Army Aviation Digest - Apr 1955

7/28/2019 Army Aviation Digest - Apr 1955

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DIG.SI '


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ARMY AVIATION SCHOOLCOMMANDANTBrigadier General Carl I. Hutton, USA

ASSISTANT COMMANDANTColonel Jules E. Gonseth, Jr.

DIRECTOR OF INSTRUCTIONLieutenant Colonel Albert L. RobinetteDIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF COMBATDEVELOPMENT

Lieutenant Colonel David G. CogswellSECRETARY

Major Arington C. Thomson, Jr.


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ARMY AVIATIONDIGEST

VOLUME I APRIL, 1955 NUMBER 3

CONTENTSTHE COMMANDANT'S C O L U ~ l N ______ _______________ __ _ 3Brigadier General Carl I. Hutton, USAPILOT'S PHYSICAL FITNESS______________________________ 5

Lieutenant Colonel Rollie M. Harrison, }\;fedical CorpsBATTLEFIELD ILLUMINATION ____________ ______ ______ _ 9Captain John B. Kusewiit, Jr., ArtilleryAIRCREW EFFICIENCY UP ___________________ ._ ... _______ _ 13

Captain Weyman S. Carver, ArtilleryARMY WEATHER SERVICE________________ __ . _. ______ - ___ 23

Pritlate First Class Ralph SchoensteinFIRE AND SODA ____ ... ____ - - _____ - _ - ___ -_ - - - ___________ _ 24

William R. GainesH-13 FLIGHT RULES OF THUMB_____________________ 28

Hans Weichsel, Jr.INSTRUMENT FLIGHT HINTS_ ___________________________ 32

Nolen C. HowellGREY HARE SAYS_ __ _____________________________________ 36

COVER: The "Ot ter" is the big brother to ArlllY Aviation'sfixed-wing L-20 HBeaver" also lllade by de Havilland. I tcarries a 2700 pound cargo or passenger pay load and cruisesa t 138 miles per hour but can be slowed to 40 lDiles per hour .

This copy is not for sale. I t is intended for lDore. than one reader.PLEASE READ IT AND PASS IT ALONG


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ARMY AVIATION OFFICERS NEEDEDThe fastest expanding field in the military servicesneeds officers:(1) Who are ambitious.(2) Who are superior mentally and physically.(3) Who recognize the need for Army aviation.( 4) Who realize the potentialities of airplanes andhelicopters.

Expansion of the Army aviation flight training program provides unlimited opportunity for those officers whocan meet the prerequisites and qualifications for flighttraining which are set forth in AR 605-96, dated 29September 1954, and DA Circular No. 42, 1954. Flighttraining courses for commissioned officers not designatedArmy aviators consists of:

Army Primary Flight Training CourseThis course is of 17 weeks duration and consists of

primary training in fixed wing aircraft at Gary Air ForceBase, San Marcos, Texas. Officers of all branches whichare authorized Army aviation, except the Medical ServiceCorps, may attend this course.Army Aviation Tactics Course

All officers who complete the Army Primary FlightTraining Course attend this course immediately followinggraduation from primary training. This course consists of12 weeks tactical training in fixed wing aircraft at CampR;ucker, Alabama. Upon successful completion of the courseofficers are designated Army Aviators.Army Cargo Helicopter Pilot Training

This course, which may be attended by officers of theMedical Service Corps only, is given at the Army AviationSchool, Camp Rucker, Alabama. It consists of 22 weeksprimary and advanced training as helicopter pilots."If you are qualified, you can be"A_BOVE THE BEST"


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THE COMMANDANT'S COLUMNBrigadier General Carl I. Hutton, [TSA

The views expressed in this article are the author'sand are not necessarily those of the Department ofThe Army.-The Editor.The Command Element In Flying Safety

HEADQUARTERSSUBJECT: AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTSTO: ALL RATED PERSONNEL

1 April 1955

The practice of having aircraft accidents in this organization willcease immediately.BY COMMAND OF - - -

The safety people do not think very highly of the approach represented by the foregoing order. However, thereis something to be said on the side of the traditional militarytreatment.Aircraft (or any other) accidents happen when there issimultaneous occurrence of numerous contributing factors.If the contributing factors are removed, there will be noaccident. I t is the function of command supervision toisolate unsafe customs, habits," and practices and eliminatethem before they join other factors to produce the resultingaccident.If aircraft maintenance is satisfactory (is i t ~ ) ; if the unitaviation officer checks the flying qualifications of aviationpersonnel (does heP); i f hazards are removed from the airfield (have they beenP); if aviators are assigned to missionsin accordance with their ability and experience (are they P) ;if flight descipline is enforced by the unit aviation officer(is i t ~ ) then; the unit commander will have taken at least the


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ARMY AVIATION DIGESTelementary steps towards a flying safety program..Here is an example: An aviator entered a practice autorotation. He executed a running landing. A heavy rut whichhe had not seen caught the skid, and the helicopter overturned. The damage was extensive. Here are some of thecontributing factors:1. No area had been marked out, prepared, and designated as the autorotation practice area.

2. The pilot in this case had not practiced autorotationsfor "several months."3. The helicopter was loaded with an aft CG loading,which may have caused the pilot some concern while he wasattempting to establish a level attitude.Good supervision would have removed these contributing factors. Autorotations are fairly critical under the bestof conditions, and they should only be practiced when conditions are ideal. The unit aviation officer should supervisethe flying habits of his aviators. If an aviator is rusty in histechniques, he should be checked out by a qualified instructorpilot. If helicopter pilots become careless about CG positions,they are building up trouble for the future.Therefore, comn}on sense and ordinary supervision canreduce the likelihood of an accident. The Command Elementconsists of recognizing the unsafe acts or conditions whilethere is time. Fortunately, accident experience figures areon the commander's side. They say that for every accidentthere have been many exposures in which an accident mightjust as well have happened but did not. In industrial situations as many as 350 exposures have been counted before theaccident. The problem is simply to recognize what is unsafebeforehand rather than in hindsight.This, military commanders are experienced with. Whileperhaps an order not to have accidents may seem far-fetched,if the result is a reduction of hazards, then the order willmake sense.

This is the first in a series of columns which will be writtenby Brigadier General Carl I. Hutton, Commandant of the ArmyAviation School, for the ARMY A VIATION DIGEST.General Hutton is a graduate of the United States MilitaryAcademy and the National War College. He is a qualifiedfixed and rotary wing Army Aviator-The Editor.


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PILOT'S PHYSICAL FITNESSLieutenant Colonel Rollie M. Harrison, llledical Corps

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Departnwnt of TheA r n ~ y or of The Army Aviation School.-The Editor.Flying is a type of occupation that generally requireslittle vigorous muscular activity. Although this is true, it isalso true that in pilots a constant state of' readiness is re-quired in antagonistic or opposite Inuscle groups. This isnecessary to produce the delicately coordinated stick andrudder movenlents which are key factors for the accuracyand precision that are so important in flying, and which are

dependent upon well coordinated responses in the lnusclesof upper and lower extremities. Although no great anlountof muscular activity is expended in flying our modern air-craft, nevertheless, flying does produce fatigue in the personnelwho operate them. Susceptibility and reaction to, as wellas ability to recover from, this fatigue is influenced markedlyby the individual pilot's state of physical fitness.Many of our pilots have reached or passed the thirddecade of life, and too frequently have become so occupiedwith other duties that the thought of any program of physicaltraining has long since been relegated to the limbo of for-gotten things. Not only does this situation exist alnong ourrated pilots, but it has influenced thinking and planning withrespect to the training of ArnlY pilots. Although highlynecessary, no time has been provided in the curric;ulum forthe inclusion of regularly scheduled and supervised physicaltraining of our student pilots due to the press of cramminga plethora of subjects into too short a period of time.The benefits derived fronl physical training are nunler-ous. The attainrnent of good physical condition by correctand adequate exercise is very inlportant. I t is reasonablethat the pilot who is in good physical trinl will sufl'er lessfatigue from a cOlllparable alilount and type of flying than


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6 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilthe nlan who is in poor physical condition. Exercise of anorganisnl produces growth and strength, disuse results inatrophy and weakness. The goals of exercise are the develop-ment of a strong and vigorous body with efficient circulatory,respiratory, and excretory systems to provide energy foractivity, and to remove its waste products'efficiently. Muscletone throughout the body benefits from regular training andthe desirable effects are reflected in greater resistance to, andmore rapid recovery from fatigue, improved coordination andreaction time, better digestion and absorption of ingestedfoods, as well as improved bowel elimination. Planning.judgenlent, and even visual acuity may be favorably affectedby a high degree of physical fitness.Body functions generally are inlproved. Circulation ofthe blood supplies nutriment and oxygen to produce energyand rebuild tissues throughout the body, and to remove thewaste products that are produced by this metabolism.Physical training develops the muscular power of the heartalong with the other nluscles of the body. It has been deter-mined that the heart of the trained man pumps more bloodper minute with fewer strokes than does the heart of an un-trained individual. In the trained man there is a rapid returnto normal of the heart rate after exercise, while in the un-trained person a considerably longer time is necessary forthe return to a normal state. Thus with training, the cir-culatory system becomes more efficient, with an increasedoxygen and nutrient transport, a reduced heart rate and amore stable blood pressure that is less subject to markedfluctuations of degree. and an overall beneficial effect uponthe whole organism.

