NAVEDTRA 12338Naval Education and July 1993 Training ManualTraining Command 0502-LP-477-3900 (TRAMAN)

Aviation StructuralMechanic (H& S) 3 & 2

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DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Nonfederal government personnel wanting a copy of this document must write to Superintendent of Documents GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, DC 20402 OR Commanding Officer, Naval Publications and Forms Directorate, Navy AviationSupply Office, 5801 Labor Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19120-5099, Attention: Cash Sales, for price and availability.

AVIATION STRUCTURALMECHANIC (H & S) 3 & 2

NAVEDTRA 12338

1993 Edition Prepared byAMCS Edward W. Biel, USN,

AMHC (AW) Gary L.Humrichouser, USN,and AMHC Bruce A. Ervin, USN

This Training Manual (TRAMAN) and the associated Nonresident TrainingCourse (NRTC), NAVEDTRA 82338, form a self-study package that will enableambitious Aviation Structural Mechanics H or Aviation Structural Mechanics S tohelp themselves fulfill the requirements of their ratings.

Prior to the development of this manual, studies and surveys were conducted byNaval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), Naval Education and Training ProgramManagement Support Activity (NETPMSA), and Navy Occupational Developmentand Analysis Center (NODAC). These studies and surveys revealed a high degreeof commonality between the AMH and AMS occupational standards and haveresulted in the development of one TRAMAN and one NRTC, Aviation StructuralMechanic (H&S) 3&2. One TRAMAN and one NRTC should not imply that theseparate ratings should be combined or will be combined in the near future.

Designed for individual study and not formal classroom instruction, thisTRAMAN provides subject matter that relates directly to the occupational standardsfor the AMH and AMS ratings at the E-4 and E-5 paygrades. The NRTC providesthe usual method for satisfying the requirements for completing the TRAMAN.With the combining of two ratings into a single TRAMAN, you may come acrosssome terms or phrases that are unfamiliar. If that happens, you should refer to theglossary and TRAMAN references listed in the appendices of this TRAMAN.Recommended reading lists can also be found at the end of the chapters. Theoccupational standards used as minimum guidelines in the preparation of thisTRAMAN can be found in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower and PersonnelClassifications and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068 (series).

This Training Manual was prepared by the Naval Education and TrainingProgram Management Support Activity, Pensacola, Florida for the Chief of NavalEducation and Training.

1993 Edition

Stock Ordering No.0502-LP-477-3900

Published byNAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAM

MANAGEMENT SUPPORT ACTIVITY

UNITED STATESGOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON, D.C. : 1993

i

PREFACE

THE UNITED STATES NAVY

GUARDIAN OF OUR COUNTRY

The United States Navy is responsible for maintaining control of thesea and is a ready force on watch at home and overseas, capable of strongaction to preserve the peace or of instant offensive action to win in war.

It is upon the maintenance of this control that our countrys gloriousfuture depends; the United States Navy exists to make it so.

WE SERVE WITH HONOR

Tradition, valor, and victory are the Navys heritage from the past. Tothese may be added dedication, discipline, and vigilance as the watchwordsof the present and the future.

At home or on distant stations as we serve with pride, confident in therespect of our country, our shipmates, and our families.

Our responsibilities sober us; our adversities strengthen us.

Service to God and Country is our special privilege. We serve withhonor.

THE FUTURE OF THE NAVY

The Navy will always employ new weapons, new techniques, andgreater power to protect and defend the United States on the sea, under thesea, and in the air.

Now and in the future, control of the sea gives the United States hergreatest advantage for the maintenance of peace and for victory in war.

Mobility, surprise, dispersal, and offensive power are the keynotes ofthe new Navy. The roots of the Navy lie in a strong belief in the future, incontinued dedication to our tasks, and in reflection on our heritage from thepast.

Never have our opportunities and our responsibilities been greater.

ii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Aircraft Construction and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Aircraft Hardware and Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...2-1

General Aircraft Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3-1

Hydraulic Contamination and Related Servicing/Test Equipment . .4-1

Hose Fabrication and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1

Tubing Fabrication and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-1

Basic Hydraulic/Pneumatic and Emergency Power Systems . . . . 7-1

Basic Actuating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...8-1

Fixed-Wing Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9-1

Rotary-Wing Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

Aircraft Wheels, Tires, and Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

Landing Gear, Brakes, and Hydraulic Utility Systems . . . . . . 12-1

Aircraft Metallic Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...13-1

Aircraft Nonmetallic Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

Nondestructive Inspections, Welding, and Heat Treatment . . . . 15-1

APPENDIX

I. Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. AI-1

II. References Used to Develop the TRAMAN . . . . . . . . . . AII- 1

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INDEX-1

iii

CREDITS

The following are trademarks used in this training manual.

Teflon and Kevlar are registered trademarks of E.I. DuPont DeNemours andCompany. Teflon is DuPonts registered trademark for its fluorocarbon resin.Kelvar is DuPonts registered trademark for its structural grade fiber.

iv

CHAPTER 1

AIRCRAFT CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS

Chapter Objective: Upon completion of this chapter, you will have a basic workingknowledge of aircraft construction, structural stress, and materials used on bothfixed- and rotary-wing airfraft.

One of the requirements of an Aviation StructuralMechanic is to be familiar with the various terms relatedto aircraft construction. Aircraft maintenance is theprimary responsibility of the Aviation StructuralMechanic H (AMH) and Aviation Structural MechanicS (AMS) ratings. Therefore, you should be familiar withthe principal aircraft structural units and flight controlsystems of fixed and rotary-wing aircraft. While themaintenance of the airframe is primarily the respon-sibility of the AMS rating, the information presented inthis chapter also applies to the AMH rating. Thepurpose, locations, and construction features of eachunit are described in this chapter.

