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Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Review

Archaeobotanical evidence of millets in the Indian subcontinent withsome observations on their role in the Indus civilization

Anil K. Pokharia a,*, Jeewan Singh Kharakwal b, Alka Srivastava c

aBirbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53 University Road, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, Indiab Institute of Rajasthan Studies, JRN Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur 313 001, IndiacDepartment of Botany, DG (PG) College, Civil Lines, Kanpur 208 001, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 12 June 2013Received in revised form21 November 2013Accepted 28 November 2013

Keywords:ArchaeobotanyIndus civilizationLarge-grained cerealsSmall-grained milletsSeasonalityAdaptation

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 (0)522 2742931;E-mail address: pokharia.anil@gmail.com (A.K. Po

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2013 Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.11.029

a b s t r a c t

An assessment of a good number of archaeological datasets available so far on small-grained millets fromcore (Upper Indus) and peripheral regions of the Indus/Harappan civilization is made to understand theirrole in the ancient crop economy and their diversity and spatial extent in relation to cultural change.Among the millets, sorghum millet from the Early Harappan level (3000e2500 BC) at Kunal (3%) andBanawali (3%), Mature Harappan level (2500e2000 BC) at Banawali (3%) & Rohira (20%) and Late Har-appan level (2000e1400 BC) at Mahorana (6%), Hulas (5%), Sanghol (2%) and Pirak (1%), little millet fromthe Early Harappan (3300e2600 BC; 3.5%), Mature Harappan (2600e1900 BC; 4%) and Late Harappan(1900e1700 BC; 12.5%) levels at Harappa and finger millet (2%) and Italian millet (2%) from the LateHarappan (2000e1200 BC) level at Hulas and Sanghol respectively have been recorded in the core region(Upper Indus). The peripheral region of Harappan civilization shows the dominance of finger milletduring the Mature Harappan (2500e2000 BC) at Rojdi (68%) and the Late Harappan (2000e1800 BC)level at Oriyo Timbo (40%), sorghum (22%) and pearl millet (36%) during the Late Harappan (2100e1700BC) at Kanmer; Italian millet during Late Harappan (2000e1700 BC) at Rojdi (41%), Oriyo Timbo (23%)and Babar Kot (95%), along with little millet (5e19%) and foxtail millet (17e47%). The present datasetsuspects their wider role in the Harappan agricultural system as a whole although they were presentsince the Early Harappan. The shift towards drought-resistant crops in peripheral region is to be inferredas cultural adaptation in response to decline of SW monsoon during the late Holocene (w4 ka), to whichmillets are better suited.

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1. Introduction

The Indian subcontinent shows tremendous variations in itslandforms, climatic patterns, rainfall, floral and faunal composition,soil types, and diverse agricultural systems, coupled with culturalvariability (Kajale, 1991). Recently, the knowledge of early humanhas grown rapidly on subsistence strategy with the excavations ofseveral sites in different regions. The crops introduced from mul-tiple regions such asWest Asia (barley, wheat, lentil, field pea, chickpea, grass pea, linseed, safflower and fenugreek), Eurasia (Italianmillet and proso millet) and Africa (ragi/finger millet, bajra/pearlmillet, jowar/sorghum millet and cow pea), along with indigenousones (rice, kodomillet, little millet, foxtail millet, green/black gram,horse gram, pigeon pea, Indian mustard, sesame and cotton),played a significant role in the agricultural economy of the

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subcontinent. However, until recent times not much informationhas been generated concerning the diffusion and cultural changeon the physical environment and maneplant relationships incontext to the cultural history of Indian subcontinent. Therefore,there is an utmost need of concerted approach to unravel the cropeconomy in relation to cultural shifts, which have been largelyinfluenced by the climate change in the past. Hence, an attempt ismade to resolve the issue in relation to Indus civilization throughthe re-assessment of the work carried out earlier.

The Indus or Harappan civilization, one of the great urbanriverine civilizations of the world, flourished between 3200 and1900 BC (Khan, 1992; Possehl, 2002a; Kenoyer, 2008; Weber et al.,2010a). It extended from Sutkagen-Dore (western-most MakranCoast, Pakistan and near the present-day frontier with Iran) in thewest to Alamgirpur (Sharanpur District, U.P., India) in the east(Possehl, 2002b). Its northern most sites at Manda (Jammu andKashmir, India) and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) mark thesouthern boundary (Fig. 1). About 1500 sites are known to occur inan ecologically diverse environment. These range from village

Fig. 1. Distribution of Harappan sites in domains of the Indus civilization (modified after Possehl, 1996, 2002b).

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455 443

farming communities to large cities with thousands of people(Weber et al., 2010a,b). The socio-political, economic and envi-ronmental conditions that existed during the Indus civilization arestill discussed among the archaeologists, archaeobotanists andQuaternary scientists (Weber, 2003). Extensive models of agricul-tural diversity based on carbonized remains were made fromarchaeological sites in domains of Indus civilization such as Rohira(Saraswat, 1986), Mahorana (Saraswat, 1991), Rojdi (Weber, 1991),Hulas (Saraswat, 1993), Oriyo Timbo and Babar Kot (Reddy, 1994),Banawali (Saraswat, 1995), Sanghol (Saraswat, 1997), Balu(Saraswat and Pokharia, 2002), Kunal (Saraswat and Pokharia,2003), Kanmer (Pokharia et al., 2011) and Farmana (Weber et al.,2011) in India and Pirak (Costantini, 1979), Miri Qalat (Tengberg,1999) and Harappa (Weber, 2003) in Pakistan. Agriculture basedon double cropping (rabi & kharif) was extensively and intensivelypracticed throughout the region, and played important role in therise and characterization of the civilization. The available evidencesuggests that both winter (barley, wheat, field-pea, lentil, chick-pea, grass-pea, linseed, Indian mustard) and summer crops (rice,millets, green/black gram, horse-gram, sesame, cotton) were a partof the agricultural systems broadly during the Early (3000e2500

