7. Bunting (1979), p. 1045. 8. R. Wijewardene, 'Systems and Energy in Tropical
Farming', American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Paper No. 78-1511 (1978).
9. H. Metrick, Oxenisation in The Gambia (London: Ministry of Overseas Development, 1978), pp. 11-12.
10. Pilot Farming Scheme Proposal (April 1979) kindly made available by Pierre A. Tomson, FAO Farm Management Advisor.
11. Wijewardene (1978). 12. Ray Wijewardene is Agricultural Engineer, Farming
Systems Program, liT A. 13. Wijewardene (1978). 14. Muckle and Mukolwe, paper presented at the West Africa
Rural Technology Meeting, and published in Proceedings of the West Africa Rural Technology Meeting, Yundum, The Gambia, and Dakar, Senegal, 14-22 May (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1979).
15. 'Windpower in Sub-Saharan Africa: Potential, Socio-economic Impact, and Pitfalls', Graduate Program Credit paper submitted to the author's course on 'Topics in Modernisation and Development: Alternative Strategies for Rural Development' when the author was Visiting Lecturer at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, N.J. (Spring Term, 1978).
16. Privately communicated at the site during the West Africa Rural Technology Meeting held in Yundum, The Gambia, and Dakar, Senegal, sponsored by the Commonwealth Secretariat (1979).
References
Bialy, J., Firewood Use in a Sri Lanka Village: A Preliminary Survey (Edinburgh: School of Engineering Science, University of Edinburgh, 1979).
Bunting, H., 'Towards a Better Age', New Scientist, 29 March 1979.
Cancian, F., Change and Uncertainty in a Peasant Economy: The Maya Corn Farmers of Zinacantan (University of California Press, 1972).
Culwick, G. M., A Dietary Survey among the Zande of the Southwestern Sudan (Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan Government, 1950).
DeBoer, John A. and Welsch, Delane E., 'Constraints on Cattle and Buffalo Production in a Northeastern Thai Village', in Robert D. Stevens (ed.), Tradition and Dynamics in Small-Farm Agriculture (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1977).
Durnin, J. V. G. A. and Passmore, R., Energy, Work and Leisure (London: Heinemann, 1967).
Earl, D., Forest Energy and Economic Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975).
Gamble, D. P., Economic Conditions in Two Mandinka Villages: Kerewan and Keneba (London: Colonial Office, 1955).
Genetic Evaluation and Utilization Program, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Annual Report (1975).
Green, Maurice B., EatinK Oil: Energy Use in Food Production (Boulder, Col.: Westview Press, 1978).
Hamid, J., 'Agricultural Mechanisation: A Case for Fractional Technology' in Tan Bock Thiam and Shao-er Ong (eds), Readings in Asian Farm Management (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1979).
Haswell, M. R., Economics of Agriculture in a Savannah Village, Colonial Research Study No. 8 (London: HMSO, 1953).
--, The Changing Pattern of Economic Activity in a Gambia Village, Department of Technical Co-operation Overseas Research Publication No. 2 (London: HMSO, 1963).
--,Tropical Farming Economics (London: Longman, 1973).
92
References 93
--,The Nature of Poverty (London: Macmillan, 1975). --,Northeast Thailand: 'Farm Gate' Surveys of Organisational
and Financial Constraints on Development of the Marketable Surplus, Overseas Research Publication No. 22, Ministry of Overseas Development (London: HMSO, 1975).
Kowal, J. M. and Kassam, A. H., Agricultural Ecology of Savanna: A Study of West Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).
Lawton, J. H., 'The Energy Cost of "Food-Gathering" ', in B. Benjamin, P. R. Cox and J. Peel (eds), Resources and Population (London: Academic Press, 1973).
Leach, G., Energy and Food Production (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 1975).
Lonnemark, H., Multifarm Use of Agricultural Machinery (Rome: FAO, 1967).
Makhijani, A. and Poole, A., Energy and Agriculture in the Third World, The Ford Foundation (Cambridge, Mass.: Ballinger, 1975).
Metrick, H., Oxenisation in The Gambia (London: Ministry of Overseas Development, 1978).
Montgomery, Edward and Johnson, Allen, 'Machiguenga Energy Expenditure', J. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, vol. 6 (1977), 97-105.