Each naval aircraft is built to meet certain specifiedrequirements. These requirements must be selected insuch a way that they can be built into one machine. It isnot possible for one aircraft to have all characteristics.The type and class of an aircraft determine how strongit will be built. A Navy fighter, for example, must befast, maneuverable, and equipped for both attack anddefense. To meet these requirements, the aircraft ishighly powered and has a very strong structure.

The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of fiveprincipal units. These units include the fuselage, wings,stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing gear. Arotary-wing aircraft consists of the fuselage, landinggear, main rotor assembly, and tail rotor. A furtherbreakdown of these units is made in this chapter. Thischapter also describes the purpose, location, andconstruction features of each unit.

FIXED-WING AIRCRAFT

Learning Objective: Identify the principalstructural units of fixed-wing and rotary-wingaircraft.

There are nine principal structural units of afixed-wing (conventional) aircraft: the fuselage, enginemount, nacelle, wings, stabilizers, flight control

surfaces, landing gear, arresting gear, and catapultequipment.

FUSELAGE

The fuselage is the main structure or body of theaircraft to which all other units attach. It provides sparefor the crew, passengers, cargo, most of the accessories,and other equipment.

Fuselages of naval aircraft have much in commonfrom the standpoint of construction and design. Theyvary mainly in size and arrangement of the differentcompartments. Designs vary with the manufacturersand the requirements for the types of service the aircraftmust perform.

The fuselage of most naval aircraft are of all-metalconstruction assembled in a modification of themonocoque design. The monocoque design relieslargely on the strength of the skin or shell (covering) tocarry the various loads. This design may be divided intothree classes: monocoque, semimonocoque, and re-inforced shell, and different portions of the samefuselage may belong to any of these classes. Themonocoque has its only reinforcement vertical rings,station webs, and bulkheads. In the semimonocoquedesign, in addition to these the skin is reinforced bylongitudinal members, that is, stringers and longerons,but has no diagonal web members. The reinforced shellhas the shell reinforced by a complete framework ofstructural members. The cross sectional shape is derivedfrom bulkheads, station webs, and rings. The longi-tudinal contour is developed with longerons, formers,and stringers. The skin (covering) which is fastened toall these members carries primarily the shear load and,together with the longitudinal members, the loads oftension and bending stresses. Station webs are built upassemblies located at intervals to carry concentratedloads and at points where fittings are used to attachexternal parts such as wings alighting gear, and enginemounts. Formers and stringers may be single pieces ofbuilt-up sections.

1-1

Figure 1-1.-Semimonocoque fuselage construction.

The semimonocoque fuselage is constructedprimarily of aluminum alloy; however, on newer aircraftgraphite epoxy composite material is often used. Steeland titanium are found in areas subject to hightemperatures. Primary bending loads are absorbed bythe "longerons," which usually extend across severalpoints of support. The longerons are supplemented byother longitudinal members, called stringers.Stringers are lighter in weight and are used moreextensively than longerons. The vertical structuralmembers are referred to as bulkheads, frames, andformers. These vertical members are grouped atintervals to carry concentrated loads and at points wherefittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings,engines, and stabilizers. Figure 1-1 shows a modifiedform of the monocoque design used in combat aircraft.The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, andother structural members and carries part of the load.Skin thickness varies with the loads carried and thestresses supported.

There are many advantages in the use of thesemimonocoque fuselage. The bulkheads, frames,stringers, and longerons aid in the construction of astreamlined fuselage. They also add to the strength andrigidity of the structure. The main advantage of thisdesign is that it does not depend only on a few membersfor strength and rigidity. All structural members aid inthe strength of the fuselage. This means that asemimonocoque fuselage may withstand considerabledamage and still remain strong enough to hold together.

On fighters and other small aircraft, fuselages areusually constructed in two or more sections. Largeraircraft may be constructed in as many as six sections.

Various points on the fuselage are heated by stationnumber. Station 0 (zero) is usually located at or near thenose of the aircraft. The other fuselage stations (FS) arelocated at distances measured in inches aft of station 0.A typical station diagram is shown in figure 1-2. On thisparticular aircraft, station 0 is located 93.0 inchesforward of the nose.

Quick access to the accessories and other equipmentcarried in the fuselage is through numerous doors,inspection panels, wheel wells, and other openings.Servicing diagrams showing the arrangement ofequipment and the location of access doors are suppliedby the manufacturer in the maintenance instructionmanuals and maintenance requirement cards for eachmodel or type of aircraft. Figure 1-3 shows the accessdoors and inspection panels for a typical aircraft.

ENGINE MOUNTS

Engine mounts are designed to meet particularconditions of installations, such as their location on theaircraft; methods of attachment; and size, type, andcharacteristics of the engine they are intended tosupport. Although engine mounts vary widely in theirappearance and in the arrangement of their members,the basic features of their construction are similar. heyare usually constructed as a single unit that may bedetached quickly and easily from the remainingstructure. In many cases, they are removed as a complete

1-2

Figure 1-2.-Typical fuselage station diagram.

Figure 1-3.-Access doors and inspection panels.

1-3

Figure 1-4.-Wing construction.

assembly or power plant with the engine and itsaccessories. Vibrations originating in the engine aretransmitted to the aircraft structure through the enginemount.

NACELLES

In single-engine aircraft, the power plant is mountedin the center of the fuselage. On multiengined aircraft,nacelles are usually used to mount the power plants. Thenacelle is primarily a unit that houses the engine.Nacelles are similar in shape and design for the samesize aircraft. They vary with the size of the aircraft.Larger aircraft require less fairing, and therefore smallernacelles. The structural design of a nacelle is similar tothat of the fuselage. In certain cases the nacelle isdesigned to transmit engine loads and stresses to thewings through the engine mounts.