BC), Mature (2500e2000 BC) and Late Harappan (2000e1200 BC)phases in the core zone or Upper Indus (Costantini, 1979; Saraswat,1986, 1991,1993, 1995, 1997; Tengberg, 1999; Saraswat andPokharia, 2002, 2003; Weber, 2003; Weber et al., 2011). In theperipheral zone the Early Harappan (2850e2600 BC) revealedcultivation of winter crops (barley, wheat and pea), the MatureHarappan (2600e2100 BC) showed the cultivation of winter andsummer crops, while the Late Harappan period (2100e1700 BC)dominated the drought-resistant small-grained millets (Weber,1991; Reddy, 1994; Pokharia et al., 2011). “Millets” are regardedto have greatly influenced the early agricultural system and had acritical impact on the subsistence economy of the Harappans(Possehl, 1980, 1986; Meadow, 1989, 1996; Weber and Fuller, 2008;Weber et al., 2010b). In the core zone (Upper Indus), sorghum wasrecorded from the Early Harappan (3000e2500 BC) at Kunal andBanawali, Mature Harappan (2500e2000 BC) at Banawali andRohira and Late Harappan (2000e1400 BC) at Mahorana, Hulas,Sanghol and Pirak, little millet from Early, Mature and Late Har-appan levels at Harappa (3300e1700 BC) and finger millet andItalian millet from the Late Harappan (2000e1200 BC) level atHulas and Sanghol respectively (Costantini, 1979; Saraswat, 1986,

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455444

1991,1993,1995,1997; Saraswat and Pokharia, 2003;Weber, 2003).The peripheral region of Harappan civilization shows the domi-nance of finger millet from the Mature Harappan (2500e2000 BC)level at Rojdi and Late Harappan (2000e1800 BC) level at Rojdi andOriyo Timbo, the Italian millet, sorghum millet and pearl milletduring the Late Harappan (2000e1700 BC) at Rojdi, Kanmer, OriyoTimbo and Babar Kot along with little millet and foxtail millet(Weber, 1991; Reddy, 1994; Pokharia et al., 2011).

The present review based on collated data suspects the widerrole of millet in the Harappan agricultural system, although it hadbeen present since the beginning of Harappan civilization. The shifttowards drought-resistant crops in peripheral zone is to be inferredas cultural adaptation to prolonged drought or weakening of SWmonsoon during the Late Harappan times (2000e1500 BC), towhichmillets are better suited. This contribution is not to disparagethe work of distinguished archaeobotanists but only to drawattention for re-consideration of the present viewpoint.

2. Indus agriculture and the role of millets

The Indus or Harappan civilization had two basic agriculturalstrategies. One strategy, the rabi (refers to agricultural crops sownin the winter and harvested in the spring), fed with winter pre-cipitation. The second strategy, the kharif (refers to plant sown inthe rainy or monsoon season and harvested in autumn) usingsummer monsoon rains (Table 1).

The agriculture system in the Indus civilization has also beendivided into three distinct periods or phases, each corresponding

Table 1Seasonality of cultivated plants recorded from Harappan sites.

Plantremains

Cropping seasons

Winter Summer

Cereals Hordeum vulgare(barley)

Oryza sativa (rice)

Triticum aestivum(bread wheat)

Sorghum bicolor (sorghum/jowar millet)

Triticum sphaerococcum(dwarf wheat)

Pennisetum glaucum (pearl millet)

Triticum compactum(club wheat)

Eleusine coracana(finger/ragi millet)

Triticum dicoccum(emmer wheat)

Panicum miliaceum (proso millet)

Panicum sumatrense (little millet)Paspalum scrobiculatum(kodo millet)Setaria italica (Italian millet)Setaria viridis(green foxtail millet)Setaria glauca(yellow foxtail millet)

Leguminouscrops

Pisum arvense(field pea)

Vigna radiata/mungo (green/black gram)

Lens culinaris(lentil)

Macrotyloma uniflorum(horse gram)

Cicer arietinum(chick pea)Lathyrus sativus(grass pea)Trigonella foenum-graecum(fenugreek)

Oilseeds Linum usitatissimum(linseed)

Sesamum indicum (sesame)

Brassica juncea(Indian mustard)

Fibre crop Gossypium arboreum/herbaceum (cotton)

Fruit Cucumis melo (muskmelon)Citrullus lanatus (watermelon)

with different cropping strategy (Weber, 1991; Pokharia et al.,2011). The Early Phase (2800e2500 BC) revealed the cultivationof winter crops. The Mature Phase (2500e2000 BC) was dominatedby both winter and summer crops. In the Late Phase (2000e1700BC), dry-land farming becamemore prominent, especially “millets”in the region of Gujarat. These drought resistant crops show shift inthe dependence on existing species, suggesting a warmer or drierclimate. Adverse climatic conditions as a result of weak SWmonsoon might have compelled settlers to cultivate these crops inthe peripheral region of Indus civilization (Prasad et al., 2007;Pokharia et al., 2011; Farooqui et al., 2013; Goyal et al., 2013).