Lt. Col. Rollie M. Harrison, who was .Flight Surgeon forARMA 11, Ft. Sill, Okla., from 1950 to 1955, is enroute toEurope. He received his BS from the TJniversity of Ill. in1929 and his MD fronl Northwestern [Jniversity College ofMedicine in 1935. He is a graduate of the AF School of AviationMedicine and completed the course in tropical nledicine at theArmy Aledical Center.He is a menlber of the AMA, Chicago ~ M e d . Society, Ill.State Med. Society, Aero Med. Association, Association ofMilitary Surgeons, AF ~ 4 s s o c i a t i o n , Airline Med. ExanlinersA s o c l ~ a t i o n , and Masonic Bodies. -The Editor.


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1955 PILOT'S PHYSICAL FITNESS 7Respiratory efficiency is also favorably affected. Physicaltraining brings about well defined changes in the respiratory

systenl and its functioning. Chest expansion increases, depthof breathing is increased, and the rate of respiration is slo-wed.This has been proved hy controlled tests in which trainedmen -were shown to have breathed less air but to have ab-sorbed a greater amount of its oxygen and also to have elinli-nated a greater quantity of carbon dioxide in expired airthan did the untrained Jnan. According to Bergin, "Theathletic, average weight, physically fit person has a markedlyhigher altitude tolerance than the overweight or otherwiseinferior individual, and a renlarkahle increase ill altitudetolerance can be observed as a result of the institution ofregular physical training exercise and an attenlpt to raisethe general standards of physical fitness in a selected seriesof cases." He also suggests a lower state of physical fitnessas a possible contributing factor in air sickness.In addition to the beneficial efl'ects already nlentioned,exercise provides an outlet for the tensions and worries thatbuild up in the daily activities of flying, particularly as con-cerns the student pilot or the operational flyer. McFarlandsays, "For nlen engaged in airline piloting, exercise relievesemotional tension and improves general well being far out ofproportion to the actual amount of exertion involved."Physical fitness is not entirely dependent upon exercise.although as previously indicated this is a very inlportantfactor. Of equal importance are the individual habits. Ex-cesses of any nature are most undesirable. Overeating, ex-cessive sllloking, and the intelllperate use of alcohol can beconsidered only as insults to the circulatory, respiratory, anddigestive systems and when continued over a period of years,invariably exact a toll in the form of impaired physical fitnessand decreased efficiency.Indiscreet eating habits are prolllinent on the list ofcauses for decreased physical fitness. The average adultperson whose occupation requires only llloderate physicalactivity undoubtedly consumes an excessive amount of food.This is apt to be true especially of persons in sedentary typesof occupation. The amount of food required to Jnaintain aIlorlllal state of nourishment and to provide adequate energyfor the usual activity of flying is probably less than is con-sumed by the average pilot. Individual variations in ability


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8 ARMY AVIATION DIGESTto utilize food do exist, but in many persons overeating resultsin building up body fat and the creation of a weight problemwhich has many undesirable features. Statistics point to arather direct relationship between dietary excesses and obe-sity, or overweight, and the incidence of hypertensive heartdisease, gall bladder disease, diabetes mellitus, and gout.The consumption of alcoholic beverages has no place inthe nlaintenance of physical fitness. I t must be rememberedthat alcohol is an irritant and a toxic substance with no foodvalue although it is a source of energy. McFarland sums itup in this manner, "Although the oxidation of alcohol pro-vides some energy for the body (about 7 calories per gram),it differs markedly from ordinary foods in several ways:(1) It can only be burned immediately and cannot enter intothe building or repair of tissues or be stored for future use asa fuel. (2) It is not utilized more rapidly when the supply isincreased. (3) No accessory food factors, such as vitamins.are present. (4) Alcohol has definite druglike actions andtoxic properties not possessed by foods. (5) Severe organicand mental ailments may result if alcohol is taken in largequantities for a long period of time."Many persons feel that a drink of whiskey or a cocktailgives them a lift when tired or depressed. I t is true that afew drinks may produce a temporary feeling of improved wellbeing, but by the sanle token, when the temporary effectshave been dissipated the resultant let-down is apt to begreater than the reaction that prompted the drinking origi-nally. Not only is this true but if the habit is developed, theamount of alcohol required to produce the desired effect willbecome greater, the subsequent depression will increase, andin a susceptible individual varying degrees of alcoholism mayensue, 'with a general and progressive loss of efficiency.Sleep and rest Inust not be ignored in any discussion ofphysical fitness as they are most important in maintainingefficiency. During sleep the various body processes are slow-ed down and balances are restored in the internal environ-ment. Particularly important are the adverse effects ofinadequate sleep upon the higher centers of the centralnervous system as manifested by increased irritability andimpaired memory. Susceptibility to hypoxia or tolerance foraltitude are progressively lowered by loss of sleep. Adequaterest and sleep are essential for the (Continued on page 40)


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BATTLEFIELD ILLUMINATIONCaptain John B. Kusewitt, Jr., Artillery

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of TheA.rmy or of The Army Aviation School.-The Editor.As darkness engulfed the battlefield, personnel of theFirst Battalion, which was established on the most criticalterrain in the division sector, were somewhat on edge. Theenemy had steadily increased his forces opposite the Firstduring the last few days. The First Battalion Commanderwas concerned and the coming of night made him more so.The enemy had often taken advantage of the cover of darkness to initiate offensive actions in the past. However, de-

fensive plans were complete; subordinate commanders hadbeen informed; and the only thing to do was wait.Upon the hill, Lt. Smith, a forward observer, stuffed hishands in his field jacket pockets, and gave an involuntaryshudder from the chill air. "It's going to be a long night," hethought, "too damn bad we don't have some moonlight tob "ee y."The attack started suddenly. Enemy artillery eruptedwith a roar and the explosions of incoming shells shook the

ground. But almost as suddenly as it started, the artilleryceased and rifle fire spattered through the darkness. Whereare they P How many I t was obvious that an attack hadbegun and Lt. Snlith got on the radio fast! Division artillerywas alerted for final protective fires in case they were needed.In the meantime, light was needed with which to aim smallarms fire and adjust artillery. Lt. Smith got approval frolllbattalion headquarters for the use of aerial flares. He twirledhis radio dial to the division aviation frequency and called anL-20 aircraft which was cruising in the division area on airalert. It was loaded with flares. Within minutes it arrivedover the First Battalion area and the pilot signalled a cre"wmember to release the first flare. As the flare burst into whitelight, a 2500 yard diameter area on the ground beneath it


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10 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilbecame visible. After release of the first flare, the aircraftbegan flying a racetrack pattern while the forward observeron the ground rapidly estimated drift and commanded, "East200, South 400." Three minutes later, the next flare wasreleased. Subsequent comnlands from the observer broughtthe illumination to the desired area with the proper burningheight. Thereafter, the aircraft continued to provide continuous illumination for approxinlately an hour and a halfwhile the forward observer shifted the illumination as required by changes in the ground situation.Fictitiousp Yes, but it serves well to illustrate the missionof Army aviation in battlefield illulllination. Missions of thistype were flown in the latter stages of the Korean War. prilllarily by the 7th Infantry Division. In a recent letter to aformer melllber of his cOlllIlland, Major General Arthur G.Trudeau, then 7th Division Commander, stated in part:"The greatest value of my aviation section in nightoperations was in providing light over the battlefield ,vhenmost needed. By the use of the L-20 in particular, we wereable to pack 40 flares and maintain light over the point underattack for more than an hour and a half. By then spellingthe L-20 by an L-19 with fewer flares while the fornler reloaded, we were able to keep light continuously over anyparticular section of the battlefield. . . Any L-20, being onthe alert when darkness fell, could reach any point beingattacked in any section within minutes . . . "There was only one L-20 aircraft assigned to each division in Korea at the time of which General Trudeau writes;therefore, it was necessary to relieve the L-20 with an L-19.Unfortunately, wide use of Army aviation in battlefieldillumination during the Korean War was not possible due to

Captain John B. Kusewitt, Jr., is Chief, Research andAnalysis Section, Com,bat Development Department, ArmyAviation School. He received his B. S. degree from the [!SMAin June, 1945. He is also a graduate of the Army Basic andAdvanced Artillery Courses, and of the Arm,y Aviation Tacticsand Army Helicopter Aviation Tactics Courses. Du.ring theKorean War he completed a com,bat tour with the Third I n-fan try Division as an Arn1.y Aviator. then was assigned asOperations Officer, Aviation Staff Section. Hq. 8th Arm.y.-The Editor.