WINGS

The wings of an aircraft are designed to develop liftwhen they are moved through the air. The particularwing design depends upon many factors for example,size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired landing speed,and desired rate of climb. In some aircraft, the largercompartments of the wings are used as fuel tanks. Thewings are designated as right and left, corresponding tothe right- and left-hand sides of a pilot seated in theaircraft.

The wing structures of most naval aircraft are of anall-metal construction, usually of the cantilever design;that is, no external bracing is required. Usually wingsare of the stress-skin type. This means that the skin ispart of the basic wing structure and carries part of theloads and stresses. The internal structure is made of

spars and stringers running spanwise, and ribs andformers running coordwise (leading edge to trailingedge). The spars are the main structural members of thewing, and are often referred to as beams.

One method of wing construction is shown in figure1-4. In this illustration, two main spars are used with ribsplaced at frequent intervals between the spars to developthe wing contour. This is called two-spar construction.Other variations of wing construction include"monospar (open spar), multispar (three or more spars),and box beam. In the box beam construction, thestringers and sparlike sections are joined together in abox-shaped beam. Then the remainder of the wing isconstructed around the box.

The skin is attached to all the structural membersand carries part of the wing loads and stresses. Duringflight, the loads imposed on the wing structure actprimarily on the skin. From the skin, the loads aretransmitted to the ribs and then to the spars. The sparssupport all distributed loads as well concentratedweights, such as a fuselage, landing gear, and nacelle.Corrugated sheet aluminum alloy is often used as asubcovering for wing structures. The Lockheed P-3Orion wing is an example of this type of construction.

Inspection and access panels are usually providedon the lower surface of a wing. Drain holes are alsoplaced in the lower surfaces. Walkways are provided onthe areas of the wing where personnel should walk orstep. The substructure is stiffened or reinforced in thevicinity of the walkways to take such loads. Walkwaysare usually covered with a nonskid surface. Someaircraft have no built-in walkways. In these casesremovable mats or covers are used to protect the wingsurface. On some aircraft, jacking points are provided

1-4

on the underside of each wing. The jacking points mayalso be used as tiedown fittings for securing the aircraft.

Various points on the wing are located by stationnumber. Wing station 0 (zero) is located at the centerline of the fuselage. All wing stations are measured ininches outboard from that point, as shown in figure 1-2.

STABILIZERS

The stabilizing surfaces of an aircraft consist ofvertical and horizontal airfoils. These are known as thevertical stabilizer (or fin) and the horizontal stabilizer.These two airfoils, together with the rudder andelevators, form the tail section, For inspection andmaintenance purposes, the entire tail section is con-sidered a single unit of the airframe, and is referred toas the "empennage."

The primary purpose of the stabilizers is to stabilizethe aircraft in flight; that is, to keep the aircraft in straightand level flight. The vertical stabilizer maintains thestability of the aircraft about its vertical axis. This isknown as directional stability. The vertical stabilizerusually serves as the base to which the rudder isattached. The horizontal stabilizer provides stability ofthe aircraft about the lateral axis. This is longitudinalstability. It usually serves as the base to which theelevators are attached.

At high speeds, forces acting upon the flightcontrols increase, and control of the aircraft becomesdifficult. his problem can be solved through the use ofpower-operated or power-boosted flight controlsystems. These power systems make it possible for thepilot to apply more pressure to the control surfaceagainst the air loads. By changing the angle of attack ofthe stabilizer, the pilot maintains adequate longitudinalcontrol by rotating the entire horizontal stabilizersurface.

Construction features of the stabilizers are in manyrespects identical to those of the wings. They are usuall yof an all-metal construction and of the cantilever design.Monospar and two-spar construction are both com-monly used. Ribs develop the cross-sectional shape. A"fairing" is used to round out the angles formed betweenthese surfaces and the fuselage.

The construction of control surfaces is similar tothat of the wing and stabilizers. They are usually builtaround a single spar or torque tube. Ribs are fitted to thespar near the leading edge. At the trailing edge, they arejoined together with a suitable metal strip or extrusion.For greater strength, especially in thinner airfoil sections

typical of trailing edges, a composite constructionmaterial is used.

FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The flight control surfaces are hinged or movableairfoils designed to change the attitude of the aircraftduring flight. Flight control surfaces arc grouped assystems and are classified as being either primary orsecondary. Primary controls are those that providecontrol over the yaw, pitch, and roll of the aircraft.Secondary controls include the speed brake and flapsystems. All systems consist of the control surfaces,cockpit controls, connecting linkage, and othernecessary operating mechanisms.

The systems discussed in this chapter arerepresentative of those with which you will be working.However, you should bear in mind that changes in thesesystems are sometimes necessitated as a result of laterexperience and data gathered from fleet use. Therefore,prior to performing the maintenance proceduresdiscussed in this chapter, you should consult the currentapplicable technical publications for the latestinformation and procedures to be used.

Primary Flight Control Systems

The primary flight controls are the ailerons,elevators, and rudder. The ailerons and elevators areoperated from the cockpit by a control stick on fighteraircraft. A wheel and yoke assembly is used on largeaircraft such as transports and patrol planes. The rudderis operated by rudder pedals on all types of aircraft.

The ailerons are operated by a lateral (side-to-side)movement of the control stick or a turning motion of thewheel on the yoke. The ailerons are interconnected inthe control system and work simultaneously, but inopposite directions to one another. As one aileron movesdownward to increase lift on its side of the fuselage, theaileron on the opposite side of the fuselage movesupward to decrease lift. This opposing action allowsmore lift to be produced by the wing on one side of thefuselage than on the other side. This results in acontrolled movement or roll because of unequal forceson the wings. The aileron system can be improved withthe use of either powered controls or alternate controlsystems.

The elevators are operated by a fore-and-aftmovement of the control stick or yoke. Raising theelevators causes the aircraft to climb. Lowering theelevators causes it to dive or descend. The pilot raises

1-5

the elevators by pulling back on the stick or yoke andlowers them by pushing the stick or yoke forward.