Insight into Mature Harappan agriculture in Gujarat comes fromlimited number of sites, thus restricting elucidation of agriculturalmodelling. The presence of a variety of “millets” was interpreted asa secondary “revolution” in the Harappan subsistence system byMeadow (1996). Weber (1991) suggested African millets wereintroduced into the subcontinent at two different points of time.However, the archaeobotanical evidence of Eleusine coracana atRojdi (2600 BC), Pennisetum glaucum at Kanmer (2600e2000 BC) inGujarat (Weber 1996,1991,1999; Pokharia et al., 2011) and Sorghumbicolor at Kunal and Banawali (2600e2500 BC) in Haryana(Saraswat, 1995; Saraswat and Pokharia, 2003) suggest theiradoption at the same time. Hence, the timing of their adoption is ofconsiderable interest. The evidence of these African millets inprehistoric records of the Indian subcontinent provides us absoluteevidence of contact with African countries. What prompted theiradoption is a question of debate. Certainly, the climatic constraintsmight be one of the reasons.

The multi-proxy records indicate the onset of drier climateduring 4000e3500 yrs BP in the subcontinent (Nigam, 1993;Sukumar et al., 1993; Naidu, 1996; Phadtare, 2000; Yadava andRamesh, 2001; Prasad et al., 2007), coinciding with the Late Har-appan (2000e1700 BC) and the appearance of rainy season crops.The dominance of millets in the Late Harappan Gujarat may havebeen in response to aridity. It is likely that the millets replacedearlier subsistence practices and played an important role in thefood production systems during this phase. The new croppingsystemmight have been desirable and advantageous to them in theprevailing ecological conditions.

3. Millet and archaeological records

“Millet” is a generic term applied to a range of small-grainedcereals belonging to number of tribes in the family Poaceae. Theyare known for their coarse and hard grains among the cereals(Weber, 1998; Anonymous, 2006; Hunt and Jones, 2008). Milletsare warmweather grasses belonging to C4 group of plants, tolerantto ecological stresses and with a short maturation period. India isone of the major producers of millets in the world. The annualplanting area under all millets in India put together is 23e24million hectare producing around 20e22 million tonnes(Anonymous, 2006). Over 90% of all millets today are rain-fed cropsgrowing in dryland farming conditions (Chalam andVenkateswarlu, 1965). Millets are grown primarily for their grainsor straw as a cattle fodder (Seetharam et al., 1989; Reddy, 1991,1997; Weber, 1998).

Millets are drought-tolerant summer crops, hence rated as animportant component of dryland agriculture. They are well suitedto wide range of soils; require low rainfall and minimum days tomature (Table 2). Millets are also categorized as major and minormillets on the basis of seed size and the extent of cultivation area(Anonymous, 2006). Their occurrence in prehistoric Indian sub-continent is significant in terms of cultural adaptation.

The archaeobotanical investigations carried out till date innorthern, north-western, southern, central and Middle Gangetic

Table 2Physical characteristics of some present day millets (Anonymous, 1952, 1966, 1972, 2006).

Eleusine coracana Panicum miliaceum Paspalum scrobiculatum Pennisetum glaucum Setaria sp. Sorghum bicolor

Cropping season Summer/year round Summer/year round Summer Summer Summer/year round Summer/year roundAnnual rainfall 30e50 cm 50e75 cm 25e75 cm 25e100 cm 50e75 cm 40e100 cmDrought resistant High High High Moderate High ModerateCultivation method Dry farming Dry farming Dry farming Dry farming Dry farming Dry farmingSoil type Rich loamy-poor

shallow dry soilWide range Wide range, best

on loamy soilVery light soils on sanddunes-red loam-black soils

Red and black soil Light-mediumdeep black soil

Maturation time 90e150 days 60e65 days 120e180 days 80e180 days 60e120 days 90e120 daysNutritional value Very good Good Low Very good Low Very goodFodder value Good Good Good Good Good Good

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455 445

Plain of Indian subcontinent have revealed the evidence of milletsfrom about forty five archaeological sites dated between 3300 BCand 500 AD (Fig. 2). Amongst “millets” are a wide range of grassesthat have been either cultivated or gathered from the wild indifferent parts of the subcontinent during pre- and proto-historictimes. The common name, region of origin and archaeological re-cords of millets from Harappan, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Megalithicand Iron Age/Early historic sites in the Indian subcontinent arelisted in Table 3.

4. Ecology of millets

Now-a-days, the cropping strategy of millets varies in the sub-continent with the local and regional climate and hydrology (Huntand Jones, 2008). In north India, Panicummiliaceum is grown eitheras an early or late summer crop (Kimata et al., 1997), whereas insouth India it is raised as a rabi crop (Hegde and Linge Gowda,1990;Anonymous, 2006); Sorghum bicolor is cultivated as rabi and kharifcrop in south India (Hegde and Linge Gowda, 1990; Anonymous,2006) due to frequent influx of winter monsoon rains. In TamilNadu and Gujarat, P. glaucum is grown in summer season underirrigation (Anonymous, 2006), while Eleusine coracana is grown aseither early summer crop in hills at higher altitudes of Uttaranchaland Himachal Pradesh or late summer crop in Tamil Nadu, Karna-taka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,and Gujarat. It is also grown as winter season (rabi) crop in southIndia and Bihar (Anonymous, 2006).