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1955 BATTLEFIELD ILLUMINATION 11the critical shortage of aircraft flares. Enough was done,however, to demonstrate the importance of the battlefieldillunlination mission of Army aviation. The mission of Armyaviation in battlefield illumination was prescribed in 1952with the publication of Department of The Army TC 30.This training circular is the basis for current doctrine on thesubject.

l l iuminantsThe object of battlefield illumination is to provide friend-ly forces with sufficient light to assist them in the conduct ofground operations at night, and, when possible, to deny theenenlY the use of the illumination. There are many means ofbattlefield illunlination available to the commander, eachpossessing somewhat different capabilities. They includepyrotechnics such as tripflares, mortar and artillery illumi-nating shells, and aircraft flares as well as searchlights. Theuse of high intensity pyrotechnics in battlefield illumination

provides sufficient light for aimed fire of ground weapons,adjustnlent of indirect fire by ground observers, surveillanceunder conditions approximating daylight, nlovement oftroops and vehicles, minefield operations, evacuation ofcasualties, resupply, and providing direction to ground ele-ments. Such illuminants can also be used to silhouette andharass the enenlY and discourage infiltration, not to mentionincident increase in morale and confidence of friendly troops.However, high intensity pyrotechnic illuminants have thedisadvantage over searchlight illumination in that their usetemporarily destroys the night vision of friendly troops,complicates the supply problem when used in large amounts,and creates a hazard fronl falling parts if activated withinfriendly lines.The use of aircraft flares for battlefield illunlination havecertain advantages over pyrotechnic illunlination by othermeans, such as artillery or mortar shells. .Aircraft flaresprovide very high intensities, slow rates of descent, and longburning times. An aircraft flare will burn over three tinles aslong as a comparable artillery illunlinating shell, resulting inconsiderable economy. Aircraft flares are less subject tomalfunction than are artillery illuminating shells. Further-more, their use permits all ground weapons to be employed


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12 ARMY AVIATION DIGESTin firing lethal shells.Army aircraft are particularly well suited to the missionof battlefield illumination. They are immediately available -to the commander, thus enabling illumination to be furnishedwith a minimum of delay. Flare-loaded aircraft can he employed on a ground alert status or, when conditions require it,they may be employed on an air alert status and fly continuous cover for front lines to deliver on-call illumination.Another significant advantage accrued by using Armyaircraft for battlefield illumination is the better accuracy andcontrol of illumination achieved as compared with high performance aircraft. This accuracy and control result from thereliability and flexihility of air-ground communications, theterrain familiarity of the aircrews, and the relatively lowoperational speeds and altitudes of the aircraft.The L-20 (Beaver) is the fllost suitable ArnlY aircraftfor battlefield illumination. The rear two sets of seats areremoved and flares are stacked longitudinally behind thepilot and copilot seats. The flares are dispensed by handthrough the camera port located in the aft position of thecabin floor. The L-20 not only permits carrying much largerloads than the L-19, but also has the advantage of permittingfuze setting while in flight. This results in better control offlare activation altitudes than that which is obtained whenflares are mounted on bonlb racks as with the L-19.All battlefield illumination must be coordinated so as toprevent the possible exposure of adjacent friendly elements.Overall coordination and control is normally exercised by theinterested division and the procedures established in theSOP. Effective ground control must be exercised with respect to illumination aircraft in order to achieve accuracy ofdelivery, and to effect prompt changes in location of theillumination as required by changes in the ground tacticalsituation.Ground control is effected through the artillery liaisonofficer for Army aircraft and may be visual or radar. In visualcontrol, the ground observer adjusts the release point andheight of burst to obtain the desired illunlination. Thereafter, the aircrew uses the light of preceding flares to dropsuccessive flares. If sufficient orientation for the aircrew isnot available through recognition of terrain features fordropping the initial flare, illuminating (Continlled on page 22)


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AIRCREW EFFICIENCY UPCaptain Weyman S. Carver, Artillery

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of TheArmy or of The ArnlY Aviation School.-The Editor.The efficiency of ArnlY aircrews can be greatly increased

by unit training programs and the cultivation of individualinitiative.In acconlplishing the mission of artillery adjustment, oneof the major missions of Army aviation, an aircre,v frequentlycontrols the firepower of several battalions of artillery.Army aircrews furnished a large portion of the intelligence infornlation pertaining to enemy activity during theKorean War. They were called on to act as radio relay sta-tions, provide battlefield illumination at night, provide closesupport aerial photography, and establish wire communications over difficult terrain. Army pilots often flew regimental, division, corps, and Army commanders on aerialreconnaissance of the combat area so that they might betterformulate battle strategy.Yet, during the Korean War, unit training programs fornewly assigned pilots and observers which would preparethem for these responsibilities were almost non-existent;and display of individual initiative by Army aircrewmen wasthe exception rather than the rule.Most unit conlmanders do not realize that aircrewmen, inaddition to being confronted by the same problems whichconcern personnel assigned to ground duty, have additionalproblems which are peculiar to flying personneL These pro-blems are psychological and physiological as well as technicaland have a direct bearing on the efficiency of the crews.The very environment, spac'e, in which aircrews must livein order to perform their missions is alien. Man is born withphysical senses which enable him to live comfortably whileon the ground. He has no difficulty in telling up from down,in knowing whether he'is going fast or slow, or in knowingwhether he is leaning to the right or to the left while he is


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14 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilon the ground. However, in an aircraft flying through space,he is in an environment in which his senses are no longer asdependable as they were on the ground. This situation is dueto the unusual forces which are exerted upon his body andthe absence of nearby objects with which to establish relativemovement. Initially, due to the strangeness of this newenvironment and the unusual forces, an individual nlayexperience fear.

Fear

Ignorance causes fear, and fear in turn prevents the aircrewman from concentrating on the mission which he hasbeen assigned. Thus, the efficiency of the aircrew is affected.A potential aircrewman must be made airwise if he is to properly perform his duties. His questions concerning flightmust be answered. In addition to academic training, he mustbe given the actual experience of flight before he is assignedduties to perform. He must become familiar with the operation of his weapon, which is the aircraft and its equipment.An aircraft is an unstable platform which can move inall directions, up, down, sideways, or turn completely over.The aircrewman must be capable of orienting himself and performing his mission regardless of the position of his aircraft.He must become so accustomed to the unusual positions, theroll and pitch of the aircraft, the physical sensations of flight,and the sounds caused by the wind and the engine of his shipthat he has no apprehensive feelings, is not uncomfortable,and can devote his full attention to the accomplishment ofhis mission. Academic training on the ground, and the actualexperience of flying in an aircraft familiarizes the potentialaircrewman with flight, dispels his fears, instills confidence,and thus enables him to live in the environment of space ashe has in the past lived on the ground.The Army pilot, upon assignment to a unit having organic aviation, is air-wise. He no longer must concentrateon the problems of flight itself. He has experienced flight,learned the mechanics of his weapon, and is ready for trainingin the specific mission which he is to perform. On the otherhand, the potential aerial observer, upon reporting to a unitfor flight duty, is neither air-wise nor trained in the use ofhis weapon. He must learn the technical problems of aerial


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1955 AIRCREW EFFICIENCY UP 15observation and adapt himself, through training and experience, psychologically and physiologically to his newenvironment, space.Under the present organization and operation of Armyaviation, the unit to which these aircrewmen are assignedmust provide the required training.The unit training programs for the pilot and observershould be established so as to provide the best instruction forthe number of personnel to be trained. In most units, thiswill mean an infornlal presentation of instructional materialsince there is often only one man to be trained. Obviously,if there is only one man to be trained or if a qualified instructor can be assigned to each student, the formal lecturetype presentation of material is unnecessary. Individualinstruction is desirable. However, the fact that informal,individual instruction can be provided does not eliminate thenecessity for the unit having an organized training program.The details, such as the length of time to be devoted to eachsubject, training aids to be used, and the manner in whichthe material is to be presented are dependent upon the unitcOlllmander and his particular problems.

