Date post: | 13-Sep-2015 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | koomi-logan |
View: | 229 times |
Download: | 9 times |
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Copyright Regulations 1969
WARNING
This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the University of Sydney pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.
Do not remove this notice.
Environment, climate & sea-level changes
Routes of colonisation
Potential methods of travel
Archaeological / chronological patterns of colonisation
Early human behaviour 3
Period of colonisation - time of rapid environmental change
Globally cooling and marked environmental instability
People had to cope with:
Variability in resource density / distribution
At times new opportunities enabling colonisation, others resource base drastically declined
Level of climatic / environmental instability would have had a direct impact
4
Composition of worlds oceans indicative of climate change
Oxygen isotopes reflects warm vs. cold conditions (e.g. ice sheet melting
Last glacial cycle = 120,000 years
5
Last interglacial climate similar to today
Recent millennia warm conditions
Sea-levels varied throughout Pleistocene & Holocene
Changes relate to expansion / contraction of northern continental ice sheets
70 kyr - ocean dropped to ~80m below current levels
Exposed land in the Arafura Sea, joining Australia & New Guinea
6
Temps 6-100 lower, much of earths water trapped in polar ice sheets
Pleistocene Sahul added 2.5 million sq km
Land bridges connected New Guinea, Australia & Tasmania
Covered 11 million sq km = sub-Saharan Africa
Exposed land tropical savannah & woodland
7
8
Puritjarra 35(40)ka
Huon Terraces 52ka
Kosipe 37(41)ka
Genetic & archaeological evidence spread of Homo sapiens ~50 100,000 BP into India & Asia
Extension of global dispersal language users with good problem solving skills (e.g. large water crossings)
9
10
>46,000 BP
Hunting large river fish, arboreal primates, pig, large monitors
Exploiting poisonous tubers & nuts
Sago use
Bamboo & rattan processing
Likely early forest burning after 50kya
11
38-42,000 BP
Tuna in deposits >42kya deep sea fishing
Radial core technology (not pebble tools)
Shell beads & shell fishhooks in Pleistocene levels
12
52-61,000 BP
Flight of raised coral terraces, tectonic uplift
Each terrace fronted lagoons & reef
Flaked, ground & waisted stone axes - found throughout northern Australia & Melanesia (>~40kyr)
Is 45,000 BP the minimum or maximum age?
Early colonisation (long chronology) model
Colonisation between 50 & 60,000 BP e.g. Jones; Thorne
Based on Luminescence dating by association
13
Late colonisation (short chronology) model
Colonisation ~45,000 BP e.g. Allen & OConnell
Based on radiocarbon estimates & interpretation of significant disturbance
Key sites estimates close to or more than 40,000 BP - distributed across the continent
14
15
Malakunanja - one of the few deep & continuous stratigraphic sequences?
Allen & OConnell question this for a number of reasons:
They extend the known time span by 10 15,000 years
Absence of complimentary evidence
Strength of association with cultural material suspect (disturbance etc)
Inconsistencies between C14, AMS & TL ages
16
More important issues:
Absence of comparative control on TL dates older than 24,000 BP
A possible hiatus in accumulation between 190 230 cm
Sharp variations in accumulation rates
These relate to how the archaeological & radiometric data was interpreted
17
45 (38-52) kyr
52 (46-60) kyr 61 (51-71) kyr
18
OSL dating of sediments returned ages of 45 50,000 BP at level of lowest artefact
Allen & OConnell argued for the effects of post-depositional movement & animal disturbance
19
Animal burrows -only upper units
Shawcross mapped vertical distances between conjoined artefacts
Reflects position of original land surface - no vertical displacement
Age estimates of 45 50 kyr appear quite robust
20
2 major routes with several terminating options
Reduced ocean distances comparatively larger / closer target
21 Sahul
Sunda
Wallacean Archipelago
But Sahul separated from southeast Asia by major biogeographic barrier the Wallacean Archipelago
Northern route: Sunda shelf Sulawesi Birds Head / Aru Islands
All terminating options involve water crossings of 65km or more
22
South: southern China Timor Sahul shelf / Aru Islands
Seen as more attractive option initially shorter distances
But, more than 65km in terminal stages
23
Wallacea not investigated in enough detail
People came across from the northwest the exact route remains open to conjecture more evidence needed
Either route requires island hopping with open water travel:
8 17 separate substantial crossings
Both with 1 leg >65km
At least 3 legs >30km
24
Routes originally proposed by Joseph Birdsell (1977)
Trace the shortest possible water crossings available
Target height visibility of islands measured by elevation
Target width measured as island width 25
Colonisation required watercraft & the technology to build them
Some looked to historical records as a technological analogy
Bark canoes
Dugout & outrigger canoes
Others suggest more sophisticated vessels were used
26
Archaeological evidence for early watercraft is scarce
But the idea of technologically & culturally unsophisticated people is difficult to sustain
Consider the extent & success of migrations by capable & highly adaptable people across large areas to this point
27
Maritime capabilities may not have needed to take the shortest, easiest route
Distribution of resources (acknowledged by Birdsell)
Complications / competition for resources by other hominid species
28
How did people disperse across the continent after arriving in Australia?