5. Spatial and chronological patterning: quantitativeapproach

In order to make out the relative proportion between large-grained cereals and small-grained millets during the Harappantimes, we collated data from two sources: (i) research papers and(ii) Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP) repository materialfor the quantitative assessment of major cereals and millets.

(i) Research papers: We have relied on published data on Har-appan economy from archaeological sites such as Rojdi(Weber, 1991), Oriyo Timbo and Babar Kot (Reddy, 1994) andKanmer (Pokharia et al., 2011) in India and Pirak (Costantini,1979), Miri Qalat (Tengberg, 1999) and Harappa (Weber,2003) in Pakistan.

(ii) Repository material: Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany(BSIP) repository contains the botanical remains collectedfrom various archaeological sites in India such as Kunal (BSIPrepository 1093), Balu (BSIP repository 1070), Banawali (BSIPrepository?), Rohira (BSIP repository 565 and 634), Sanghol(BSIP repository 928), Mahorana (BSIP repository 772) andHulas (BSIP repository 820), U.P. The same material has beenused for the present study (Table 4).

The cumulative data from both the sources have revealed thatboth winter and summer crops were part of the agricultural sys-tems during the Early (3000e2500 BC), Mature (2500e2000 BC)and Late Harappan (2000e1200 BC) times in the core area or UpperIndus (Figs. 3e5). The winter crops dominate the assemblage andrepresent 62%e97% in the Early Phase (Kunal, Banawali and Har-appa), 64%e100% in the Mature Phase (Balu, Rohira, Banawali,Harappa and Miri Qalat) and 78%e100% in the Late Phase (Hulas,Mahorana, Sanghol, Rohira, Pirak and Harappa), whereas thesummer crops represent 3%e38% in the Early phase; 0e36% in theMature phase; and 0e22% in the Late Phase. Among the millets,sorghum from the Early Harappan level (3000e2500 BC) at Kunal(3%) and Banawali (3%), Mature Harappan level (2500e2000 BC) atBanawali (3%) & Rohira (20%) and Late Harappan level (2000e1400BC) at Mahorana (6%), Hulas (5%), Sanghol (2%) and Pirak (1%), littlemillet from the Early Harappan (3300e2600 BC; 3.5%), MatureHarappan (2600e1900 BC; 4%) and Late Harappan (1900e1700 BC;12.5%) levels at Harappa, and finger millet (2%) and Italian millet(2%) from the Late Harappan (2000e1200 BC) level at Hulas andSanghol respectively have been recorded in the core region (UpperIndus), only. Their scanty presence in the core region reflects thatthey did not play a major role in the early agricultural practices,despite their record since the Early Harappan.

In the peripheral zone of Harappan civilization at Kanmer,Kachchh, Gujarat, winter crops (100%) dominate during the EarlyPhase (Fig. 3). The sign of diversification in crop economy can bewitnessed from the Mature Phase (2500e2100 BC), which shows adouble-cropping system including winter (59%) and summer (41%)crops (Fig. 4). Evidences of winter crops in Early phase and wintercrops along with summer crops in Mature phase, suggest thepresence of effective moisture due to winter precipitation in Earlyphase and winter precipitation as well as relatively high summerrainfall in Mature phase (Prasad et al., 2007; Pokharia et al., 2011).According to Lancelotti and Madella (2011), the wood charcoalanalysis from Kanmer also shows that varieties of woods wereexploited during Mature phase and the environment was differentfrom that of the present day. Abundance of riverine species in-dicates that a river course was probably flowing nearby the site,suggesting more water than in recent times. Furthermore, thearchaeozoological analyses revealed nilgai (Boselaphus tetracamelusPallas) and four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis Blain-ville), which prefer woodland habitats (Goyal and Joglekar, 2008).Antelopes do not live very far from water courses.

The Late Phase (2000e1700 BC) accounted for only 3% winterand 97% summer crops (75%, millets) (Fig. 5; Pokharia et al., 2011).Similarly, the dominance of finger millet from Mature Harappanlevel at Rojdi (68%; 2300e2000 BC) and Late Harappan at Rojdi (5%;2000e1800 BC) and Oriyo Timbo (40%; 1900e1800 BC); Italianmillet from the Late Harappan level at Oriyo Timbo (23%; 1900e1800 BC), Babar Kot (95%; 2200e1700 BC) and Rojdi (38%; 2000e1800 BC), along with little millet (5e19%) and foxtail millet (17%e47%) in the Saurashtra region of Gujarat (Figs. 4 and 5) surmise thesignificance of drought-resistant crops in this region during the

Fig. 2. Map of Indian-subcontinent showing archaeological evidence for early millets (modified after Possehl, 1980; Weber, 1998; Fuller, 2002; Kajale, 2003).

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455446

Late Harappan times (2200e1700 BC). A cumbersome amount offinger millet (80%) has also been recorded during the Mature Har-appan (2500e2300 BC) at Rojdi (Weber, 1991). However, theproblem of mis-identification of finger millet was raised by milletexperts from time to time (Hilu et al., 1979; Fuller, 2003, 2006).Most commonly indigenous small-grained millets were mistakenlyattributed to finger millet of the African origin. The claim for thisparticular species cannot be accepted unless supported by illus-trations (Fuller, 2006).