Common TrainingMuch of the training required is common to both pilotand observer. The comnlander, taking into consideration hisunit's particular problenls, should instruct all newly assignedpersonnel on the unit's mission, its organization, communi

cations, and safety.The organization of Army aviation sections differs inpractice with the particular problellls involved. Somesections consist of only two aircraft and their crews whileother sections are of a centralized type in which aircraft andcrews from several battalions or regiments have been concentrated in order to provide better aerial support and reduceadministrative problems. The organization, cOlllmand channels, and administration of the unit nlust be explained to thene\vly assigned personnel. A map study should be conductedand followed by an actual flight over the area during whichprolninent landmarks, other units' locations, and dangerareas are pointed out.The orientation on conlIDunications should include in-


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16 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilstruction on the particular type radios being used in the unit'saircraft followed by a tour of the communications installationsin the local area. Familiarizing aircrewnlen with the problemsofpersonnel operating these installations increases cooperation,improves communications, and increases over-all efficiency.A good safety program is not an accident. Aircrewmenshould be thoroughly briefed on the unit's ground and flightsafety programs. This training should stress aircraft accidentprevention, aircraft crash firefighting, and especially subjectsin which the aircrewmen have a very personal interest, such asthe procedure for bailing out of the type aircraft which theyare to fly, location and use of the fire extinguisher and firstaid equipment in the aircraft, care of parachutes, use of sur-vival kits if used locally, recommended methods of ditchingaircraft and use of emergency life rafts, if applicable, andemergency procedures in event of forced landing. The me-chanical perfection of modern aircraft precludes most ofthese emergencies but the exigencies of combat flying cannotbe overlooked. In order to instill confidence in aircrewmen,and in the event of an emergency to have them preparedwith an action plan, the unit commander should evolve suchplans and instruct his personnel in their execution. This doesnot constitute an alarmist attitude but assures the changingof an incident from an emergency to a standard operationalprocedure. I t results in the saving of life and equipment andan increased efficiency of aircrews through their increasedconfidence in their abilities.

Pilot TrainingThe training prograln for the pilot is, due to his priorexperience, much less conlplex than the one required forpotential observers. In addition to his education on theabove common subjects, the new pilot requires specific training regarding his duties and the equipment which he will beusing. Prior to being assigned flight duties, he should re-ceive a checkout in the type aircraft which he is to fly whileassigned to the unit. If the pilot is not thoroughly fanliliarwith the aircraft and its equipment, he cannot devote hisfull attention to the performance of his mission.The manner in which missions are accomplished willdiffer not only with the type missions but with equipment


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1955 AIRCREW EFFICIENCY UP 17available, local objectives, terrain, weather, and other factors.A particular unit's primary lllission might be that of providingaerial photography and, due to the type call1era equipmentavailable, a specific flight altitude above the ground might berequired in order to provide a desired scale. The new pilothas probably flown photographic missions, either in trainingor in other units, but he lllUSt be made aware of the unit'sspecial problems. Another example in which local pro-blellls lllUst be considered is the aerial patrol reconnaissancemission. It is often only a thrill ride for a patrol leader dueto the pilot's lack of training. There is a difference of opinionon the altitude above the ground at which an aerial patrol re-connaissance should be flown. Obviously, there is an optimum altitude under given conditions at which to fly and thereshould be a methodical procedure for the performance of sucha lllission. Again, local problems, terrain, weather, and ex-perience of personnel to be flown will dictate the procedureto be established.In the event that there is weather phenomena which ispeculiar to the area, such as cyclones, unusual turbulence,intense thunderstorm activity, or low visibility conditions,the unit commander should be certain that the new pilot isthoroughly briefed concerning it.

Observer TrainingDuties of aerial observers differ with the lnissions assign-ed. Some observers are concerned only with the adju,stment

of artillery fire, some the adjustment of mortar fire, some areconcerned prilllarily with the collection of intelligence infor-mation, and some, such as the patrol leader mentioned above,are concerned with a one-time flight during which they willobserve the proposed route of a patrol, the movement of aconvoy, the location of a bivouac area, or the effect of camou-flage. F or the purpose of this discussion, observers lllay bedivided into the two categories of permanent and temporaryobservers. Those whose primary duty is aerial observationare permanent observers and those concerned with a onetime aerial observation are temporary observers.Most observers, upon reporting to the air unit for thefirst time, will have had no experience in aerial observationand their knowledge of aircraft will be very limited. Thus,


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18 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilthey are faced with the technical problems of observationand the psychological and physiological problems which theywill encounter in becoming air-wise in their new environment, space. Before sending the potential observers onmissions, the air officer must provide them with as muchtraining as time pernlits to help overcome these problems.Naturally, when a tenlporary observer comes down for hisfIrst flight, there is not sufficient time to train hinl properlyfor the perfornlance of his duties but he can be briefed.

Temporary ObserverIn order to alleviate the natural fear most people experience on their first flight and to educate him as much aspossible concerning aerial observation, the briefing of thetemporary observer by the pilot who is to fly the missionshould include the following:I. A map orientation in which the route to be flown, theobjectiyE', and surrounding terrain features are pointed out.2. Use of field glasses.3. :Fitting of a parachute, its use, and bailout procedures.4. Operation of the safety belt and shoulder straps.5. Brief description of an aircraft, its controls, and whyit flies.6. Physical sensations which will be experienced, that is,effect of centrifugal forces on the body and the clogging of theears caused by constriction in the passages between the throatand the inner ear. The means of relieving this clogging by

holding the nose and forcing air into the nasal and throatpassages should be explained.Ohviously, this briefing must be tailored to fit the individual situation. A thorough briefing results in a betterperforlllance of the mission.Permanent Observer

Training of the permanent observer should also includethe above but it should be much more extensive than theshort briefing type training given to the temporary observer.The permanent observer is cOllling to the air section to stay,to be a part of an aircrew, and he llluSt become an expert.First, he must learn his weapon and beconle accustomed to


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1955 AIRCREW EFFICIENCY UP 19his new environment of space.That which is commonplace and obvious to menlbers ofthe air section who have considerable flight experience represents the unknown to the new observers. Few of themliave any knowledge of the theory of flight, how the pilotcontrols the aircraft, or the effect weather has on flight.Many of them are amazed when they discover for the firsttime that the aircraft will not fall from the sky in a fatal spinif the engine quits or is shut off by the pilot. L u d i c r o u s ~Remember that their education concerning flight has beenconfined largely to the headlines which they read in newspapers.A training progranl must be established in which the newobserver is educated so that he, like the pilot, beconles air-wise. It would be ideal if the observer could be given thetraining which is received by the pilot, but this is not practi-ca lor possible. However, the observer can be given athorough familiarization course of several hours instructionwhich includes a study of the construction of the aircraft,fundamentals of flight, reading of aerial charts and aerialphotographs, use of equipment in the aircraft, and emergency procedures. The course of instruction should consistlargely of demonstrations and practical exercises.A Illust in the training of the observer is a series oforientation flights. The first flights should be devoted tofamiliarizing the observer with the experience of flight, including the feel and operation of the aircraft controls, and ingeneral, to putting hinl at ease in the air. As he beconles accustomed to flying, he should be taught recognition of objectsfrOID the vertical viewpoint, use of field glasses in flight, radioprocedure, and the use of his aerial charts and photographs.Once he has become air-wise and mastered his weapon,the aircraft and its equipment, his training for the particularmission which he is to perform may.be initiated. The extentof this training is largely dependent upon the individualobserver's past experience and his ability to learn. For example, if he is to be taught the adjustment of artillery firefrom an aerial observation post, he will have much lessdifficulty if he is already familiar with the fundamentals ofadjustment of fire from a ground O. P.Since there is no other training available for aerial observers in the Army, the unit must provide all the training


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20 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilwhich is required. This can be done only by the establishment of an organized observer training program by the unitcommander in which the above areas are covered in detail.

Individual InitiativeIndividual initiative, due largely to the isolation of aircrewmen, must be cultivated to the extent that they will havean in!ense personal desire to accomplish their missions in asuperIor manner.Pilots and aerial observers do not have the companion

ship which their fellow soldiers enjoy on the ground. Once theaircraft leaves the ground, they rise into a world of their ownconsisting of the aircraft and its occupants. There is no onewith them to lead and give orders. They, as a team, are theirown leaders and they must give and execute their own orders.In combat, it is often exceptionally difficult to determinewhether a crew succeeded or failed during a mission behindenemy lines, and if it did fail, it is almost impossible to determine where the fault lay.The majority of the Army aircrewmen's missions in conlbat are accomplished with the enemy as the only witness.Fire missions are initiated and intelligence reports are basedon what the aircrewmen report seeing. If they do not knowwhat to look for or do not get close enough to the enemy to seeproperly, their reports may be erroneous. In the tumult andconstant change of combat, it is impossible to accuratelycritique a particular mission.without basing the critique onthe aircre\\r's report. I t is true, in the missions of aerial photography and illumination of the battlefield which are performed over enemy territory, that concrete evidence is available with which to critique the missions. These have beenthe exceptions rather than the rule. In the final analysis, themost important single factor determining whether or not theaircrew- accomplishes its mission is the desire of the individuals to do so.The desire to accomplish their mission regardless of the

difficulties or hazards encountered may be instilled andmaintained in the individuals by the unit commander throughindirect action.A high esprit de corps must be established in the unit.Esprit de corps among Army aircrew personnel is usually


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1955 AIRCREW EFFICIENCY UP 21notable by its absence. The performance of their dutiesisolates them from the companionship of other g r o u ~ d troopswhich results in their not having the sense of belonging to anorganization that other troops have. This is usually truewhether the air section is a centralized type or whether itconsists of two pilots and two observers assigned to a battalion. The ground unit commander often does not havetime to take a personal interest in the air section's training,operation, and accomplishments. This apparent lack ofinterest results in a disinterested attitude on the part of theflying personnel.

