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SCIENCE COMMUNICATION
Week 5
Dr. Edlic SathiamurthyNo. 6, Annex. FST
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Week Lecture Activities Hour
1 Introduction 15 minutes 2
- ourse a m an o ec ves
-Course focus
-Instruction and assessment method etc.
*
essay on course
objectives
Form groups and
person2 Fundamentals of Communication 5msp 3
-
-Ethics
3 Practical Aspect of Communication – 1 5msp 3-
4 Practical Aspect of Communication – 2
- How to design a poster
Designing a poster
exercise
3
os er op c5 Scientific research methodology – 1
-Qualitative and quantitative
5msp 3
- n uct ve an e uct ve approac
-Research process-Research design
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•
• What is the difference between scientific-
• Is scientific research confined to scienceson y ow a ou soc a s u es
• What is methodology?
• So… what is scientific researchmethodolo ?
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•
using scientific method
• Read the following article and identify keypo n s a ou sc en c me o
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Basic Research Principles
• Research
–
– Calls attention to theories that may be helpfulin r i in f r x ri n
– Performed in many arenas and may be done
in a variet of wa s
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Basic Research Principles
• Two types of research - basic and applied
• B i r r h
– The investigator is not concerned with theimmediate applicability of his results butrather he or she tries to look for
understanding of natural processes• – The investigator has some kind of application
some way contribute to society
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Basic Research Principles
• Research Methodology
–
• Quantitative• Qualitative
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Basic Research Principles
• Research Methodology
–
• Describes events, persons and so forth without theuse of numerical data
• Consists of interviews, observations and written
documents•
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Basic Research Principles
• Research Methodology
–
• Uses numbers, to describe the study, includingsome comparisons of the population and statisticalanalysis to describe the results
• Consists of observations, experiments and surveys
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Source: Gauch, 2003
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• Rational thinking in science – based on logic or
• Inductive and deductive logic are appliedscientific research approach (quantitative andqualitative)
• Reason is based on evidence and proof data
• Reliable data is gathered from objective
measurement using a systematic way orscientific method
• ….a limitation to scientific reasoning
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•
• Can you proof God exists?
• s sc ence at e st c ntr ns ca y
• Some fundamentally flawed scientificrationalism
• There is NO truth in science onl
probability at varying levels
• , ,
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Inductive lo ic• Argues from the real world to the mind• a e conc us ons rom o serve p enomena• Example:
– – observed has a heart
– Conclusion – Every donkey has a heart • Problems:
– How man observations are needed to form a stron
conclusion? – Can we observe every case or phenomenon? –
form of bias?
– How about our perception?
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Deductive lo ic• The opposite of inductive logic – argues from the mind to
the real world
• Make conclusions concerning a phenomenon based ona tested assumption or hypothesis•
– Premise 1: Every mammal has a heart
– Premise 2: Every donkey is a mammal – • Basis of mathematics• Problems:
• Can it be purely imagination without real existence?• How valid is the hypothesis or assumption?• How man tests t es of arameters and observations
are needed to support a conclusion?
• How sure are we that they are relevant?
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Inductive
Deductive
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Basic Research Principles
• Research Process
– Define the problem
–
– Design the research
– o ec e a a
– Analyze the data
– raw onc us ons
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Basic Research Principles
• Define the problem – Forming a question regarding a topic you would like to study
•study
– Often an analysis of historical data, or secondary information,has gone into the problem definition
• Looking at the past to see what has been done before
• Prevents “reinventing the wheel”
• In previous research, the investigator may have made
– Problems may also be broken down into sub-problems orsmaller problems
– -
included in the study
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Basic Research Principles
• Review the literature
– An investigation of all the information about a topic
– Three reasons for Literature Review• Has research already been done to answer your question?