It is likely that winter and summer south west monsoon mighthave played an important role during the mid- and late-Holocene.The palynological studies conducted on the lacustrine depositsfrom the Rajasthan Desert suggest that this region has experienced>50 cm rainfall around 5000 yrs BP than today, which is indicatedby a rise in trees and aquatic flora (Singh et al., 1974). This phase ofupwelling of climate corresponds chronologically with the emer-gence of Indus civilization, dated to 3200 BC. The earliest cerealbased agricultural practice in the Rajasthan Desert was recordedaround 5000 yrs BP from a section exposed at Kalibangan (Singhet al., 1974). Further, the studies made by Swain et al. (1983),Wasson et al. (1984) and Enzel et al. (1999) broadly corroboratethe results fromwestern Rajasthan (Singh et al., 1974), including themid-Holocene period of climatic amelioration. The study of char-coal from Harappan sites (3000e1400 BC) in core region hasbrought to light the occurrence of forty-two species of mixed-deciduous forests still subsisted in the well-watered areas.Frequent occurrence of bamboo characteristically indicatesconsiderable rainfall (Lal, 2005). Similarly, the diversification of

tropical deciduous forests occurred in central India around 6000e4000 yrs BP, which could be attributed to invigoration of SWmonsoon (Chauhan, 2002). An equivalent climate was inferredfrom the central Ganga Plain, where groves of forests succeeded theopen vegetation around 5000 yrs BP (Chauhan et al., 2009). Thisphase of amelioration of climate falls within the time bracket ofPeriod of Climatic Optimum (POC), which was recorded globallybetween 7000 and 4000 yrs BP (Bradley, 1999). The favourableclimatic conditions with enough rains might have created suitableconditions for the expansion and diversification of agricultureduring the Early and Mature phase throughout the Indus Valley.Subsequently, with the decline in rainfall, settlers concentratedalong the perennial river systems in the core zone (Upper Indus),had developedmethods of irrigation as an adaptation tomonsoonalvariability and continued to grow winter and summer crops.However, in the peripheral region which lacked major perennialrivers for irrigation, people gradually opted for rain-fed cultivationby the late Holocene (w4 ka), coinciding with the Late Harappan(2000e1500 BC). The shift in climate fromwarm and humid to dryduring late Holocene is also confirmed at various locations in theIndian subcontinent (Nigam, 1993; Sukumar et al., 1993; Naidu,1996; Phadtare, 2000; Yadava and Ramesh, 2001; Prasad andEnzel, 2006; Prasad et al., 2007).

The phytolith studies of the late Holocene sequence in theMainland and Saurashtra region of Gujarat too provided evidenceof extremely weak winter as well as summer SW Monsoon (SWM)resulting in the onset of dry climatic condition (Prasad et al., 2007;Farooqui et al., 2013). Aridity too had considerable influence on the

Table 3Antiquity of millets in the Indian subcontinent and their origins (modified after Weber, 1998; Kajale, 2003; Fuller, 2006).

Species Common name Region of origin Archaeological records References

Brachiaria ramosa (L.)Stapf.

Browntop millet South India[1], [2], [3]

Neolithic e Hallur (2800e1200 BC), KarnatakaHarappan-Farmana (2600e2200 BC), Haryana

Fuller et al., 2004; Weber et al., 2011

Eleusine coracana (L.)Gaertn.

Finger/ragi millet East Africanhighlands [4], [5],[6], [7], [8]

Harappan e Rojdi (2500e1700 BC), Kuntasi(2500e2000 BC), Surkotada (2500e1600 BC),Shikarpur (2500e1700 BC), Oriyo Timbo(1900e1800 BC) and, Babar Kot (2200e1700 BC)in Gujarat; Harappa (2600e1700 BC), Punjab(Pakistan); Hulas (2000e1200 BC), Uttar Pradesh.Neolithic e Hallur (2800e1200BC), Karnataka;Senuwar (2200e1950 BC), BiharChalcolithic e Ojiyana (2000e1500 BC) and Ahar(2000e1400 BC) Rajasthan; Daimabad(1600e1000 BC), Inamgaon (1600 BC), Nevasa(1400e900 BC), Tuljapur Garhi (1400e900 BC), andApegaon (1600e1000 BC) in Maharashtra; Malhar(1700e800 BC) and Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1600e1300 BC) in UP.Megalithic e Gufkral (Menhir), Jammu & KashmirIron Age/Early Historic e Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1300e700 BC),Imlidih-Khurd (1300e800 BC), Waina (800e600 BC),and Hulaskhera (700 BCe500 AD) in UP; Naikund andBhagimohari (1000 BC) in Maharashtra

Vishnu-Mittre, 1969, 1971; Kajale,1977a, 1977b, 1977c, 1979, 1981,1988a, 1988b, 1989, 1996; 2003;Savithri and Vishnu-Mittre, 1979;Sharma, 1982; Wagner, 1983, 1990;Possehl et al., 1985; Vishnu-Mittreand Chanchala, 1986; Weber, 1990,1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2003;Chanchala, 1992, 1994; Saraswat,1993, 2004a, 2004b, 2005; Reddy,1994; Mughal Rafique, 2003;Fuller et al., 2004; Pokharia, 2008;Saraswat and Pokharia, 2004;Saraswat et al., 2008, 2009;

Panicum miliaceum L. Broomcorn/Prosomillet

China and SouthEast Europe [1]

Harappan e Rojdi (2500e1700) BC, Surkotada(2500e1700 BC) in Gujarat; Harappa (2600e1700 BC),Punjab and Pirak (2100e1500 BC), Baluchistan in PakistanChalcolithic e Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1600e1300 BC), UPIron-Age/Early Historic e Semthan (1e500 AD), inJammu & Kashmir; Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1300e700 BC), UP

Costantini, 1979, 1981; Weber, 1990,1991, 1992, 1998, 1999, 2003;Lone et al., 1993; Chanchala, 1994;Saraswat, 2005; Saraswat et al., 2008,2009

Panicum sumatrenseRoth. Ex Roem. &Schult. (syn. P. miliareauct. Pl.)