. Obviously, the solution to this problem is for personnelof the air unit to be included in the activities of personnelassigned to ground duties. Representatives from the unitshould be included in staff conferences of the parent groundunit. The air section should be frequently inspected by higher commanders. These inspections provide concrete evidencethat the parent command is interested in the unit and assuresthat the unit will maintain a high state of preparedness.Personnel desire rigid policies and firmness in the operation of the unit. The unit air officer must provide them withleadership which will give them this desired firmness. The airofficer must require high standards of physical appearanceand dress. External neatness tends to instill internal desireto maintain the neatness and builds pride in the individualand the unit. .Awards

Naturally, the most important means of cultivatinginitiative in personnel is to provide concrete evidence of theaccomplishments of individuals or of teams. This createscompetitive spirit. I t may be done by maintaining a chartwhich shows flight time and missions accomplished or by providing awards such as a three-day pass for outstandingachievement, commendation letters, or even decorationswhere warranted. Awards should not be given for minoraccomplishments or as bribery for the performance of assigned duties, but in recognition of the effort expended by theindividual beyond the call of duty in accomplishing his mission. The individual should feel that he has received a justreward for overcoming unusual difficulties which he en-


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22 ARMY AVIATION DIGESTcountered in his mission. This type award IS extremelyimportant where, as in the case of aircrewmen, individualinitiative often means the difference between success orfailure of a mission.

ConclusionThe above suggestions for increasing aircrew efficiencyare general in nature. It is not possible to prescribe specificrules which, when applied, would assure an increase in aircrew efficiency in every unit.. There are too many localfactors to be considered. Each commander must, under the

above general outline, evolve specific procedures applicableto his particular unit. He alone can determine the precisetraining required in his unit and the nleans of providing it.But to increase aircrew efficiency, he must provide adefinite training program for his pilots and observers andcultivate the initiative of the individual.(BATTLEFIELD ILLUMIIVATION continued from page12) or white phosphorous orientating rounds may be fired toidentify the initial drop point to the aircrew. Radar controlmay be used in bad weather to vector the aircraft to the release point. Radar vectoring nlay be accomplished by theartillery countermortar radar section with the MPQ-IOradar. The technique for vectoring while using this radar isbeyond the scope of this article; however, The ArtillerySchool at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, is preparing procedures forthis operation. In general, the procedures used are sinlilarto GCA operations. Direct communications must be estab-lished between the aircraft and the ground control agency.Even when radar is used, a visual ground observer shouldbe used to adjust or monitor the release point.There are two points to remember in dropping flares.The initial drop should always be aimed beyond the area tobe illuminated and the subsequent flares should be adjustedafter wind drift has been determined. Otherwise, wind effectsmight result in unfavorable illumination of friendly elementsby the initial flare.Battlefield illumination has been an Arm-y aviationmission for several years and it is an important missionwhich requires extensive training. Is your outfit prepared tofulfill this m i s s i o n ~


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ARMY WEATHER SERVICEPrivate First Class Ralph Schoenstein

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of The~ 4 r m y or of The Army Aviation School.-The Editor.In an outstanding example of interservice cooperation,the United States Army and the United States Air Force inthe Far East have pooled men and equipment in an operationwhich will help keep Army aircraft flying. Four weatherstations in Japan, constructed by the Army Signal Corpsand manned by officers and airmen of the Air Force, aretoday disselllinating information vital to the maintenanceof Army aviation.The Army Signal Corps recognized the need for a morecOlllprehensive weather service to the Army but lacked thetrained meteorologists to operate the required weather sta-tions. Because of this shortage of technicians. BrigadierGeneral Albert F. Cassevant, the Army Signal Officer in theFar East Command, negotiated with the Far East Air Forcesto supply personnel to operate these units.The First Weather Wing of FEAF inlmediately cooperated by supplying the meteorologists who manned the weatherstations which were supplied with Signal Corps communication equipment, radios, facsinlile lnachines, and teletype-writers.Weather forecasting stations at Zanla, Sendai, and Otsu,with an additional observation station at Chofu, are nowfurnishing weather service exclusively to Army units. Although the customer receiving most of this service is Armyaviation, there is also a big demand for weather service by

non-aviation units. For example, although all of thesestations are located on air strips, Transportation and Engineerunits also receive and utilize information from them. TheEngineers would not want to pour cement on the day of afrost; Transportation would not want to be caught movinga large shipment of cargo on the day (Continued on page 27)


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FIRE AND SODAWillianl R. Gaines

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of TheArmy or of The Army Aviation School.-The Editor.Many of you married men remember when your newbride cooked her first large meal, and, after eating it, you feltyour life was saved by a teaspoonful of baking soda. Orperhaps you remember the nlorning after a party when yougot up with burning pains in your stomach, reached for thebicarbonate of soda (baking soda), put out the fire, and feltthat again your life had been saved.Bicarbonate of soda is also one of the best extinguishingagents known for use in combating gasoline, oil, and electricalfires. It is really possible for a dose of soda to save a life.During the last five years there has been considerable research in the use of dry chenlical extinguishers in combatinghydro-carbon and electrical fires. Fortunately, electricalfires are extremely rare in most types of Army aircraft, suchas the L-19, H-13, and H-23. The gasoline-type fire is, forall practical purposes, the only type which we who are concerned with Army aircraft have to combat.To date, carbon dioxide and foam have been the principal extinguishing agents used in fighting aircraft fires. Thesetwo agents combat fire by cutting off the oxygen supply,that is, they smother the fire as you would if you threw ablanket over it. Of the two agents, carbon dioxide, underideal conditions and with sufficient quantity, provides themost rapid extinguishment of a fire. However, in strong windconditions, the efficiency of carbon dioxide is greatly reducedsince it is a gas and dissipates in the air. The second agent,foam, may be pre-mixed or may be placed on the fire by useof a pickup nozzle which proportions the foam to the water.The foam, upon application, forms a thick blanket over thefire, thus cutting off the oxygen supply. Large quantitiesof foam may be produced, pre-mixed, in equipment such as


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FIRE AND SODA 25Type 0-10 and Type 0-11 aircraft crash fire fighting vehicles.The Navy Department recently completed a study inwhich it used a dry chemical, bicarbonate of soda, as an ex-tinguishing agent. The Navy personnel discovered that thedry chemical is much more effective than carbon dioxide ona pound-for-pound basis. The reason it has not been com-pletely adopted by the Navy is due to the fact that it leaves afine powder residue whieh may clog carburetors and smallorifices.In Army aviation crash fires, our primary purpose is tosave life by immediate extinguishment of the fire. The drychemical, soda, compared to carbon dioxide, provides a muchfaster extinguishnlent. The ability of the dry chemical unitsto rapidly extinguish oil and gasoline fires has been effectivelydemonstrated in their use against pit and pan fires. On a daywith ten to fifteen miles-per-hour winds, against a 3x3 footpan fire of burning gasoline, one 4-pound dry chemical unitextinguished it within ten seconds, whereas. three 5-poundcarbon dioxide units failed to extinguish the blaze. Drychemicals will also extinguish spill type fires, such as thosewhich occur when a wing tank is ruptured. Carbon dioxidewill not extinguish this type blaze. Another advantage ofthe dry powder extinguisher is that immediately upon itsrelease, a shield of powder which cuts off the intense heatis formed, permitting the user to approach much closer to theblaze from which point he can more effectively direct theextinguishment. When the sodium bicarbonate is placedon the fire, it begins burning at 1650 Fahrenheit, thus pro-ducing large quantities of carbon dioxide which blankets thefire, cuts off the oxygen, and causes extinguishment.