The rudder is connected to the rudder pedals and isused to move the aircraft about the vertical axis. If thepilot moves the rudder to the right, the aircraft turns tothe right; if the rudder is moved to the left, the aircraftturns to the left. The pilot moves the rudder to the rightby pushing the right rudder pedal, and to the left bypushing the left rudder pedal.

Power control systems are used on high-speed jetaircraft. Aircraft traveling at or near supersonic speedshave such high air loads imposed upon the primarycontrol surfaces that the pilot cannot control the aircraftwithout power-operated or power-boosted flight controlsystems. In the power-boost system, a hydraulicallyoperated booster cylinder is incorporated within thecontrol linkage to assist the pilot in moving the controlsurface. The power-boost cylinder is still used in therudder control system of some high-performanceaircraft; however, the other primary control surfaces usethe full power-operated system. In the full power-operated system, all force necessary for operating thecontrol surface is supplied by hydraulic pressure. Eachmovable surface is operated by a hydraulic actuator (orpower control cylinder) incorporated into the controllinkage.

In addition to the current Navy specificationrequiring two separate hydraulic systems for operatingthe primary flight control surfaces, specifications alsocall for an independent hydraulic power source foremergency operation of the primary flight controlsurfaces. Some manufacturers provide an emergencysystem powered by a motor-driven hydraulic pump;others use a ram-air-driven turbine for operating theemergency system pump.

Lateral Control Systems

Lateral control systems control roll about thelongitudinal axis of the aircraft. On many aircraft theaileron is the primary source of lateral control. On otheraircraft flaperons and spoilers are used to control roll.

AILERON. -Some aircraft are equipped with apower mechanism that provides hydraulic power tooperate the ailerons. When the control stick is moved,the control cables move the power mechanism sector.Through linkage, the sector actuates the control valves,which, in turn, direct hydraulic fluid to the powercylinder. The cylinder actuating shaft, which is con-nected to the power crank through a latch mechanism,

operates the power crank. The crank moves thepush-pull tubes, which actuate the ailerons. In the eventof complete hydraulic power failure, the pilot may pulla handle in the cockpit to disconnect the latchmechanisms from the cylinder and load-feel bungee.This places the aileron system in a manual mode ofoperation. In manual operation, the cable sector actuatesthe power crank.

This lateral control system incorporates a load-feelbungee, which serves a dual purpose. First, it providesan artificial feeling and centering device for the aileronsystem. Also, it is an interconnection between theaileron system and the aileron trim system. When theaileron trim actuator is energized, the bungee moves ina corresponding direction and actuates the powermechanism. The power mechanism repositions theaileron control system to a new neutral position.

FLAPERON. -As aircraft speeds increased, otherlateral control systems came into use. Some aircraft usea flaperon system. The flaperon, shown in figure 1-5, isa device designed to reduce lift on the wing whenever itis extended into the airstream. With this system, controlstick movement will cause the left or right flaperon torise into the airstream and the opposite flaperon toremain flush with the wing surface. This causes adecrease of lift on the wing with the flaperon extendedand results in a roll.

SPOILER/DEFLECTOR. -Many aircraft use acombination aileron and spoiler/deflector system forlongitudinal control. The ailerons are located on thetrailing edge of the outer wing panel and, unlike mostaircraft, can be fully cycled with the wings folded. Thespoiler/deflector on each wing operates in conjunctionwith the upward throw of the aileron on that wing. Theyare located in the left- and right-hand wing centersections, forward of the flaps. The spoiler extendsupward into the airstream, disrupts the airflow, andcauses decreased lift on that wing. The deflector extendsdown into the airstream and scoops airflow over thewing surface aft of the spoiler, thus preventing airflowseparation in that area.

A stop bolt on the spoiler bell crank limitsmovement of the spoiler to 60 degrees deflection. Thedeflector is mechanically slaved to the spoiler, and canbe deflected a maximum of 30 degrees when the spoileris at 60 degrees. The spoilers open only with the upwardmovement of the ailerons.

1-6

1.2.3.4.5.

Wing-fold interlock mechanism 11. Flaperon actuator (left wing)Filter 12. Crossover cablesFlaperon pop-up mechanism and cylinder 13. PushrodsLeft wing flaperons 14. Throttle quadrantFlaperon control linkage

Figure 1-5.-Flaperon control system.

Wing fold flaperon interlock switch 6.Flaperon control linkage 7.Right wing flaperons 8.Flaperon actuator (right wing) 9.Flaperon pop-up valve 10.

Longitudinal Control Systems

Longitudinal control systems control pitch about thelateral axis of the aircraft. Many aircraft use a con-ventional elevator system for this purpose. However,aircraft that operate in the higher speed ranges usuallyhave a movable horizontal stabilizer. Both types ofsystems are discussed in the following text.

ELEVATOR CONTROL SYSTEM. -A typicalconventional elevator control system is operated by thecontrol stick in the cockpit, and is hydraulically poweredby the elevator power mechanism.

The operation of the elevator control system isinitiated when the control stick is moved fore or aft.When the stick is moved, it actuates the control cablesthat move the elevator control bell crank. The bell crank

transmits the movement to the power mechanism

through the control linkage. In turn, the powermechanism actuates a push-pull tube, which deflects theelevators up or down. If the hydraulic system fails, the

cylinder can be disconnected. In this condition thecontrols work manually through the linkage of themechanism to actuate the elevators.

HORIZONTAL STABILIZER CONTROLSYSTEM. -Horizontal stabilizer control systems aregiven a variety of names by the various aircraftmanufacturers. Some aircraft systems are defined as aunit horizontal tail (UHT) control systems, while others

are labeled the stabilator control system. Regardless of

the name, these systems function to control the aircraft

pitch about its lateral axis.