Norgan, N. G., Ferro-Luzzi, A. and Durnin, J. V. G. A., 'The Energy and Nutrient Intake and the Energy Expenditure of 204 New Guinean Adults', Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B 268 (1974), 309-48.
Phillips, P. G., 'The Metabolic Cost of Common West African Agricultural Activities', J. Trop. Med., 57 (1954), 12-20.
Pimentel, David and Terhune, Elinore Cruze, 'Energy Use in Food Production', in E. R. Duncan (ed.), Dimensions of World Food Problems (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1977).
Platt, B. S., Tables of Representative Values of Foods Commonly Used in Tropical Countries, Medical Research Council Special Report Series No. 302 (London: HMSO, 1962).
Proceedings of the West Africa Rural Technology Meeting, Yundum, The Gambia, and Dakar, Senegal, 14-22 May (London: Commonwealth Secretariat, 1979).
Protein-Calorie Advisory Group (PAG) of the United Nations System, Women in Food Production, Food Handling and Nutrition, Final Report, June 1977.
Raay Van, H. G. T., Rural Planning in a Savanna Region (Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press, 1975).
94 References
Report of a Joint F AO/WHO Ad Hoc Expert Committee, Energy and Protein Requirements (Rome: FAO, 1973).
Ruthenberg, H., Farming Systems in the Tropics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971 ).
Saidy, Jay, 'The Gambian Village that Missed its Chance to make History', The Gambian News Bulletin, No. 110, 16 September 1976.
Sharma, Miriam, The Politics of Inequality, Asian Studies at Hawaii, No. 22 (1978).
Wijewardene, Ray, 'Systems and Energy in Tropical Farming', American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Paper No. 78-1511 (Michigan, 1978).
Handbook on Human Nutritional Requirements, FAO Nutritional Studies, No. 28; WHO Monograph Series No. 61 (Rome: FAO, 1974).
Index
Africa, 9, 11-13, 18, 19, 32, 73, 74
Agricultural development alternative technologies, 49,
50, 57, 59, 66, 69-75 chemical inputs, 66, 67, 72,
73 constraints, 68, 69, 71, 72 energy resource requirement,
2, 64-6, 68, 69 extension services, 57, 65,
71 innovators, 54-7, 63, 69 mechanisation, 2, 69-75 mixed farming, 49, 50, 71 'more syndrome', 70 'political will', 7 5 'zero-till' technique, 73
Anaemia, 8
Bilharzia, 8 Body mass, 6, 14, 17, 19, 20,
34, 38, 39, 60; see also Food
Bunting, H., 62, 69
Cancian, F., 65 Cassava, 4, 5 Children
care of, 18 energy expenditure, 15, 16,
29-31,45,83 food requirements, 16, 78,
79 tasks done by, 25, 29-31,
54,59 Cholera, 7
Climate, 2, 3, 5-7, 23, 40, 59; see also Rainfall
Commercial farming, 2, 49, 50, 62
Crop area cultivated, 3, 28 bird scaring, 29, 30 cultivation, 16, 19, 24-6,
49, 50 damage, 25, 26, 30, 35, 37,
59 irrigation, 26, 66 losses, 35, 37 residues, 24, 51, 57, 58, 71,
86 storage, 25, 26, 37 yields, 3, 16, 23
Culwick, G. M., 39
DeBoer, J. A., 49, 50, 57, 59, 60
Debt, 69 Dependency ratios, 32, 33 Desai, A. V., 84 Digitaria exilis (findi), 4, 24,
28 Draught animals
95
cultivation, 49-51 feed requirement, 2, 13, 51,
58, 70, 71 human energy substitute, 2,
32, 50, 51, 57, 61, 66, 70-2
power output, 86 resources in terms of
energy, 51, 57 water requirement, 8
96 Index
Dunn Nutrition Unit, 34 Durnin, J. V., 5-7, 9-11, 62 Dysentery, 7
Economic development, 3; see also Agricultural development and Rural development