William R. Gaines is presently the Safety Director at CampRucker, Alabama. He received his B. S. from, PennsylvaniaState Teachers College in 1940, then entered Naval flight train-ing. [Tpon graduation he received his pilot's rating and wascommissioned as an ensign in the Navy. At the time of hisseparation from active duty, he had attained the rank of Lieuten-ant Commander and was in charge of flight instrncior trainingat the Naval Air Station, Pensacola, Florida. He has over5,000 hours flight time as a pilot. He is also a graduate of theH-13 mechanic course given by the Bell Aircraft Corp. and ofthe N. Y. Univ. Safety Engineering Course.-The Editor


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26 ARl\fY AVIATION DIGEST AprilThe sodiulll bicarbonate in the dry chemical extinguishersis expelled from the extinguisher by either compressed carbon

dioxide or compressed nitrogen. In hand-type extinguishers,up to 30-pound size, carbon dioxide is used as an expellingagent. In the larger, wheel-type extinguishers of 150 to300-pound size, compressed nitrogen is used as an expellingagent. Use of the compressed nitrogen cylinders permitsregulation of the pressure.Manufacturers of dry chemical extinguishers have demonstrated nation-wide the effectiveness of bicarbonate ofsoda compared with carbon ~ i o x i d e and foanl. In most allcases where demonstrations have been given, the corporationconcerned switched to dry chenlical for use as its priInaryextinguishment agent. The majority of petroleum companiesin the United States use the dry soda powder as an extinguishing agent around their transportation terminals.Piasecki, Lockheed, and other aircraft manufactuers are alsousing the dry powder in their flight line equipment. TheRoyal Canadian Air Force has furnished its air bases withlarge 1,000 and 4,000 pound dry powder units which are usedwhen responding to a crash on the line. Foam and waterfogare maintained only as a back-up-type support.The jeep mounted 3S0-pound dry powder unit and afoam truck make an excellent working combination on largeairfields. A jeep thus equipped also provides ideal aircraftcrash-rescue equipment for small Army air sections wherelarger equipment is not justified. Jeeps are readily availablesince they are assigned to most all Army airfield operationsoffices, and the mounting of dry powder units is a minorexpense considering the protection which is afforded. Further,these units are simple to operate and personnel can be trainedeasily and inexpensively. The units may be recharged bythe local air section personnel. In units where nitrogencylinders are used, the cylinders must be changed in orderto recharge the unit. If spare cylinders are available, this canbe done in a matter of minutes. Recharging of hand extinguishers requires approximately five minutes time. Further,the jeep has much greater mobility than the Type 0-10and 0-11 equipment.When a small fire occurs, such as a carburetor fire"naturally a small carbon dioxide hand extinguisher should beused. However, in any situation where a life may be en-


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1955 FIRE AND SODA 27dangered or considerable property damage result due toslower extinguishment of the flames, a dry powder unitshould be used.In view of the superior extinguishing capabilities of thebicarbonate of soda which have been demonstrated, and dueto the fact that most Army aircraft fires are of the oil orgasoline type, jeep-mounted 350-pound mobile units andhand extinguishers utilizing the dry chemical would providemuch more effective and economical fire extinguishers thanthe foam and carbon dioxide types currently used.(ARMY WEA THER SERVICE continued from page 23)of a heavy snowfall or typhoon. Each of these four weatherstations is manned by one weather forecasting officer and sixenlisted airmen who take hourly weather observations whichthey transmit to all weather stations in Japan includingcivilian and Air Force stations. After receiving observationsfrom other stations, the unit prepares its weather map fromwhich the weather officer makes his forecast.I t is still true, as Mark Twain said, that everybody talksbut does nothing about the weather; but, working side-byside, the Army and Air Force in Japan are now talking aboutit more than ever. And, while the weather remains un-changeable, the constant talk about it is proving invaluableto a service once concerned only with the solid earth.Army aviation units need personalized weather serviceby men who will analyze weather in terms of the unit'sspecialized operation. These four stations which are set upto serve the Army make more intensive analyses of weatherin smaller areas because Army aircraft fly lower and makeshorter trips than the planes of the Air Force. Fog on amountain or low pressure in a valley would not he of interestto a B-36 flying from Tokyo to Hawaii; but this infornlationwould be of vital importance for the pilot of a two-enginedArmy passenger plane flying from Tokyo to Otsu, or the pilotof an Army helicopter making a hop from Tokyo to Zama.The reconnaissance planes, passenger planes, and heli-copters of the Army's aviation units Dlust have customtailored weather service. With equipment supplied by theSignal Corps, the men of the United States Air Force arehelping to keep airborne a small but essential departmentof a brother service.


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H-13 FLIGHTRULES OF THUMB

Hans Weichsel, Jr.

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of TheArmy or of The Arnty Aviation School.-The Editor.The following "rules of thumb" have been prepared forhelicopter pilots in an effort to assist in predicting helicopterperformance under any particular set of conditions. Some ofthese "rules of thumb" are applicable to all helicopters whileothers are applicable only to Bell Model 47. Unless otherwise noted, the following will be for Bell 47-200 Horsepower(H-13 C, D, E, HTL-3, -4, and -5, 47Dl and G).

Rule No.1Maximum Payload IncreaseFrequently a pilot is called on to fly to an unfamiliarlocation to pick up a load and is too rushed to become involved in figuring loads under varying conditions. This was

particularly true in Korea where pilots flew to the front,picked up the wounded, and flew them back to a MASH unit.If the pilot, prior to landing at his "pick-up destination,"momentarily opened his throttle wide at 100 feet or lessabove the landing site level and noted his maximum availablemanifold pressure reading (in forward flight), he would thenknow approximately his maximum obtainable manifoldpressure for take-off. Then, while hovering prior to landing,if the pilot reads his manifold pressure for the hover condition, that is height off the ground, wind, temperature, etc., themaximum additional payload can be determined as follows:Take the difference between full throttlemanifold pressure and manifold pressure required to hover. This excess manifold pres-


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H-13 FLIGHT RULES OF THUMBsure in inches can be translated into increased weight-l inch of manifold pressureequalling approximately 30 pounds weight.

29

For example: A pilot making an approach to a mountaintop has a maximum manifold pressure of 27 inches, fullthrottle. On landing, he notes that he has to clear a 4foot obstacle; consequently, he hovers 3 feet, or thereabouts,above the ground and notes it requires 24 inches to hover.The difference between 27 inches full throttle and 24 inchesfor hovering is 3 inches of manifold pressure which, whenmultiplied by 30 equals 240 pounds as the approxirnate maximum load he can add and still hover his desired height abovethe ground. Tenlperature, wind, altitude, fuel load, flightweight, helicopter empty weight, etc., are thus taken intoaccount.This rule of thumb was derived from flight test engineering data. The engine's power curves show 1 inch manifoldpressure equals 6 horsepower. The helicopter's speed powerpolar indicates 1 horsepower lifts 13.5 Ibs. at hovering.Thus, 1 inch HG equals 30 Ibs. is a good rule of thumb.A conservative estimate of the reduction in gross weightdue to fuel consumed in cruising flight is 30 Ibs. per hour.

Rule No.2Hovering Ceiling IncreaseIf, while hovering prior to climb out, the pilot determines the number of excess inches of manifold pressure available above that which is required to hover, he can determineat how much higher an altitude he can successfully hover bythe following rule:Add 1000 feet to the take-off altitude for eachexcess inch of manifold pressure available, providing the winds at the destination are conlpar-Hans Weichsel is supervisor of sales engineering for the

helicopter division of Bell A ircraft Corporation, Forth Worth,Texas. He has a commercial pilot's license with instrument,helicopter and glider instructor, and single and nlulti-engineratings. He obtained his degree in aeronautical engineeringfrom the [Tniversity of Michigan and has had extensive testengineerinrf experience in rotary wing aircraft.-The Editor.


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1955 H-13 FLIGHT RULES OF THUMB 31pounds for each mph not to exceed 300 pounds."This conservative correction is valid when used in conjunction -with the calculator. It is not valid, however, whenused as a general rule for determining the effect of bothincreases and decreases in wind velocity.

Rule No.4Effect OJ Hovering HeightThe height above the ground from -which a successfultake-off can be lllade varies widely because of adverse or

advantageous terrain features. On level ground with noobstacles present, the minimum practical take-off clearanceheight has been determined by flight tests to be approxinlately4 feet. The effect of varying hovering heights on performancecan be estimated by the following rule:For each 6 inch decrease in skid height below4 feet, add 300 feet to the hovering ceilingor 24 Ibs. to the payload.For each 1 foot increase in skid height between4 and 10 feet, subtract 300 feet from the hovering ceiling or 24 Ibs. from the pay oad. (Groundeffect is decreased rapidly above 10 feet).For example: If terrain features forced a pilot to nlakea hovering take-off utilizing a skid height of 8 feet, he mustreduce his payload 4 times 24 or 96 Ibs. below that which hecould carry if he could take off successfully from a 4-footskid height.This rule was derived by approximating flight test results of the reduction in power required to hover when operating close to the ground (in ground effect) as compared tothat required out of ground effect.

SummaryJudicious use of these thumb rules by pilots flying theH-13 will allow fuller utilization of the ship and will give the

pilot an insight to the effect of various factors on helicopterperformances. However, pilots are cautioned that thesethlunb rules are approximate aids to them and are not licensesto exceed operating limitations nor are they substitutionsfor pilot experience and judgment.