1-7

1. Control stick2. Flap drive gearbox3. Trim transmitter4. Artificial feel bungee5. Stabilizer shift mechanism6. Walking beam

7.8.9.

10.11.12.

Load-relief bungee 13.Stabilizer actuator 14.Stabilizer support shaft 15.Stabilizer 16.Stabilizer position transducer 17.Filters

Figure 1-6.-Stabilizer control system.

Negative bobweightClean and dirty switchesElectrical trim actuatorStatic springStabilizer shift mechanism cables

Figure 1-7.-Wing sweep control system (F-14).

The horizontal stabilizer control system of the introduced at the stabilizer actuator. The actuator canaircraft shown in figure 1-6 is representative of the operate in three modes: manual, series, or parallel.systems used in many aircraft. The slab-type stabilizerresponds to fore-and-aft manual inputs at the control Manual Mode. -In this mode, pilot input alonestick and to automatic flight control system inputs controls the power valve.

1-8

Series Mode. -In this mode, input signals from theautomatic flight control system (AFCS) may be usedindependently or combined with manual inputs tocontrol stabilizer movement.

Parallel Mode. -In this mode, input signals from theAFCS alone control stabilizer movement.

Directional Control Systems

Directional control systems provide a means ofcontrolling and stabilizing the aircraft about its verticalaxis. Most aircraft use conventional rudder controlsystems for this purpose. The rudder control system isoperated by the rudder pedals in the cockpit, and ispowered hydraulically through the power mechanism.In the event of hydraulic power failure, the hydraulicportion of the system is bypassed, and the system ispowered mechanically through control cables andlinkage. When the pilot depresses the rudder pedals, thecontrol cables move a cable sector assembly. The cablesector, through a push-pull tube and linkage, actuatesthe power mechanism and causes deflection of therudder to the left or right.

F-14 Flight Control Systems

The F-14 flight control systems include the rudder,the stabilizer, and the spoiler control systems; the wingsurfaces control system; the angle-of-attack system; andthe speed brake control system. Because of thecomplexity of the F-14 flight control systems, only abrief description is presented.

RUDDER CONTROL (YAW AXIS). -Ruddercontrol, which affects the yaw axis, is provided by wayof the rudder pedals. Rudder pedal movement ismechanically transferred to the left and right rudderservo cylinders by the rudder feel assembly, the yawsumming network, and a reversing network.

SPOILER CONTROL (LATERAL AXIS). -Spoiler control is provided through the control stickgrip, roll command transducer, roll computer, pitchcomputer, and eight spoiler actuators (one per spoiler).The spoilers, when used to increase the effect of roll-axiscontrol can only be controlled when the wings are sweptforward of 57 degrees. Right or left movement of thecontrol stick grip is mechanically transferred to the rollcommand transducer, which converts the movement toinboard and outboard spoiler roll commands.

DIRECT LIFT CONTROL (DLC). -DLC movesthe spoilers and horizontal stabilizers to increase aircraftvertical descent rate during landings without changingengine power.

Figure 1-8.-Wing oversweep position-manual control (F-14).

WING SURFACE CONTROL SYSTEM. -Thewing surface control system controls the variable-geometry wings to maximize aircraft performance at allspeeds and altitudes. The system also provides high liftand drag forces for takeoff and landing, and increasedlift for slow speeds. At supersonic speeds, the systemproduces aerodynamic lift to reduce trim drag.

The wing sweep control, initiated at the throttlequadrant, provides electronic or mechanical control ofa hydromechanical system that sweeps the wings. Seefigure 1-7. The wings can be swept from 20 degreesthrough 68 degrees in flight. On the ground, mechanicalcontrol allows awing sweep position of 75 degrees. Seefigure 1-8. This position is used when flight deckpersonnel spot the aircraft or when maintenancepersonnel need to enable the wing sweep controlself-test.

Electronic Control. -Wing sweep using electroniccontrol is initiated at the throttle quadrant. Four modesare available: automatic, aft manual, forward manual, orbomb manual. Selection of these modes causes the air

1-9

data computer to generate wing sweep commandsconsistent with the aircrafts speed, altitude, andconfiguration of the flaps and slats. If the automaticmode is used to apply the commands, the wings arepositioned at a rate of 7.5 degrees per second.

Mechanical Control. -When wing sweep is in themechanical control mode, the wing sweep handle usesthe wing sweep/flap and slat control box to position thewings. Because minimum wing sweep limiting is notavailable in the mechanical control mode, the wings canbe swept to an adverse position that could cause damageto the wings. Mechanical control is used for emergencywing sweep and wing oversweep.

Secondary Flight Controls

Secondary flight controls include those controls notdesignated as primary controls. The secondary controlssupplement the primary controls by aiding the pilot incontrolling the aircraft. Various types are used on navalaircraft, but only the most common are discussed here.

TRIM TABS. -Trim tabs are small airfoils recessedin the trailing edge of a primary control surface. Theirpurpose is to enable the pilot to neutralize anyunbalanced condition that might exist during flight,without exerting any pressure on the control stick orrudder pedals. Each trim tab is hinged to its parentcontrol surface, but is operated independently by aseparate control.

The pilot moves the trim tab by using cockpitcontrols. The tab on the control surface moves in adirection opposite that of the desired control surfacemovement. The airflow striking the trim tab causes thelarger surface to move to a position that will correct theunbalanced condition of the aircraft. For example, totrim a nose-heavy condition, the pilot sets the elevatortrim tab in the down position. This causes the elevatorto be moved and held in the up position, which, in turn,causes the tail of the aircraft to be lowered. Without theuse of the trim tab, the pilot would have to hold theelevator in the up position by exerting constant pressureon the control stick or wheel.

Construction of trim tabs is similar to that of theother control surfaces, although greater use is beingmade of plastic materials to fill the tab completely.Filling the tab improves stiffness. Tabs may also behoneycomb filled. Tabs are covered with either metal orreinforced plastic. Trim tabs are actuated eitherelectrically or manually.