This is something that could have been achieved in a number of ways:
Radiating or saturated settlement model
Coastal colonisation model
The well watered regions first model
29
The Saturated Settlement Model
Birdsell (1957) - uniform & rapid distribution, 1,300 - 2,200 years to settle entire continent
Idea that people were adapted to maritime lifestyle e.g. coastal zone of island southeast Asia
Population increase forced rapid changes in culture & technology = people exploiting inland resources
30
>40,000
40,000- present
Coastal colonisation or marginal settlement model
Bowdler (1970s) - argued people stayed with familiar settlement & subsistence patterns
As people moved through southeast Asia along coast & across islands economic continuation
Only occupied the interior when sea-level rise forced them off the coastal plains ~12,000 BP
31
>40,000
40,000-12,000
12,000-present
Well watered regions first
Horton (1981) - people moved along well-watered areas first + large stretches of coast avoiding major barrier deserts
Still suggests that people largely avoided large areas of the inland until much later
32
Secondary route of desert migration
Primary route of coastal colonisation
Many Pleistocene sites found during the 1960s - 1970s were close to the present coastline
Several sites found in inland areas that could not have been occupied by coastally-focused people
33
Evidence now suggests relatively rapid settlement
Counters marginal settlement models, small founding population, & the idea of simple culture / technology
Suggestion that the archaeological evidence provides a minimum age for arrival of humans
The oldest irrefutable evidence represents a time after colonisation
If people occupied these sites 45 50,000 years ago this is the latest colonisation could have occurred and is the minimum age
34
Colonisation is considered by some to be older than 45,000 5,000 years
This is an age generally accepted by most, even the conservative, for sites like Malakunanja & Lake Mungo
It is possible people landed on the continental shelf 45-50kyr; more likely between 50-60kyr??
The evidence we have might represent expansion from areas of initial colonisation away from coasts into higher areas
35
36
Quite a lot of debate surrounding timing of initial colonisation
Less so when dealing with what people did once in Australia
Difficulty of building broad interpretations:
Chronological issues are central to the investigation of Pleistocene occupation;
Little material / sparse evidence available from the earliest periods of occupation;
37
Arid zone research by Smith (Central Australia), Hiscock (northwest Queensland) & Veth (Western Desert)
Distinct changes in landscape use with environment & climate change
No single or general pattern of occupation in these areas
38
A number of sites in the arid zone not occupied during the LGM
Localised abandonment in:
Lake Eyre Basin & Strzelecki Desert
Nullarbor Plain (near Allens Cave)
Central Australian Ranges
Sandy Desert
Size of abandoned area not clear some regions completely abandoned others partially
May have been gradual succession of retreat 39
Peter Veths Islands in the Interior model
Based on ecological principles, biogeographic models & archaeological evidence
Model is compatible on a broad scale with the available evidence
At a finer scale, there is greater variability
40
Barrier: major sand-ridge deserts
Refuge: uplands & riverine / gorge systems coordinated drainage
Corridor: all other areas (e.g. gibber plains
41
Puritjarra rockshelter, Central Australia - example of LGM territorial re-organisation
Smith argues for resident regional population on archaeological & palaeoenvironmental grounds
Interpretation of periodic & regular use, although at lower population densities
42
43
Interpretations based on:
Chronological patterns
Changes in artefact discard rates
Structure of the stone artefacts assemblage
Long-term ecology & biogeography
Contraction of territory during LGM - focus on the predictable resources closer to the shelter
44
Within this general pattern, several phases of economic re-organisation
Stone & ochre from different sources were variably exploited at different times
Karrku ochre (150km NW) used from 30,000 BP
Ulpanyali ochre (65km S) dominates during LGM
Reduced risk - local & readily available resources 45
The Puritjarra interpretations contrast well with the evidence from Kulpi Mara (~120km SE)
Thorley interprets chronology & sequence of artefact discard = sporadic use of the Palmer River catchment responding to short-term environmental variability
46
Most artefacts accumulated between first occupation (~35,000 BP) & 24,000 BP
24,000 - 12,000 BP - low rates of sedimentation / artefact discard - increasing aridity
Absence of occupation during the LGM
Several phases of local abandonment
Possibly correlated with deteriorating climatic conditions
47
Differences might relate to availability of water
Kulpi Mara - water - constrained seasonally / chronologically
Short-term movement in & out of the area with localised environmental changes
Puritjarra located close to semi-permanent & ephemeral waters
Resident population - LGM possible - very low intensity
48
Number of sites in upland valleys that date close to 40,000 BP
Archaeological record indicates people entered Tasmania 37-39,000 years ago
Behaviour changed in response to environmental/social conditions
49
Evidence comes from 40 rockshelters & open sites with exceptional preservation
50
Warreen Cave: 34,780 18,290 BP
ORS 7: 30,840 2,500 BP
Nunamira Cave: 30,420 11,630 BP
Acheron Cave: 29,800 13,410 BP
Bone Cave: 29,000 13,700 BP
Kutikina Cave: 19,770 14,840 BP
Patterns of faunal exploitation also tells us about use of the area, especially during the LGM