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INSTRUMENT FLIGHT HINTSNolen C. Howell

The views expressed in this article are the author's andare not necessarily those of the Department of TheArmy or of The Army Aviation SchooI.-The Editor.Every trade has its tricks and instrument flying is noexception. Here are a few such tricks of basic instrument

flying which have proven their merit.Learn to relax while flying instruments. Practice relax-ing. Occasionally remove all pressure from all controls andobserve the tendency of the attitude instruments. If youhave been flying with a poor trim setting, or have been hold-ing an unrealized control pressure, it will inImediately showup. Maintain proper trim and use a light touch on thecontrols.Timed turns on partial panel require good technique.The computation must be accurate and the rate of turn mustbe three degrees per second or it nlust average three degreesper second. To get the timing accurate, start the time whenpressure is applied to the controls in starting the turn. Keepthe turn indicator deflected for a standard rate turn untilthe computed time has expired, then apply pressure to bringthe turn indicator to the center index at the same rate it wasdeflected to start the turn.I t is impossible in rough air to keep the turn indicatordeflected exactly correct for a standard rate turn, so it nlustbe made to average out three degrees of turn per second. Ifmore than a standard rate turn is indicated for a few seconds,then less than a standard rate turn must be indicated forabout the same period of tinle. Do not hesitate to make acorrection to average out a turn when the turn indicator isobserved to be deflected incorrectly. Upon rolling out of aturn, maintain a fast cross check on the turn indicator. Acommon error at this point is to overconcentrate on themagnetic compass. Keep the turn indicator centered untilthe compass has settled down.An improperly calibrated turn indicator adds to thedifficulty of nlaking an accurate timed turn. Suppose the


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1955 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT HINTS 33turn indicator reads fast. For example, a standard rate in-dication for two minutes turns the aircraft only 345 degreesrather than 360 degrees. This error must be allowed for byturning at an indicated rate greater than standard. However,the error is so slight that any correction made throughout aturn will be almost certain to cause the aircraft to overshootthe desired heading. Do not make the correction throughoutthe turn. Make an intelligent estimate of the time requiredto compensate for the fast turn indicator, and then correctonly during that period of time, keeping the needle deflectedat standard rate for the remainder of the turn.

Another method of allowing for an improperly calibratedturn indicator is to adjust the turning time. However, whenholding or doing pattern work, it is desirable to make standardrate turns in order to facilitate timing. Check your ability tocount seconds up to ten seconds. This will make smallturns easier by eliminating the clock from your cross check.Know the turning errors of the magnetic compass. Inunaccelerated flight these errors fall into a set pattern whichcan provide useful information. The patterns of errors arecompletely disrupted when the angle of bank exceeds approxi-mately twenty degrees, so in order to apply the followingprocedure, the aircraft must not be banked steeper thantwenty degrees. It should be noted, hOF"ever, that a banksteeper than twenty degrees will not be necessary to producea standard rate turn, unless the true air speed exceeds 150miles per hour. The magnetic compass lags approximatelythirty degrees when turning near north headings and leadsthe turn the same amount near south headings. I t is approxi-mately correct in turns near headings of east and west.Suppose you are performing a timed turn to the rightfrom a heading of 060 degrees to a heading of 200 degrees,but for SOlne reason you failed to get an accurate time check '

_Mr. Nolen G. Howell is an instrument flight instructor withthe Arm,y Aviation School, Canl,p Rucker, Alaban2a. He beganhis aeronautical instruction in 1941 as an aviation ground in-structor and has been a flight instructor with the U. S. ~ 4 r m ysince 1949.He has logged over 9,000 hours pilot time, has a commercialpilot's license with airline transport, single and multi-enginerating, and flight instrnctor ratings in rotary and fixed wing.

-The Editor.


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34 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST Aprilat entry. This means you have no predetennined time forroll out. The desired heading can normally still be approxi-mated by noting when the magnetic COlnpass reads 210degrees. at which instant the aircraft should be headed south.This nleans you have twenty more degrees to turn, or approxi-mately seven seconds at standard rate. Start a seven secondcount at the 210 degrees indication and recover at the endof the count. To turn left from a heading of 080 degreesto a heading of 330 degrees using the same procedure, start aten second count when the magnetic compass reads 030degrees. By properly applying the known characteristicsof the compass, any heading can be approximated. Thelead and lag errors are a result of the latitude, so the allow-ance for these errors may have to be adjusted according tothe locality. With decreasing latitude, the lead and lagheconle less. This nlethod of turning to a compass heading isnot recommended as a standard procedure. It conIes underthe classification of "nice to know information."At times while flying instruments, it is a good procedureto know your reciprocal heading. Some pilots find the easiestmethod of conlputing a reciprocal heading is to add 200degrees to the present heading and subtract twenty degreesfronl the sum, or if more convenient, subtract 200 degreesfrom the present heading and add twenty degrees to thedifference. A perpendicular heading can likewise be quicklycomputed by applying 100 degrees and ten degrees in thesame manner.The vertical pointer of the flight indicator often confusesa beginning instrument student because it and the turn needleare on opposite sides of the zero index during a turn. Re-member, the vertical pointer of the flight indicator remainsvertical during banking maneuvers, whereas the turn needlemeasures the rate of rotation of the aircraft around its verti-cal axis. Since the aircraft, in banking maneuvers, rotatesaround the vertical pointer of the flight indicator with thepointer remaining vertical, it follows that this pointer mustindicate the angle of bank of the aircraft, while the turnindicator is showing the rate of turn of the aircraft. If youobserve the vertical pointer of the flight indicator to be tothe right side of the zero index, the aircraft is banked to theleft and the turn indicator will be deflected to the left. Toreturn to level flight, apply right rudder and aileron pressure


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1955 INSTRUMENT FLIGHT HINTS 35as required. So perhaps it would be well to remenlber thatthe vertical pointer of the flight indicator can be returned tothe zero index by applying control pressure in the saInedirection the pointer is removed from the zero index.

The direction to turn to a heading, especially if the re-quired change is small, is another trouble maker for manybasic instrument students. Turn to the right to increase theheading and to the left to decrease the heading. Using thisrule for turns near north may require that a heading such as005 degrees be considered as 365 degrees. Another plan usedhy many pilots is to visualize the aircraft rotating around av e r t i ~ a l axis running through the center of the directionalindicator while the card renlains stationary. The lubber lineof the directional indicator can be pictured in the mind asbeing controlled by the rudder pedals. When the desiredheading is visible in the window of the directional gyro ormagnetic compass, it is easy to visualize the rudder movingthe lubber line around to the desired number. This planshould not be construed to mean that the turn is actuallyaccomplished by rudder alone. Take note of the fact thatthe directional gyro has an inverted triangle index for head-ings of 045 degrees and 315 degrees, but has no index for 135degrees and 225 degrees. A roll out on northeast or north-west is made easier by the index, but no index is present toaid the pilot on a southeast or southwest roll out.

Learn to take care of first things first. High on the listof first things is maintaining the proper flight attitude at alltimes. To do this requires a constant cross check of theflight instruments. Many things can distract your attentionand slow down the cross check. One such distraction is mak-ing a change in power settings. This distracting influencecan be kept to a minimum by continuing the cross check ofthe flight instruments while the power change is initiatedand checking the power instruments only after the correctpower setting is approxinlated. A quick glance at the tacho-meter or manifold pressure will indicate any need for a furtherchange. This same technique can be applied to setting aspecifIc carburetor air temperature. Do not stare at thepower instruments while making a power change.

The above techniques apply to most of the more commonnlaneuvers which are known to cause difficulty in basic flying.


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Bull In The China ShopWe thought that we had seen everything in accidentsuntil we came across this case which happened in Germany.A Private E-2 was serving as Charge of Quarters for the AirSection and about midnight he decided to get in a little taxipractice. He cranked up an L-19 and went travelling aroundthe field but he misjudged the edge of the runway and hisright wheel dropped into a ditch which was approximatelyeight inches deep. Private E-2 jammed on the brakes,causing the aircraft to stand on its nose. Minor damage wasdone to the propeller and the oil cooler.If, at this point, he had left well enough alone, damagewould have been approximately twenty dollars. Further,it would have been classified as an incident and not an acci-dent, according to regulations. However, he decided that he

The Grey Hare Department is prepared monthly by the CampRucker, Alabama, Post Safety Director, Mr. Willianl R. Gaines,with information obtained from the files of the world-wide aircraft accident safety review board. The views expressed are theauthor's and are not necessarily those of the Department of theArmy 01' of The Army Aviation School.-The Editor.