WING FLAPS. -Wing flaps are used to give theaircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the landingspeed, thereby shortening the length of the landing

Figure 1 -9.-Types of flaps.

rollout. They are also used to assist in landing in smallor obstructed areas by permitting the gliding angle to beincreased without greatly increasing the approachspeed. In addition, the use of flaps during takeoff servesto reduce the length of the takeoff run.

Most flaps are hinged to the lower trailing edges ofthe wings inboard of the ailerons; however, leading edgeflaps are in use on some Navy aircraft. Four types offlaps are shown in figure 1-9. The PLAIN flap formsthe trailing edge of the airfoil when the flap is in the upposition. In the SPLIT flap, the trailing edge of theairfoil is split, and the bottom half is so hinged that it canbe lowered to form the flap. The FOWLER flapoperates on rollers and tracks. This causes the lowersurface of the wing to roll out and then extenddownward. The LEADING EDGE flap operatessimilarly to the plain flap. It is hinged on the bottom sideand, when actuated, the leading edge of the wingactually extends in a downward direction to increase thecamber of the wing. Leading edge flaps are used inconjunction with other types of flaps.

SPOILERS. -Spoilers are used for decreasing winglift; however, their specific design, function, and usevary with different aircraft.

The spoilers on some aircraft are long, narrowsurfaces hinged at their leading edge to the upper wingskin. In the retracted position, the spoiler is flush withthe wing skin, In the extended position, the spoiler ispivoted up and forward approximately 60 degrees abovethe hinge point. The spoilers disturb the smooth flow ofair over the wing so that burbling takes place. The lift is

1-10

Figure 1-10.-Typical landing gear system.

consequently reduced, and considerable drag is addedto the wing.

Another type of spoiler in common use is a long,slender, curved and perforated baffle that is raisededgewise through the upper surface of the wing forwardof the aileron. It also disrupts the flow of air over theairfoil and destroys lift. These spoilers are actuatedthrough the same linkage that actuates the ailerons. Thisarrangement makes movement of the spoiler dependentupon movement of the aileron. The linkage to the aileronis devised so that the spoiler is extended only when theaileron is raised. In other words, when the aileron movesdownward, no deflection of the spoiler takes place.

SPEED BRAKES. -Speed brakes are hinged,movable control surfaces used for reducing the speed ofaircraft. Some manufacturers refer to them as divebrakes or dive flaps. They are hinged to the sides orbottom of the fuselage or to the wings. Regardless oftheir location, speed brakes serve the same purpose onall aircraft. Their primary purpose is to keep aircraftfrom building up excessive speed during dives. They arealso used in slowing down the speed of the aircraft priorto landing. Speed brakes are operated hydraulically orelectrically.

SLATS. -Slats are movable control surfacesattached to the leading edge of the wing. When the slatis retracted, it forms the leading edge of the wing. Atlow airspeed, the slat improves the lateralcontrol-handling characteristics and allows the aircraftto be controlled at airspeeds below the normal landingspeed. When the slat is opened (extended forward), aslot is created between the slat and the leading edge ofthe wing. The slot allows high-energy air to be

introduced into the air layer moving over the top of thewing. This is known as boundary layer control.Boundary layer control is primarily used duringoperations from carriers; that is, for catapult takeoffsand arrested landings. Boundary layer control can alsobe accomplished by a method of directing high-pressureengine bleed air through a series of narrow orificeslocated just forward of the wing flap leading edge.

AILERON DROOP. -The ailerons are alsosometimes used to supplement the flaps. This is calledan aileron droop feature. When the flaps are lowered,both ailerons can be partially deflected downward intothe airstream. The partial deflection aIlows them to actas flaps as well as to serve the function of ailerons.

LANDING GEAR

The landing gear of the earliest aircraft consistedmerely of protective skids attached to the lower surfacesof the wings and fuselage. As aircraft developed, skidsbecame impractical and were replaced by a pair ofwheels placed side by side ahead of the center of gravitywith a tail skid supporting the aft section of the aircraft.The tail skid was later replaced by a swiveling tail wheel.This arrangement was standard on all land-basedaircraft for so many years that it became known as theconventional landing gear. As the speed of aircraftincreased, the elimination of drag became increasinglyimportant. This led to the development of retractablelanding gear.

Just before World War II, aircraft were designedwith the main landing gear located behind the center ofgravity and an auxiliary gear under the nose of thefuselage. This became known as the tricycle landinggear. See figure 1-10. It was a big improvement over the

1-11

Figure 1-11.-Main landing gear.

conventional type. The tricycle gear is more stableduring ground operations and makes landing easier,especially in crosswinds. It also maintains the fuselagein a level position that increases the pilots visibility.Nearly all Navy aircraft are equipped with tricyclelanding gear.

Main Landing Gear

A main landing gear assembly is shown in figure1-11. The major components of the assembly are theshock strut, tire, tube, wheel, brake assembly, retractingand extending mechanism, and side struts and supports.Tires, tubes, and wheels are discussed in chapter 11 ofthis TRAMAN.

The shock strut absorbs the shock that otherwisewould be sustained by the airframe structure duringtakeoff, taxiing, and landing. The air-oil shock strut isused on all Navy aircraft. This type of strut is composed

essentially of two telescoping cylinders filled withhydraulic fluid and compressed air or nitrogen. Figure1-12 shows the internal construction of a shock strut.

The telescoping cylinders, known as cylinder andpiston, form an upper and lower chamber for themovement of the fluid. The lower chamber (piston) isalways filled with fluid, while the upper chamber(cylinder) contains the compressed air or nitrogen. Anorifice is placed between the two chambers throughwhich the fluid passes into the upper chamber duringcompression and returns during extension of the strut.The size of the orifice is controlled by the up-and-downmovement of the tapered metering pin.