Little millet India [9] Harappan e Farmana (2600e2200 BC) in Haryana;Rojdi (2000e1700 BC), Rangpur (2000e1700 BC),Babar Kot (2200e1700 BC) and Oriyo Timbo(1900e1800 BC) in Gujarat

Ghosh and Lal, 1963; Weber, 1991,1992, 1998, 1999; Reddy, 1994;Weber et al., 2011

Paspalumscrobiculatum L.

Kodo millet India [10] Harappan e Rojdi (2000e1700 BC) in GujaratChalcolithic e Senuwar (1300e600 BC), Bihar;Lahuradewa (2000e1500 BC), Malhar (1700e800 BC),Waina (1600e800 BC), Imlidih-Khurd (1300e800 BC),and Narhan (1300e800 BC), in UP; Daimabad(1400e900 BC), Inamgaon (1400e900BC), Nevasa(1400e900 BC), Tuljapur Garhi (1400e900 BC), andApegaon (1600e1000 BC) in Maharashtra.Iron Age/Early Historic e Naikund and Bhagimohari(1000 BC), Maharashtra; Rupar (600e50 BC), Punjab;Narhan (600e200 BC), UP; Hallur (1000e50 BC), andVeerapuram (500 BCe400 AD), Karnataka

Vishnu-Mittre, 1971; Savithri, 1976;Kajale, 1977a, 1977b, 1977c, 1979,1981, 1984, 1988a, 1988b, 1989;Vishnu-Mittre and Chanchala, 1986;Weber, 1991, 1998; Saraswat, 2004a;2005 Saraswat and Pokharia, 2004;Saraswat et al., 1994

Pennisetumglaucum (L.) R. Br.

Pearl/bajra millet West AfricanSavannah [7], [11]

Harappan e Kanmer (2000e1700 BC), Surkotada(2500e1700 BC), Rojdi (2000 BC), Babar Kot(2200e1700 BC) and Rangpur (2000e1700 BC) inGujaratNeolithic e Hallur (2800e1200 BC), KarnatakaChalcolithic e Ahar (1200 BC), Rajasthan; Kaothe(1920 BC), Maharashtra; Imlidih (1400e1300 BC),Narhan (1500e800 BC) in UPEarly/Late Historic e Nevasa (50 BCe200 AD) andMungi, Maharashtra

Ghosh and Lal, 1963; Kajale, 1974,1977b, 1980, 1990; Savithri, 1976;Vishnu-Mittre, 1974; Possehl et al.,1985; Chanchala, 1994; Reddy, 1994;Saraswat et al., 1994; Fuller et al.,2004; Saraswat, 2005;Pokharia et al., 2011

Setaria italica(L.) P. Beauv

Italian millet China and SEEurope [1], [12],[13], [14]

Harappan e Rojdi (2500e1700 BC), Oriyo Timbo(2000e1700 BC), and Surkotada and Shikarpur(2500e1700 BC) in Gujarat; Sanghol (1900e1400 BC),Punjab; Hulas (1700e1200 BC), UPChalcolithic e Ojiyana (2000e1500 BC), Rajasthan;Waina (1600e800 BC), Malhar (1900e1700 BC) in UP;Daimabad (1400e900 BC), Inamgaon (1400e900BC),Nevasa (1400e900 BC), Tuljapur Garhi (1400e900 BC),and Apegaon (1400e900 BC) in Maharashtra.Iron-Age/Early Historic e Waina (800e600 BC)

Kajale, 1977a, 1977b, 1979, 1988a,1988b; Wagner, 1983; Vishnu-Mittreand Chanchala, 1986; Weber, 1990,1991, 1992, 1998, 1999; Chanchala,1994; Saraswat, 1997, 2004b, 2005;Pokharia, 2008

Setaria sp. Beauv. (cf.viridis Beauv.,glauca auct. pl.,verticillata (L.)P. Beauv.)

Green/Yellow/Bristley Foxtailmillet

India [1], [3] Harappan e Farmana (2600e2200 BC) in Haryana;Kanmer (2600e1700 BC), Shikarpur and Surkotada(2500e1700 BC), Rojdi (2500e1700 BC), Oriyo Timbo(1900e1800 BC) and Babor Kot (2200e1700 BC) inGujaratNeolithic e Hallur and Kurugodu (2800e1200 BC),Karnataka; Tokwa (2500e2000 BC), UP; Senuwar(2200e1950 BC) in BiharChalcolithic e Senuwar (1950e600 BC), Tokwa(2000e1500 BC), Malhar (1700e800 BC),

Weber, 1991; Lone et al., 1993;Chanchala, 1994; Reddy, 1994;Pokharia and Saraswat, 1999;Fuller et al., 2004; Saraswat, 2004a,2004b; Saraswat et al., 2008, 2009;Pokharia, 2008; Pokharia et al.,2011; Weber et al., 2011

(continued on next page)

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Table 3 (continued )

Species Common name Region of origin Archaeological records References

Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1600e1300 BC) in UP;Iron Age/Early Historic: Semthan (1e500 AD) inJammu & Kashmir; Sanghol (100e300 AD),Punjab; Malhar (1400e800 BC), and Raja-Nal-ka-tila(1300e700 BC) in UP

Sorghum bicolor (L.)Moench.