• re ere any a a sources you can use n your s u y
• May help make your hypothesis more specific
• Sources of revious work – Journals, books, position papers, conference
presentations, videos, interviews and online
su scr pt on serv ces
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
• Several t es of research desi n
– Exploratory – Historical
– Conclusive
• Includes descriptive and causal
– orre a ona
– Evaluation
–
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Exploratory research
• Undertaken because a problem is not very clearly defined
• Allows the researcher to study the problem and gatherinformation about the problem
• May generate a hypothesis
• Generally informal and relies on literature review and
informal discussions with others in order to find out moreabout a problem
• This type of research may not help you answer your problembut rather ma rovide ou with some insi hts to the roblem
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Historical research
• Involves investigation and analysis of events of thepast
• This type of research does not focus solely on thepast, but it also allows the researcher to apply a
revious researcher’s ex eriences and conclusions from their study into currentprofessional practice
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Conclusive research
• Performed in order to come to some sort ofconclusion or help in decision making
• May be done using primary research
– Data collected specifically for your study; or
– Includes a literature review to see if previous studies canbe used to answer your question
– ay a so nc u e summar es o pas wor s
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Conclusive research
• There are two types of conclusive research: – Descriptive research
– Causal research
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Conclusive research
• Descriptive research - also called statisticalresearch
– Provides data about the population you are studying,including the frequency that something occurs
– The two most common collection techniques ofdescriptive research are observations and surveys
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Conclusive research
• Causal research - tries to answer questions aboutwhat causes certain things to occur
– This type of research is difficult because there mayalways be an additional cause to consider
– Uses experimentation and simulation as its datacollection methods
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Correlational research
• Studies that try to discover a relationship between variables
– Variable - anything under study
• The strength of the relationshi is measured
– There may be a positive relationship or a negative relationship
between variables
• This type of research only determines if there is arelationship between two or more variables
– It does not determine the cause of those relationships
– Uses questionnaires, observations and secondary data as its
data collection methods
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Evaluation research
• A process used to determine what has happenedduring a given activity
• The purpose of evaluation is to lead to betterunderstanding of whether a program is effective,
whether a olic is workin or if somethin that was agreed upon is the most cost-effective way ofdoing something
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Basic Research Principles
• Design the research and Collect the data
– Experimental research• Entails manipulation of a situation in some way in
order to test a hypothesis
•independent or experimental variable ismanipulated
•dependent variables
– Independent variables are the factors that researchers
– Dependent variables are the measured variables
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Basic Research Principles
• Statement of the Hypothesis – In formal research, a hypothesis is formed
– A statement of the predicted relationship of what the
researcher is studying – A ro osed solution or ex lanation at which the
researcher has arrived through the review of theliterature
– –
– The statement of the hypothesis is important becauseit allows the researcher to think about the variables to
nc u e n e s u y an ype o researc es gn ouse in the study
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Basic Research Principles
• Statement of the Hypothesis
–
be positive or negative (correct or incorrect)• If the h othesis is re ected, that is, incorrect, it
does not necessarily mean that the research ispoor, but only that the results are different from
– The formulation of the hypothesis in advancef h - h rin r i n r f r
an unbiased investigation
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Basic Research Principles
• Statement of the Hypothesis
–
• The null hypothesis – This hypothesis states that there is no difference
between the population means or proportions that arebeing compared; or that there is no association between
the two variables that are being compared – For example, in a clinical trial of a new medication, the
null hypothesis is: The new medication is no better thanthe current medication
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Basic Research Principles
• Statement of the Hypothesis• The alternative h othesis
– This hypothesis is a statement of what the study is set upto establish
– , alternative hypothesis is: The new medication is betterthan the current medication
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data
–
• Data you get from observations, surveys andinterviews
– Includes secondary research
• Literature review or summaries of original studies – Irrespective of the data collection method the
research must be valid and reliable
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data – Validit
• The degree to which scientific observationsactually measure or record what they purport to
• For example, if you are using a written
questionnaire to collect data, the researcher will- , ,have included in their population to complete inorder to determine if the instrument is well written,
looking for
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data – Reliabilit
• The repeatability, including interpersonreplicability, of scientific observations
,researcher reproduce the study using a similar
instrument and get similar results? – A study may be reliable but not valid
– That is, the study may be able to be’,
research question
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B i R h P i i l
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data – De ends on the t e of research the
investigator wishes to conduct
– For example, if the researcher want toes a s a causa re a ons p, ey s ouconduct one of the experimental studies
– understood area of practice, they may want toconsider an exploratory study in a qualitative
design
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B i R h P i i l
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data – Surve s
• Gathers data from a relatively large number ofcases at a particular time
– The questions should be well thought out to be sure to
answer the question of the research study
– -
» The investigator only wants certain answers
» Provide for unanticipated response by providing an“ ”
other thoughts
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B i R h P i i l
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data
–
• Questionnaire surveys – The questions can be unrestricted - open ended
» This allows the participant to express a freerresponse in his own words
» These questionnaires can be difficult to tabulate,however, they are easier to write
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B i R h P i i l
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data
–
• Instead of asking a participant questions, theinvestigator observes the participant
– Non-participant observation, the examiner is a neutralobserver who does not interact with the participants
– Participant observation, the researcher may alsoparticipant in the actions being observed, however theytry to maintain their objectivity
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data
–
• Ethnography or Naturalistic Inquiry – The researcher observes, listens to, and sometimes
converses with the subjects in as free and natural anatmosphere as possible
– The assumption is that the most important behavior ofindividuals in groups is a dynamic process of complexinteractions and consists of more than a set of facts,statistics, or even discrete incidents
– A position of neutrality is important in this type ofresearch
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Collect the Data
–
• This provides a logical, systematic way to answerthe question, “If this is done under carefullycontrolled conditions, what will happen?”