Emigration, 54, 68 Energy
balance, 11, 12, 20, 21, 34-7, 39, 60
comparative costs, 12, 13 content of crops, 3-5 expenditure
children, 15, 16, 29-31, 45, 83
English family farming, 9, 10, 12-14
European traditional farming, 9, 10
household comparisons, 45
human contribution to total, 12
industrialised countries, 1, 2, 5, 62, 70
non-farming activities, 17-21,31,36,60, 61, 68, 69, 84, 85
per cent by crop, 28 per farmer per day, 12,
15, 35 rates, mean, 45 rates, specific, 10, 11, 14,
16, 80-4 related to requirements,
14-17, 29-31, 36 resting compensation, 27,
28 seasonal pattern, 11, 12,
15, 16, 31, 35 women, 13, 15, 17, 18,
29, 31, 33, 35,45, 73, 74
work contribution to total, 12, 29, 31, 36
industrial use, 1 new formula for assessment
of supply and requirement, 42, 45-52, 63-5
primitive source, 1 ratio of gain to expenditure,
13, 25, 27-9, 33, 35, 54
requirements, see Food resources, see Labour role in agriculture, 1 substitutes for human
chemical inputs, 66, 68, 72, 73
draught animals, 2, 32, 50, 51, 57, 61, 66, 70-2
fossil fuel, 32 tractors, 66, 69-73 water power, 2, 32 wind power, 2, 32, 74
time-energy relationship, 72, 73
world resources, 1 England, 9, 10, 12-14, 30, 31,
71 Europe, 5, 9, 10 Extension services, 57, 65, 71
Fertiliser, 66, 67, 70, 86 Food
consumption effect of body mass, 38,
39,42,45 individual variations, 39,
40,47 mothers, 33, 34, 54 seasonal pattern, 11-13,
20, 21, 34,39,40 energy for production of, 2,
3 energy value of, 3-5
Index 97
gathering, 21, 24, 26, 27, 32, 34
industrialised societies, 2, 62 livestock requirements, 2,
51, 57-9, 70, 71 marketable supply, 69 preparation, 18, 26, 39, 60 requirements related to
age and sex, 14, 15, 78, 79
body mass, 6, 14, 20, 38, 39
climate, 7 level of activity, 6, 7, 38,
39 pregnancy and lactation,
11, 12, 14, 17, 33, 78, 79
season, 12, 20, 21 reserves, 12, 17, 19, 20, 25,
54 sharing, 40 shortages, 2, 3, 5, 20, 21,
52,54,60 sufficiency, 11, 12, 19, 20,
38,39,47 Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), 6, 7, 31, 38, 39
Formula for assessment of energy supply and requirement, 42, 45-52,63-5
Fossil fuel, 10, 13, 30, 32, 71-3, 86
Fox, R. H., 83 Fye, E. M., 84
Gamble, D. P., 20, 40, 42 Genieri village, 22-6, 31-7,
40-2,48,50, 51, 56, 57
Groundnuts consumption, 20
cultivation, 16, 24, 66 energy ratio, 28, 33 marketing, 19 ox-cultivation, 66
Haswell, M. R., 10, 12, 14-16, 21, 22, 27, 29, 47,48, 50,58,64
Health affecting work efficiency, 2,
7, 8,17-19,68,69 disease and malnutrition, 7,
8 of infants, 7, 18, 34 metabolism during fevers, 7 water-borne diseases, 7, 8
Hou~ng, 2~ 22, 23, 40, 50, 51
Human Nutrition Field Working Party, 22, 47
Immigration, 41, 42, 54 India, 9, 11, 18, 56, 62, 73 Infant mortality, 8 International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 73
International Rice Research Institute, 66, 67
Jagne, D. C., 35 Japan, 69
Kassam, A. H., 5 Keneba village, 34 Kowal, J. M., 3, 5
Labour allocation of tasks, 14, 15,
23, 24, 29,41, 73,74 contribution of children, 13,
25,29-31,53,59 contribution of women, 12,
16-18, 29, 31, 33, 53, 60, 73, 74
98 Index
dependency ratios, 32, 33 family farms in England, 9,
10, 12, 13, 30-2 hounworked, 12, 14, 15,
52-4 input in terms of energy, see
Energy expenditure multiple cropping
requirement, 68 non-agricultural tasks,
