UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL EXPERIMENTAL “FRANCISCO DE MIRANDA”

ÁREA DE EDUCACIÓN PROGRAMA DE EDUCACIÓN- MENCIÓN INGLÉS

APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Teaching and Learning

Prof. Julio Reyes

Teaching and learning. Basic conditions for teaching and learning English according to:

Behaviorist, cognitive and constructivist perspectives.

Stephen Krashen’s hypothesis for second language acquisition: Distinction between acquisition and learning, input, monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses. Swain’s output hypothesis and Long’s interaction hypothesis.

Teaching and Learning

Prof. Julio Reyes

To help somebody learn something by giving information about it. Oxford Dictionary

Teaching

Learning

To gain knowledge or skill by studying, from experience, from being taught, etc.

Oxford Dictionary

Prof. Julio Reyes

Behaviorism

Behaviorism was the dominant learning theory in the first half of the 20th Century.

It is an approach to psychology and learning that emphasizes observable measurable behaviour.

It focuses only on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities.

It defines learning as a more or less permanent change in behavior.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Behaviorism

Role of

Teacher

Is active in providing stimuli and prompting the correct response,

reinforcement, drilling. Views errors as not enough conditioning. Without repetition and proper conditioning,

students will make mistakes.

Learner

Is viewed as a receiver; passively adapting to their

environment.

Memory

Is not specifically addressed. Practicing habits maintains a

learner's readiness to respond, disuse results in "forgetting" over

time.

Environment

It is the most critical factor, meaning the arrangement of

stimuli and consequences within the environment. The

instruction focuses on conditioning the learner's

behaviour.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Behaviorism

Prof. Julio Reyes

Two of the most famous experiments on behaviorism: The "Dog Salivation Experiment" by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. The "Skinner Box" experiment with pigeons by B.F. Skinner.

Cognitivism

Is a theory which attempts to answer how and why people learn by attributing the process to cognitive activity. The cognitivists’ quarrel with the behaviorists was that their focus on observable behavior did not account for what was going on in the mind.

Learning is a change in individuals' mental structures enabling them to show changes in behavior.

It focuses on the thought process behind the behavior; what is in the learner's head coupled with the behavior.

Knowledge is the organization of a set of mental structures and problem-solving processes that the learner manipulates and restructures in response to new information and experience.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Cognitivism

Role of

Teacher

Assists the learner's application of the proper learning strategies. View errors

as unsuccessful attempts to understand, order and act upon their environment in ways that make sense

to them.

Learner

Is viewed as an active member in the learning

process.

Memory

Some concepts in first grade need to be

memorized and practiced.

Environment

The environment supports the internal processes of

learning.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Constructivism

Is a theory in which each individual has a unique concept of things based on personal experience. These concepts are extremely subjective and very personal.

Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows. It happens when the experiences grow.

It focuses on teacher – student interaction. Student´s background knowledge. Focuses on higher order cognitive skills of analysis, reflection, and synthesis

Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Constructivism

Role of

Teacher

Is interactive, a facilitator, guide, gives cognitive support, open minded, assesses the learner individually.

Learner

Takes responsibility for his own learning. Creates his own meaning. Learns new ways to learn.

Memory

Importance in past experience rather than

memory.

Environment

Emphasizes on collaboration and exchange of ideas, in

order to promote social and communication skills.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Prof. Julio Reyes

Prof. Julio Reyes

• Stephen Krashen’s hypothesis for second language acquisition: Distinction between acquisition and learning, input, monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses. Swain’s output hypothesis and Long’s interaction hypothesis.

• Contributors to behaviorism, cognitivism, & constructivism. • Pros and cons of these theories. • What types of learning are best explained by these theories? • How should learning be evaluated? • Shaping, Chaining, Discrimination learning, Fading, Modelling, Reinforcement, Stimulus, Conditioning, Repetition (Drilling), Transfer, (Cognitive) Scaffolding, Zone of Proximal Development.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Krashen´s Hypothesis for SLA

• Stephen Krashen’s hypothesis for second language acquisition: Distinction between acquisition and learning, input, monitor, affective filter and natural order hypotheses. Swain’s output hypothesis and Long’s interaction hypothesis.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis

According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance:

'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'

Prof. Julio Reyes

The “acquired system” or “acquisition” • It is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language (informally). • It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.

Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis

The “learned system” or “learning” • It is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. • According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis

Prof. Julio Reyes

Distinction between Acquisition and Learning Hypothesis

Today we are

going to

acquire the

Enhlish

Language.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Input Hypothesis

This hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'.

The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence; that is, comprehensible for him/her (comprehensible imput).

Learner

Teacher

Stage “i”

“i + 1”

Prof. Julio Reyes

Learner

Teacher

Stage “i”

“i + 1”

Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Input Hypothesis

Prof. Julio Reyes

Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor hypothesis posits that acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally, acquisition "initiates" our utterances in a second language and is responsible for our fluency; while learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor, or editor. Learning comes into play only to make changes in the form of our utterance, after is has been "produced" by the acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after (self-correction). The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning, play only a limited role in second language performance.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Second language performers can use conscious rules (monitor themselves) only when three conditions are met. These conditions are necessary and not sufficient, that is, a performer may not fully utilize his conscious grammar even when all three conditions are met: (i) Time (to think about and use conscious rules effectively). (ii) Focus on form (to think about correctness ). (iii) Know the rule (learn the rules).

Monitor Hypothesis

Prof. Julio Reyes

Monitor Hypothesis

Individual variation in Monitor use

Some of the individual variation we see in adult second language

acquisition and performance can be accounted for in terms of

differential use of the conscious Monitor.

Studies of case histories suggest that there may be three types of

performer (Krashen,1978):

(i) Monitor Over-users.

(ii) Monitor Under-users.

(iii) The Optimal Monitor user.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Monitor Hypothesis

(i) Monitor Over-users

• People who attempt to Monitor all the time.

• Performers who are constantly checking their output with their conscious knowledge of the second language.

• As a result, such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in the middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Monitor Hypothesis

(ii) Monitor Under-users

• These are performers who have not learned, or if they have learned, prefer not to use their conscious knowledge, even when conditions allow it. • Underusers are typically uninfluenced by error correction, can self-correct only by using a "feel" for correctness (e.g. "it sounds right"), and rely completely on the acquired system.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Monitor Hypothesis

(iii) The Optimal Monitor user

• Performers who use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication. • Many optimal users will not use grammar in ordinary conversation, where it might interfere. (Some very skilled performers, such as some professional linguists and language teachers, might be able to get away with using considerable amounts of conscious knowledge in conversation) • In writing, and in planned speech, however, when there is time, optimal users will

typically make whatever corrections they can to raise the accuracy of their output.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Affective Filter Hypothesis

This hypothesis stablished that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Natural Order Hypothesis

Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.

The Natural Order hypothesis suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late.

This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Natural Order Hypothesis

Prof. Julio Reyes

Swain claims that "sometimes, under some conditions, output facilitates second language learning in ways that are different form, or enhance, those of input" (Swain and Lapkin, 1995, p. 371).

Swain´s Output Hypothesis

Swain’s claims that one way for a language learner to acquire or learn a new language is for them to produce language that “makes sense”.

The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the right form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Long´s Interaction Hypothesis

This hypothesis states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication. There are two forms of the Interaction Hypothesis: The strong form: is the position that the interaction itself contributes to language development. The weak form: is the position that interaction is simply the way that learners find learning opportunities, whether or not they make productive use of them.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Long’s Interaction Hypothesis

Similarly to Krashen's input hypothesis, the interaction hypothesis claims that comprehensible input is important for language learning. The effectiveness of comprehensible input is greatly increased when learners have to negotiate for meaning. This occurs when there is a breakdown in communication which interlocutors attempt to overcome. One of the participants in a conversation will say something that the other does not understand; the participants will then use various communicative strategies to help the interaction progress. The strategies used when negotiating meaning may include slowing down speech, speaking more deliberately, requests for clarification or repair of speech, or paraphrases.

Prof. Julio Reyes

Prof. Julio Reyes

Prof. Julio Reyes

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