Sorghum/jowarmillet

African Savannah[15], [16]

Harappan e Banawali (2700e2500 BC); Kunal(2600e2500 BC) and Farmana (2600e2200 BC) inHaryana; Rohira (2300e2000 BC), Mahorana(2100e1900 BC) and Sanghol (1900e1400 BC) inPunjab; Kanmer (2000e1700 BC) and Rojdi(2000e1700 BC) in Gujarat; Hulas (1700e1200 BC)in UP; Pirak (2100e1500 BC) in Baluchistan (Pakistan)Neolithic e Senuwar (2200e1950 BC), BiharNeolithiceChalcolithic e Senuwar (1950e1300 BC),BiharChalcolithic e Ojiyana (2000e1500 BC) and Ahar(2000e1200 BC) in Rajasthan; Lahuradewa(2000e1500 BC), Imlidih-Khurd (2000e800 BC) in UP;Senuwar (1300e600), Bihar; Daimabad (1400e900 BC),Inamgaon (1400e900BC), Nevasa (1400e900 BC),Tuljapur Garhi (1400e900 BC), and Apegaon(1400e900 BC) in Maharashtra.Iron-Age/Early Historic e Bhokardan (200 BCe300 AD),Maharashtra; Sanghol (100e300 AD), Punjab; Malhar(1700e800 BC), Khairadih (700e200 BC), Waina(800e600 BC) and Raja-Nal-ka-tila (1300e700 BC) in UP

Kajale, 1973, 1977a, 1977b, 1977c,1979, 1988a, 1988b; Savithri, 1976;Costantini, 1979, 1981; Saraswat,1986, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997, 2004a,2004b, 2005; Vishnu-Mittre andChanchala, 1986; Weber, 1991;Pokharia and Saraswat, 1999; Saraswatand Pokharia, 2003; Saraswat et al.,2008, 2009; Pokharia et al., 2011;Weber et al., 2011

[1] De Wet, 1995; [2] Grubben and Partohardjono, 1996; [3] Kimata et al., 2000; [4] Hilu and DeWet, 1976; [5] Hilu et al., 1979; [6] Hilu and Johnson, 1992; [7] Fuller, 2003; [8]Mehra, 1963; [9] De Wet et al., 1983a; [10] De Wet et al., 1983b; [11] Tostain, 1998; [12] De Wet et al., 1979; [13] Prasada Rao et al., 1987; [14] Sakamoto, 1987; [15] Doggett,1970; [16] De Wet and Harlan, 1971.

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455448

subsequent diversification of crops and their cultivars. The domi-nance of millets in Gujarat during the Late Harappan might haveoccurred in response to aridity. The proliferation of Late Harappansettlements in the peripheral region is attributed to a shift in theland use patterns as a result of adopting and cultivating millets(Possehl, 1986). The shift was also hypothesized to be associatedwith increased pastoralism in some cases (Bhan, 1989, 1992). Theshift towards drought-resistant crops in the peripheral region maybe seen as adaptation to prolonged drought or weakening of SWmonsoon to which summer-cultivated millets are better suited,thus, deserving a new overview on the role of millets in the Induscivilization as a whole.

6. Discussion

The study of plant macro-remains from the archaeological sitesprovides ample information on existing environment during its

Table 4Absolute counts of cereals and millets recorded from Harappan sites in core region (sou

Kunal EarlyHarappan(3000e2500 BC)

Early-Harappan(2750e2500 BC)

Banawali Mature-Harappan(2500e2000 BC)

Early-Harappan(2500e2300 BC)

IA IB IC

Cereals & milletsHordeum vulgare

(Barley)4 39 83 61 61 76

Triticum sp.(Wheat)

43 63 38 49 36

Oryza cf. sativa(Rice)

23 110 3 4 123

Sorghum bicolor(Sorghum millet)

11 4

Eleusine coracana(Ragi millet)

Pennisetum glaucum(Pearl millet)

Setaria italica(Italian millet)

occupation. The data based on the published papers and BSIP re-pository suggest that in the core zone (Upper Indus) both winterand summer crops were a part of the agricultural system asperennial rivers offered ameans to growwinter as well asmonsooncrops during the Early, Mature and Late Harappan phases(Saraswat, 1986, 1992, 1993, 1997; Costantini, 1990; Saraswat andPokharia, 2002, 2003; Weber, 2003). Although millets have beendocumented in the crop assemblage since the Early Harappanphase, yet, it is intricate to believe their major role in the ancientcrop economy, based on poor quantitative representation frommost of the sites studied so far. Large-grained cereals appear to bethe major crops.

The peripheral region (Gujarat) lacked the perennial irrigationby major rivers and agriculture relies on monsoonal rains (Fuller,2006). By the end of Harappan urbanism, this region adopted thecrop assemblage dominated by drought-resistant millets (Weber,1991; Reddy, 1994; Pokharia et al., 2011). The process of millet

rce: BSIP repository).