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GREY HARE SAYSwould climb up on the wing,out over the top of the rearpilot's compartment to thetail section, and force thetail ~ o the ground. His firstattempt to crawl on top ofthe wing was over the rightflap which he found would

37

not support his weight. It < Ibent. No, he did not stop. ;,'Up the steps on the strut and _____ .@ _ ~fuselage he went. He grab- s- ~ . - : - -bed hold of the free air temperature gauge and broke it off.With sheer determination he made it to the top of the wingwhere he tramped on the rear deck window and fell throughit with one leg . Undeterred, he continued up the fuselageand broke off the low frequency antenna. When he eventually reached the tail section, he found that his weight was notsufficient to lower the tail to a three-point attitude.One would think our Private E-2 would have stopped atthis point. Not with his determination! He procured athree-quarter-ton truck and used it to drag the aircraft fromthe ditch and back to the tie-down area. Needless to say,when the next pilot went out to fly the aircraft, he foundmany deficiencies in performing his pre-flight check. OurE-2 failed to report any of his adventures in his night proficiency taxiing session.

Formation FatalitiesSix L-19's were putting on a formation flight demonstration at an altitude of 100 feet above a reviewing stand inKorea. The formation was divided into two groups of threeplanes, the second group was flying three seconds behind thefirst. The lead aircraft of the first group pulled up straightahead, while the wing planes pulled up and to the right and

left respectively. The second section followed the samepattern. The lead plane of the second section pulled up intothe lead plane of No.1 section. The lead plane of the secondsection fell off and spun to the ground where it immediatelyburst into flames. The pilot and the passenger were killedand approximately $12,000 damage was done to the aircraft.


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38 ARMY AVIATION DIGEST AprilIn the subsequent accident investigation, it was foundthat the pilots participating in this demonstration had not

held a rehearsal for the fornlation flying. Some of the pilotswere flying in positions in which they had never flown.The pilot of the lead plane in the second section failedto clear himself before pulling up into a steep climb. He hadbeen instructed to make a pass in formation at 100 feet alti-tude and pull up. He did. I personally feel that there ismajor supervisory error in this case. Had the formationbeen rehearsed and sufficient caution exercised so as to keepan altitude separation between the two flights, this type ofaccident would have been highly improbable.Fonnation flying is an art which has not, until recently,been included in the Program of Instruction at the ~ I \ r m yAviation School. Aviators have acquired the art in the field,and there is quite likely a wide range of skill developedamong theIn. Supervisors should bear this in nlind, and notpush the formation requirements beyond the capabilitiesof the pilots.The Aviation School has recognized that Army aviatorsare continually required to fly in formation to accomplishvarious kinds of missions. Formation flying has thereforebeen introduced into the curriculunl.

Friendly Ack-Ack?We recently received a report from a unit concerning twoL-19's which were performing sinlulated strafing and floursack bombing of troops. The aircraft were making lowpasses at the infantry troops. The infantry soldiers, firingblank ammunition, were not to be outdone bv the L-19pilots. They placed cartridge cases inside the grenadelaunchers which were mounted on their rifles. As the planescame over, the soldiers fired at thenl. Upon completion ofthe mission it ,vas found that one aircraft sustained four hitsand the other t,vo hits.The mission resulted in $438.47 damage to the two L-19aircraft. The infantry personnel, by firing projectiles,jeopardized the lives of the pilots as -well as ground personnel.On the other hand, if the pilots had not flown their aircraftat extremely low altitudes, it is doubtful that they couldhave been hit by the cartridge cases.


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1955 GREY HARE SAYS 39When blank alnmunition is being used by ground troopsto fire at aircraft, very close supervision should be exercisedby the ground unit commanders. Further, the unit air officershould thoroughly brief the ground unit cOlnlnander concerning the hazards involved.

LostRecently an accident -which cost $ 1 : 3 ~ 0 0 0 ,vas reported.l 'he pilot ,vas making a night flight of approxinlately 135miles. The accident report stated that the pilot received

VFR weather clearance and that after take-off a rapidchange in weather conditions caused the pilot to drift offcourse and lose his 'vay.. It further stated that when thepilot realized the weather had become ,vorse, he made a 1800turn to return to his point of departure, but finding that theweather had closed behind him, he decided to continue to hisoriginal destination.- When past his ETA for his destination he tried to orienthimself but due to the storm conditions, radio reception wasvery poor. After an unsuccessful attempt at orientation hesighted the lights of a small town. The state police and localtownspeople arranged their car lights around a small athleticfield. After several passes at the field, the pilot made acrash landing in which he conlpletely denlolished the aircraft.The accident investigation board interrogated witnesses atthe scene who stated that ';the pilot used caution and goodjudgment in landing the aircraft."The accident investigation hoard listed the primary unsafe act as "rapid change in existing weather conditions afterthe pilot had taken off, causing hinl to drift off course andget lost." Contributing factors were listed as "radio failureprobably due to ,,,eather conditions."The investigating board took considerable lee-way inblaming it entirely on the ,veather. The pilot made his firstmistake by not personally checking the weather conditionsover the route which he planned to fly. His second mistakewas when he delayed Inaking a 1800 turn.If weather conditions are Inarginal for VFR flight, thepilot should be very alert for lo-wering conditions and positiveof his position at all times. If VFR conditions are good attime of take-oU', and he receives a proper -weather briefing,


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40 ARMY AVIATION DIGESTthe pilot on a flight of approximately one hour and fifteenminutes duration in an L-19 should encounter no difficulties.The pilot's third mistake was in delaying his orientationuntil he was past his ETA.An accident investigation board, as set up in regulations,consists of three individuals, two of whom are Army aviatorscurrently on flight status. Its duty is to (1) investigate theaccident, (2) determine the primary cause and contributingor underlying cause factors, if any, and (3) recommend actionto prevent recurrence. In this case, it is felt that the accidentinvestigation board failed to find the proper primary unsafeact which caused $13,000 worth of damage. In other words,board members, let's call a spade a spade. --------------(PILOT'S PHYSICAL FITNESS continued from page 8)alertness, planning, and judgement that are required ofthe military pilot.Physical fitness is a nlatter of great importance to themilitary pilot in that it connotes good health and has a directhearing upon his general efficiency, term of useful utilization,and general well being throughout life.

Conclusions1. Physical fitness is very important to the militarypilot. It is only by the maintenance of good health that heis able to function well in his job.2. Physical fitness depends upon a number of factors.a. Regular physical training.

b. The development of good habits.c Avoidance of excesses.(1) Overeating and obesity.(2) Alcohol and tobacco.d. Adequate rest.References

1. Bergin, Kenneth G., M. A., M. D., D. P. H., A. F. R.,A. E. S., (Aviation Medicine)-(1949)2. Armstrong, Harry G., M. D., F. A. C. P. (The Princi-ples and Practice of Aviation Medicine, 3rd Ed. 1952)3. McFarland, Ross A., Phd. (Human Factors in AirTransportation, 1sf Ed. 1953)


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ARMY AVIATION DIGESTEDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Captain Weyman S. Carver

The printing of this publication has been approved by theDirector of the Bureau of the Budget, 13 August 1954.

The ARMY AVIATION DIGEST is an official publica.tion of the Department of the Army published monthly underthe supervision of the Commandant, Army Aviation School.The mission of the ARMY AVIATION DIGEST is to provideinformation of an operational or functional nature concerningsafety and aircraft accident prevention, training, maintenance,operations, research and development, aviation medicine, andother related data.Manuscripts, photographs, and other illustrations pertaining to the above subjects of interest to personnel concernedwith Army aviation are invited. Direct communication isauthorized to: Editor-in-Chief, ARMY AVIATION DIGEST,Army Aviation School, Camp Rucker, Alabama.Unless otherwise indicated, material in the ARMYAVIATION DIGEST may be reprinted provided credit isgiven to the ARMY AVIATION DIGEST and to the author.

DISTRIBUTION :ACTIVE ARMY:Gl (5)G2 (3)G3, ATIN : Army Ayn Diy (5)DEP WG (5)Tee SYe, DA (5)

g ~ ~ ~ gOS Maj Comd (50)NG : State AG (2)USAR: None

Os Billie Comd (10)Armies (CONUS) (1)~ ~ e s c i ~ f )Diy (OS ) (10)Brig (OS) (5)Ft & Cp (CONUS) (1)Ft & Cp (CONUS) M/ F Librarian (1)

~ ~ ~ p ~ ~ ~ o ~ f o ~ ~ : i ~ 7 f o ~ o u ~ ~ e s ~ ~ ~ ~ OS.


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ARMY AVIATION SCHOOL CRESTWhen reproduced in full color, the colors red, blue, and yelloware used in the crest to indicate representation 0/ all branches 0/the Army in The Army Aviation School. The school's aviationtraining mission is symbolized by the perched falcon derwtingthe art of falconry with its patient training of swift, keen birdslor hunting. The mailed fist depicts the military ground armwhich exercises the control, training, and direction 0/ the flight.

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Army Aviation Digest - Apr 1955

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