Whenever a load is placed on the strut because ofthe landing or taxiing of the aircraft, compression of thetwo strut halves starts. The piston (to which wheel andaxle are attached) forces fluid through the orifice intothe cylinder and compresses the air or nitrogen above it.

1-12

Figure 1-12.-Shock strut showing internal construction.

When the strut has made a stroke to absorb the energyof the impact, the air or nitrogen at the top expands andforces the fluid back into the lower chamber. The slowmetering of the fluid acts as a snubber to preventrebounds. Instructions for the servicing of shock strutswith hydraulic fluid and compressed air or nitrogen arecontained on an instruction plate attached to the strut, aswell as in the maintenance instruction manual (MIM)for the type of aircraft involved. The shock absorbingqualities of a shock strut depends on the proper servicingof the shock strut with compressed or nitrogen and theproper amount of fluid.

RETRACTING MECHANISMS. -Some aircrafthave electrically actuated landing gear, but most arehydraulically actuated. Figure 1-11 shows a retractingmechanism that is hydraulically actuated. The landinggear control handle in the cockpit allows the landing

gear to be retracted or extended by directing hydraulicfluid under pressure to the actuating cylinder. The lockshold the gear in the desired position, and the safetyswitch prevents accidental retracting of the gear whenthe aircraft is resting on its wheels.

A position indicator on the instrument panelindicates the position of the landing gear to the pilot. Theposition indicator is operated by the position-indicatingswitches mounted on the UP and DOWN locks of eachlanding gear.

EMERGENCY EXTENSION. -Methods ofextending the landing gear in the event of normal systemfailure vary with different models of aircraft. Mostaircraft use an emergency hydraulic system. Someaircraft use pneumatic (compressed air or nitrogen),mechanical, or gravity systems, or a combination ofthese systems.

1-13

Figure 1-13.-Nose gear assembly.

Nose Gear

A typical nose gear assembly is shown in figure1-13. Major components of the assembly include ashock strut, drag struts, a retracting mechanism, wheels,and a shimmy damper.

The nose gear shock strut, drag struts, and retractingmechanism are similar to those described for the mainlanding gear. The shimmy damper is a self-containedhydraulic unit that resists sudden twisting loads appliedto the nosewheel during ground operation, but permitsslow turning of the wheel. The primary purpose of theshimmy damper is to prevent the nosewheel fromshimmying (extremely fast left-right oscillations)during takeoff and landing. This is accomplished by themetering of hydraulic fluid through a small orificebetween two cylinders or chambers.

Most aircraft are equipped with steerable nose-wheels and do not require a separate self-containedshimmy damper. In such cases, the steering mechanismis hydraulically controlled and incorporates twospring-loaded hydraulic steering cylinders that, in

addition to serving as a steering mechanism, auto-matically subdue shimmy and center the nosewheel.

For more information concerning landing gearcomponents (shock struts, shimmy dampers, powersteering units, and brakes), you should refer to chapter12 of this TRAMAN.

ARRESTING GEAR

A carrier aircraft is equipped with an arresting hookfor stopping the aircraft when it lands on the carrier. Seefigure 1-14. The arresting gear is composed of anextendible hook and the mechanical, hydraulic, andpneumatic equipment necessary for hook operation. Thearresting hook on most aircraft is mechanically released,pneumatically lowered, and hydraulically raised.

The hook is hinged from the structure under the rearof the aircraft. A snubber, which meters hydraulic fluidand works in conjunction with nitrogen pressure, is usedto hold the hook down to prevent it from bouncing whenit strikes the carrier deck.

1-14

Figure 1-14.-Arresting gear installation.

Figure 1-15.-Nose gear launch equipment.

CATAPULT EQUIPMENT allows the aircraft to be secured to the carrier deck forfull-power turnup of the engine prior to takeoff. The

Carrier aircraft are equipped with facilities for holdback tension bar separates when the catapult is firedcatapulting the aircraft off the aircraft carrier. This and allows the aircraft to be launched with the engine atequipment consists of nose-toe launch equipment. The full power.older aircraft have hooks that are designed to For nose gear equipment, a track is attached to theaccommodate the cable bridle, which is used to hook the deck to guide the nosewheel into position. See figure

aircraft to the ships catapult. The holdback assembly 1-15. The track also has provisions for attaching the nose

1-15

Figure 1-16.-H-3 helicopter.

gear to the catapult shuttle and for holdback. Incomparison with the bridle and holdback pendantmethod of catapult hookup for launching, the nose gearlaunch equipment requires fewer personnel, the hookupis accomplished more safely, and time is saved inpositioning an aircraft for launch.

ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT

Learning Objective: Recognize the con-struction features of the rotary-wing aircraft(helicopter) and identify the fundamentaldifferences as compared to fixed-wing aircraft.

The history of rotary-wing development embraces500-year-old efforts to produce a workable direct-lift-type flying machine. Aircraft designers earlyexperiments in the helicopter field were fruitless. It isonly within the last 30 years that encouraging progresshas been made. It is within the past 20 years thatproduction line helicopters have become a reality.Today, helicopters are found throughout the world.They perform countless tasks especially suited to theirunique capabilities. Helicopters are the modem-dayversion of the dream envisioned centuries ago byLeonardo da Vinci.

Early in the development of rotary-wing aircraft, aneed arose for a new word to designate this direct-liftflying device. A resourceful Frenchman chose the two

words-heliko, which means screw or spiral, and pteron,which means wing. The word helicopter is thecombination of these two words.

A helicopter employs one or more power-drivenhorizontal airscrews, or rotors, from which it derives liftand propulsion. If a single rotor is used, it is necessaryto employ a means to counteract torque. If more thanone rotor is used, torque is eliminated by turning therotors in opposite directions.