• Experimentation is a sophisticated technique for
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Selecting an Instrument
– The instrument, also called a tool, is a consistent wayto collect data
– There are many different types of instruments to use
– ou e purpose o e researc
– Researchers should not develop an instrument until
the have established that one does not alread exist – If you decide to develop your own instrument take
your time in developing the questions
• It would be too costly and time consuming to have to repeat asurvey because you neglected a question or two
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Samples
– The selection of subjects for the study
– For example, if your study concerns healthinformation departments in the United States, you
the United States, (this, by the way is referred to as a
census , as you are including all of the population)• That would not be very practical and could be very costly and
time consuming
• The next best thing is a sample
– When chosen correctly samples are considered to berepresentative of the population
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Samples
–
• Two types of sampling techniques – Probability sampling
– Non-probability sampling
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Probability Samples – Simple Random Sample (SRS)
•that every individual has an equal chance of being selected
• The simplest way to select a sample is to place names in a hat (thepopulation) and draw out a handful (the sample)
• Statistics books also include a table of random numbers that can beused for the selection of random samples
• Systematic random sampling
– A s stematic attern is used with random sam lin – For example, let’s say you are choosing a list of discharged patients
from the last month, you choose the first patient randomly, then chooseevery fifth patient (or whatever number you choose) thereafter
– In this sam le the choice of the first atient determines the others
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Probability Samples
–
• First divide the population into groups of similarindividuals, called strata
• Then choose a separate SRS in each stratum andcombine these SRSs to form the full sample
• ,by gender, by patients with private insurance andthose without or separating hospitals by bed size
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Probability Samples
–
• The population is selected from groups or clusters• For exam le, let’s sa our stud includes health
information practitioners working in large cities
– We would choose the cities first – the cluster
– practitioners
– This is called Two-stage cluster sampling
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Non-probability Samples - Almost all qualitativeresearch methods rely on this type of sampling
– Judgment Sampling
• The researcher relies on his or her own judgment to select
• For example, let’s say you are performing a study ontranscription departments in acute care hospitals that use an
– There are a number of large hospitals as well as small andmedium sized hospitals using an incentive plan
– In a ud ment sam lin the researcher decides which hos itals
to use in the groups
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Non-probability Samples
– Quota Sampling
• The population is first divided as in stratified sampling
• Then the researcher uses his or her own judgment to selectthe number of sub ects based on a s ecified ro ortion
• Using our example of transcription departments that use anincentive plan to pay employees
– incentive program and 50 are not, you may choose to performyour study on 20 of the hospitals as that would be 20% of thetotal population of hospitals in your state
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Non-probability Samples – Convenience Sam lin
• The selection is based on availability of thesubjects
,only the hospitals in your city or within a certaindriving distance in order to expedite the study
• ot c ear t s type o samp e s rea yrepresentative of the population
– However, you may be able to get some insights aboutt e quest on you are try ng to answer
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Institutional Review Board (IRB)
–
projects for approval – IRB i h mm n n m n ll
by whatever name an organization chooses
– Pur ose is to ensure that ste s are beintaken by the researcher to protect the rightsand welfare of anyone participating in the
research study
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Basic Research Principles
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Basic Research Principles
• Institutional Review Board
–
procedures before the study is begun – M r ir ri i r vi w rin h
– May approve, revise or deny requests for
research – Research on humans must be done careful to
ensure that subjects are not abused in any
way
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Basic Research Principles
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p
• Institutional Review Board
–
IRB before any research study is started andprepare a plan for the research
• This includes
– Preparing the instrument
– ec ng ow o se ec a samp e
– Deciding how to collect date
– Getting informed consent forms for the subjects to readand sign
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Basic Research Principles
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• Institutional Review Board
–
Committee to ensure that there are no averseeffects on participants
– May recommend closure of research that is
not meeting safety standards, does not havescientific merit or is not meeting the goals ofthe research
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• Sample Size
– The ideal sample is large enough to serve as anadequate representation of the population about
which the researcher wishes to generalize and small
• In terms of subject availability, expense in both time andmoney, and complexity of data analysis
– e arger e samp e, e sma er e magn u e osampling error
– Surve studies ordinaril have a lar er sam le size
then experimental studies
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• Sample Size – If ou mail uestionnaires, our res onse rate
could be a low as 20 to 30 percent so a large
initial sample is recommended – you are p ann ng o ave su groups rom
your population, start out with a large group to
make sure ou have enou h artici ants forthe subgroups
– Subject availability and costs are legitimate
considerations in determining a sample size
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• Analyze the Data
–
data disclose• There are a variet of statistics used to anal zedata
• Most investigators use a variety of techniques to
– Two types of statistical applications are –
Inferential statistics
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• Analyze the Data
–
• These are statistics that describe the data• Includes measures of central tendenc and
measures of variation
– Inferential statistics
• These statistics allow the researchers to makeinferences about the population characteristics
’
• T tests and analysis of variance are examples
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• Analyze the Data
–
• Help the researcher produce descriptive statistics,graphs and charts
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• Draw Conclusions – Any conclusions should be related to the hypothesis,
,identified
– Results for each hypothesis should be described –
data analysis should be reported• For example, our study of transcription departments studied
one cit – this ma be a limitin factor – New hypotheses may be proposed if the data do not
support the original hypotheses – Researchers usuall include tables and ra hs in this
section of the research report to clarify the data
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• How to develop research skills – Take at least one course in statistics and
research methodologies
– Begin to read research studies in professionalourna s o see ow o ers ave per ormetheir research
– researcher on a study to gain experience
– Learn how to resent data effectivel both in
written form and verbally
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• Draw Conclusions
–
what to study• These become su estions for future research
– The researcher should always include
conclusions as to whether or not this problemis better understood or perhaps even resolvedfrom the research
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