Studies have focussed on species distribution, body part representation & seasonality subsistence strategies
51
Dominant prey species was Bennetts wallaby around 70% of fauna recovered from excavated sites
Marrow substitute for carbohydrates high densities of long bones
52
Pleistocene vegetation limited & fertile grassland patches surrounded by low shrub & heath
Attractive to Bennetts wallaby unlike larger macropods this species congregates in large numbers
Sedentary animals with a small range (15-20 hectares) moving less than 30m every 2-3 years 53
Cosgrove - Deliberately scheduled, short-term & regular use during LGM
Size/age structure, growth rates & breeding seasons of Bennetts wallaby populations (teeth) Autumn & late winter / early spring exploitation
This was the coldest period of each year!! 54
55
Pleistocene economies changed through time & space
Climatic oscillation cycle of change every 3,000 years
Southeast Tasmania drier conditions meant less predictable resources encounter based hunting
Central & southwest Tasmania as conditions changed, economic strategy = southeast, or region abandoned
56
Antiquity & diversity of ideology & social meaning in Pleistocene Australia
Grave goods e.g. shells in some Kow Swamp burials
Differences in the treatment of individual bodies, such cremation or interment
57
The burial of the WLH3 individual from Lake Mungo is significant as one of the earliest burials known Australia
~42,000 BP (60kyr also proposed)
Example of the early social use of red ochre associated with rituals, as well as burial rituals
Dark red staining noted in a wide distribution around the skeleton
Red staining interpreted as scattering red ochre over the body in the prepared grave
58
WLH1 - individual cremated as a complete & fully fleshed corpse - dates to ~42,000 BP
After burning remains were broken - especially the skull
Ash & broken bones were gathered & placed in a small hole beneath, or immediately beside the funeral pyre
59
The interesting thing is the antiquity of compound burial practices
More simple burials are known across the world
Compound processes of disposal of the dead are less well documented until the more recent past
The Mungo cremation is still the oldest known cremation in the world
60
Further evidence for social meaning from several Pleistocene sites
Ornaments of shell & stone recovered from deposits in Western Australia
Mandu Mandu Creek
Devils Lair
Riwi 61
Mandu Mandu Creek - ochre fragments estimated to be more than 37,000 years old
22 perforated & shaped cone shells - strung on thread
Abrasion on inside surface of perforations possibly from thread - shells selected for similar size and shapes
Later Pleistocene layers - Pearl shell, tusk shell & ochre - all materials associated with decorative items
62
Devils Lair - three beads on polished macropod fibulae - dates between 12,000 and 19,000 BP
Associated with stone artefacts & mammal remains
A perforated piece of stone also interpreted as a Pleistocene ornament - possible pendant on fibre string
63
Riwi - ten beads of tusk shell in layer about 34,000 BP
Shell possibly strung by fibre - part of which preserved on the end of one of the beads - beads with ochre residue
Riwi beads made from exotic material - transported ~ 300 km
Consistent with either individuals travelling across large territories or obtaining shells through exchange networks
64
Body ornaments form non-verbal communication that might indicate social value or difference
May have conveyed social information, such as signifying status or membership, gender or marital status or wealth
Context where population size and/or social interaction made visual communication of identity & relationships useful
Movement of rare materials over large distances indicates early operation of widespread social networks involving exchange
65
We see a high degree of variability & levels of complexity through a number of different lines of evidence across Pleistocene Australasia
We have evidence for rapid dispersal across virtually all environmental zones on the continent following initial occupation
People modified elements of their settlement and subsistence strategies to suit the environments they were living in
66
The evidence we have for social, ideological and ritual meaning is relatively ephemeral & difficult to interpret
But we have enough evidence to suggest that the belief systems of the Pleistocene were also dynamic
The available evidence suggests that Pleistocene occupation in Australia cant be defined as simple or conservative!
67
68
Slide Number 1ARCA1000 Early HumansKey IssuesEnvironmental ContextClimate & Sea LevelsSlide Number 6Slide Number 7Timing of ColonisationSlide Number 9Niah CaveJerimalaiHuon PeninsulaLong vs. Short ChronologySlide Number 14Malakunanja IISlide Number 16Slide Number 17Lake MungoSlide Number 19Slide Number 20Colonisation RoutesSlide Number 22Slide Number 23Slide Number 24Slide Number 25Watercraft?Slide Number 27What we dont know Australian Settlement ModelsSlide Number 30Slide Number 31Slide Number 32Slide Number 33ImplicationsImplicationsSlide Number 36Early Occupation in AustraliaSettlement of Inland AustraliaSlide Number 39Slide Number 40Slide Number 41Puritjarra & Kulpi MaraSlide Number 43Slide Number 44Slide Number 45Slide Number 46Slide Number 47Slide Number 48TasmaniaSlide Number 50Slide Number 51Slide Number 52Slide Number 53Slide Number 54Slide Number 55Slide Number 56Ritualistic Burial PracticesSlide Number 58Slide Number 59Slide Number 60Pleistocene OrnamentationSlide Number 62Slide Number 63Slide Number 64Slide Number 65Pleistocene AustralasiaPleistocene AustralasiaSlide Number 68