17-21, 26, 60, 61, 68, 84, 85
reciprocal, 41, 53 resources in terms of energy
animal, 50, 51, 57 human,45-8,50-2,54,
57,60, 63-5,68,69 necessity for energy
resource data, 47, 48, 63-6, 68
new formula for assessment of energy supply and requirement, 42, 45-52, 63-5
requirement for hand-hoe agriculture, 48-50
variation between households, 42, 46-52, 54, 65
resting in fields, 27, 29, 78-81
seasonal pressures, 11-13, 16, 19, 20, 30, 31, 34, 68
structure of labour force, 9, 29,42, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54,55,65,66, 68
utilisation, 30, 31 Land
area cultivated, 3, 28 resources, 34, 56, 57, 63, 71
Lawton, J. H., 13, 26, 27, 29, 34
Leisure activities, 12, 31, 85
energy expenditure, 84 'lethargy for leisure', 11 per cent of day, 36, 85
Livestock dung, 18, 25, 26, 86 feed, 51, 57, 58 grazing, 5, 19, 58, 70, 71 mortality, 25 prestige ownership, 25, 57 production, 5, 13 products, 2, 13 seasonal weight loss, 5, 57,
59 stocking capacity, 58, 59 see also Draught animals
Maize, 25, 28, 73 Makhijani, A., 18 Malaria, 8 Mangrove forests, 23 Marketing, 19 McKee, K., 74 Mechanisation, 2, 66, 69-75;
see also Tractors Medical Research Council, 22,
47 Metrick, H., 70 Mexico, 66 Millet
crop damage, 25, 29, 35 cultivation, 16, 19, 24, 25 energy and nutrient content,
4 energy ratio, 28 hours worked, 33 storage, 25 transport, 25 yields, 25
Mixed farming, 49, 50, 71 Muckle, T. B., 73, 87 Mukolwe, M., 87
Nigeria, 3, 73 Norgan, N. G., 6, 14, 33, 38,
39 'No-till' farming, 73
Index 99
Off-farm employment, 32, 50, 51, 61, 65, 68
Papua New Guinea, 33, 38, 39, 65
Passmore, R., 5-7,9-11,62 Pesticides, 66 Philippines, 32, 67 Platt, B. S., 4 Poole, A., 18 Population
census, 14, 22, 47, 48, 54, 64, 65
growth rates, 55 of households, 48, 49, 52,
54 structure, 8, 52, 54, 55, 68
Pounding grain, 17, 26, 60, 68, 84, 85
Pregnant mothers, 11, 12, 17, 33, 34
Protein, 4, 5, 58
Rainfall in study areas, 20, 23, 25 loss through run-off, 3 variability, 3, 23, 74
Ratios of energy gained to energy expended, 13, 25, 27-9, 33, 35, 54
'Reference man', 6, 7, 77 Resting in fields, 27, 29,
80-3 Rice
crop damage, 26, 30, 35 cultivation, 16, 25-8 energy and nutrient content,
4 energy cost, 27, 28, 30, 31,
33 energy ratio, 28, 35 energy value of rice yields
net of fertiliser, 66, 67 hours worked, 33 response to fertiliser, 66, 67
staple food, 16, 59, 60, 66 storage, 26 transport, 26
Rowland, M.G., 34 Rufener, W. R., 59 Rural development, 54-6,
68-75 Ruthenberg, H., 66
Sahel, 5, 18 Saidy, J., 22, 56 Savanna vegetation, 5, 19, 23,
66 Senegal, 66 Sharma, M., 56 Social structure, 22, 40-4 Soil
erosion, 68 fertility, 2, 3, 63 phosphorus deficiency, 24,
25 rainfall run-off, 3 types, 23, 24
Sorghum, 4, 28 Sri Lanka, 18 Sudan, 39, 69, 70
Tanzania, 62 Thailand, 49, 50, 57, 59, 60,
70 Tools, 16, 24, 26, 72-5 Tractors, 10, 66, 69-71, 73-5,
86, 87 Typhoid, 7
United States of America, 5, 9, 62, 70
Walking in energy ratios, 28 to farm plots, 24, 80-3
Water contamination, 7, 8, 68 drawn by wind-pumps, 74 irrigation, 26, 66, 67
100
porterage, 17, 18, 60, 68, 84
power, 2, 32 requirements, 7, 8, 18, 19 see also Rainfall
Weed-killers, 66, 73 Welsch, D. E., 49, 50, 57, 60
Index
Wijewardene, R., 70, 72 Wind power, 1, 2, 32, 74 Wood, 18, 84, 85 World Health Organisation
(WHO), 31, 38, 39
Zande, 39