Balu Mature-Harrapan(2300e1900 BC)

MatureHarappan(2300e2000 BC)

Rohira LateHarappan(2000e1700 BC)

Mahorana(2100ec1900 BC)

Sanghol(1900e1400 BC)

Hulas(2000e1200 BC)

356 6 23 39 82 14

45 6 20 8 45 40

170 33

3 3 2 5

2

3

Fig. 3. Showing absolute counts (n) of cereal grains in core (Upper Indus) and peripheral zone of the Indus/Harappan civilization during Early Harappan (3300e2500 BC).

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455 449

cultivation may have subdued cultivation of large-grained cereals(winter crops) in the peripheral region only, as an adaptation tocope up with the adverse climatic conditions. Millets can be grownin a variety of habitats and soils and require annual rainfall between30 and 75 cm. They have good nutritional and fodder value. Thus,the agricultural strategy in the Late Harappan Period (2000e1500BC) is one better suited to adverse climatic conditions. Increasingaridity by 2000 BC might have forced the settlers to rely on milletcultivation.

It is likely that the increased relative proportion of large-grained cereals over small-grained millets during the Early andMature Harappan Periods is the result of climatic ameliorationduring w5000e4000 yrs BP. The multi-proxy data from the In-dian subcontinent also suggest the amelioration in climaticconditions during the mid-Holocene (w5 kyr BP) and shift inclimate, from warm and humid to dry phase during the lateHolocene (w4 kyr BP). The favourable climatic conditions withenough rains might have stimulated intensive agricultureinitially and encouraged urbanization throughout the Induscivilization. Subsequently, with the decline in rainfall, settlersalong the perennial river had developed methods of irrigation as

an adaptation to monsoonal variability and continued to growwinter and summer crops in the Late Harappan times (2000e1200 BC) too. However, in the peripheral region which lacksmajor perennial rivers for irrigation, people gradually opted forrain-fed cultivation due to decline in SW monsoon by late Ho-locene (w4 kyr BP). Continuity and change in the agriculturalstrategy has been noticed during Harappan times in the Kachchhand Saurashtra regions of Gujarat (Weber, 1991; Pokharia et al.,2011). The strategic shift in the agricultural system surmises,that human society might have adapted to rapid climate changein the past, however, there are also examples of civilizationalcollapse. The collapse of the Akkadian, Classic Maya, and Meso-potamian was related to persistent multi-century shifts in theclimate (Weiss et al., 1993; Cullen et al., 2000; De Menocal, 2001;Haug et al., 2003; Drysdale et al., 2006).

7. Summary and conclusions

The archaeobotanical dataset amassed here on large-grainedcereals vs small-grained millets from core and peripheral regionsof Indus/Harappan civilization can be summarized as follows:

Fig. 4. Showing absolute counts (n) of cereal grains in core (Upper Indus) and peripheral zone of the Indus/Harappan civilization during Mature Harappan (2500e2000 BC).

A.K.Pokharia

etal./

Journalof

Archaeological

Science42

(2014)442

e455

450

Fig. 5. Showing absolute counts (n) of cereal grains in core (Upper Indus) and peripheral zone of the Indus/Harappan civilization during Late Harappan (2000e1000 BC).

A.K.Pokharia

etal./

Journalof

Archaeological

Science42

(2014)442

e455

451

Fig. 6. Summary of large-grained cereals vs small-grained millets (%) in core (6.1) and peripheral (6.2) regions of Indus/Harappan civilization.

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455452

1. During the Early Harappan (3300e2500 BC) the large-grainedcereals dominated the crop assemblage both in the core andperipheral regions, although small-grained millets (introducedand local) coexisted at some sites in the core region (Fig. 6).

2. During the Harappan urbanism (2500e2000 BC), the cropassemblage remained much the same in the core region,whereas in the peripheral region the small-grained millets startappearing in considerable quantity (Fig. 6).

3. In the Late Harappan or post-urban phase (2000e1200 BC), thelarge-grained cereals still dominated in the core region andcoexisted along with variety of small-grained millets. However,the evidence of large-grained cereals in the peripheral zone ismeager in comparison to small-grained millets (Fig. 6.2).Dominance of small-grained millets shows a shift towardsdrought-resistant species, suggesting a warmer or drier climate,as SW monsoonal activity decreased considerably during thisphase. Adverse climatic conditions due to declining monsoonmight have forced the settlers to cultivate these crops in theperipheral region.

Abrupt changes in the climate might have altered ecologicallandscapes, leading to human adaptation and migration. Climateand environment of the subcontinent during the Harappan

urbanism have drawn interest since the earliest excavations in theIndus Valley (Misra, 1984; Misra and Rajaguru,1989; Possehl, 1997).The beginning of 2nd millennium BC may have ushered in anoverall drying trend in the subcontinent (Possehl, 1997; Madellaand Fuller, 2006), although there may be some regions whichmight have experienced an increase in the amount of rainfall in thesummer months (Kenoyer, 1991). Climate thus, has influenced so-cieties throughout the tropics and other regions, leading to societalcollapse in some areas and human adaptation to other means ofsustenance in other areas. The present dataset impels us to re-assess the function of millets in the Indus/Harappan civilizationas a whole.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palae-obotany, Lucknow for providing necessary facilities to accomplishthis work. Thanks are due to the staff members of BSIP Museum fortheir support to trace out the archaeobotanical material kept in therepository for this study. The authors sincerely wish to thank thereferees for their valuable suggestions which made us possible tohighlight our view point.

A.K. Pokharia et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 442e455 453

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