The fundamental advantage the helicopter has overconventional aircraft is that lift and control areindependent of forward speed. A helicopter can flyforward, backward, or sideways, or it can remain instationary flight (hover) above the ground. No runwayis required for a helicopter to take off or land. The roofof an office building is an adequate landing area. Thehelicopter is considered a safe aircraft because thetakeoff and landing speed is zero.

The construction of helicoptersconstruction of fixed-wing aircraft.

FUSELAGE

is similar to the

Like the fuselage in fixed-wing aircraft, helicopterfuselages may be welded truss or some form ofmonocoque construction. Many Navy helicopters are ofthe monocoque design.

1-16

Figure 1-17.-Rotary-wing blade.

A typical Navy helicopter, the H-3, is shown infigure 1-16. A flying boat-type hull provides thishelicopter with water-operational capabilities foremergencies only. The fuselage consists of the entireairframe, sometimes known as the body group.

The body group is of all-metal semimonocoqueconstruction, consisting of an aluminum and titaniumskin over a reinforced aluminum frame.

LANDING GEAR GROUP

The landing gear group includes all the equipmentnecessary to support the helicopter when it is not inflight. Conventional landing gear consists of a mainlanding gear and a nonretractable tail landing gear plussponsons. See figure 1-16. The sponsons house the mainlanding gear during flight. They also aid in stabilizingthe aircraft during emergency operation on the waterwhen the aircraft is floating.

Main Landing Gear

Each main landing gear is composed of a shock strutassembly, dual wheels, a retracting cylinder, an uplockcylinder, and upper and lower drag braces. The wheelsretract into a well, recessed into the underside of thesponsons. The dual wheels, equipped with tubeless tiresand hydraulic brakes, are mounted on axles. They arepart of the lower end of the shock strut piston.

The main landing gear is extended hydraulically. Incase of hydraulic failure, an emergency system ofcompressed air lowers the gear. Should the air systemfail, the pilot actuates a valve to allow the gear to fall byits own weight.

Retractable landing gear is not a feature common toall helicopters or even a majority of them. The H-3 isdiscussed here because it is one of the Navys latesthelicopter designs. The H-3 has emergencywater-operational capability.

Tail Landing Gear

The H-3 tail landing gear is nonretracting and fullswiveling. It serves as an aft touchdown point forship/land-based operations only. An air-oil type ofshock absorber cushions the landing shock.

MAIN ROTOR ASSEMBLY

The main rotor (rotary wing) and the rotor head arediscussed under the rotor head section because theirfunctions are closely related. Neither has a functionwithout the other.

Rotary Wing

The main rotor or rotary wing on the H-3 has fiveidentical wing blades. Other helicopters may have two,three, or four blades. A typical wing blade is shown infigure 1-17.

The rotary-wing blade is made of aluminum alloy,except the steel cuff by which the blade attaches to therotor hub. The main supporting member of the blade isa hollow, aluminum alloy extruded spar, which formsthe leading edge. The steel cuff is bolted to the root endof the spar.

Twenty-three individual pockets constructed ofaluminum ribs, aluminum channels, and aluminum skincovering are bonded to the aft edge of the spar. The tip

1-17

end of the blade contains a readily removable tip cap.Screws fasten the spar and tip pocket rib together. Theroot pocket of the blade is sealed at its inboard end byan aluminum alloy root cap that is cemented and rivetedto the pocket.

A stainless steel spar abrasion strip is found at theleading edge of the spar. It starts at blade pocket No. 10and extends along the entire leading edge, whichincludes the tip cap. The blade shown in figure 1-17 isfitted with a ice guard. The guard is composed of finewire braid heating elements. It is interwoven in bandsand embedded in a rubber strap, to which is bonded astainless steel strap. The guard is bonded to the leadingedge of the spar, and is molded to the contour of theblade.

Rotor Head

The rotary-wing head is splined to and supported bythe rotary-wing shaft of the main gearbox. The headsupports the rotary-wing blades. It is rotated by torquefrom the main gearbox, and transmits movements of theflight controls to the blades.

The principal components of the head are the huband swashplate. The hub consists of a hub plate andlower plate. It has hinges between each arm of the platesand sleeve-spindles, which are attached to the hinges.There is also a damper-positioner for each wing blade.The swashplate consists of a rotating swashplate andstationary swashplate. Other components of therotary- wing head are anti flapping restrainers, drooprestrainers, adjustable pitch control rods, and rotatingand stationary scissors.

The swashplate and adjustable pitch control rodspermit movement of the flight controls to be transmittedto the rotary-wing blades. The hinges allow limitedmovement of the blades in relation to the hub. Thesemovements are known as lead, lag, and flap. Leadoccurs during slowing of the drive mechanism when theblades have a tendency to remain in motion. Lag is theopposite of lead, and occurs during acceleration whenthe blade has been at rest and tends to remain at rest.Flap is the tendency of the blade to rise with high-liftdemands as it tries to screw itself upward into the air.The damper-positioners restrict lead and lag motion andposition the blades for folding. Sleeve-spindles alloweach blade to be rotated on its spanwise axis to changethe blade pitch. The antiflapping restrainers and drooprestrainers restrict flapping motion when therotary-wing head is slowing or stopped.

1.2.3.

Pitch link 4. Pitch control beamRotary rudder blade 5. Rotary rudder hubSpindle 6. Pylon

Figure 1-18.-Tail rotor group.

TAIL ROTOR GROUP

The tail rotor group has helicopter components thatprovide the aircraft with directional control. See figure1-18. These components are the pylon, rotary rudderblades, and rotary rudder head. The rotary rudder headincludes such items as the hub, spindle, and pitch controlbeams.

Pylon

The pylon, shown in figure 1-18, is of aluminumsemimonocoque construction. It has beams, bulkheads,stringer, formers, and channels. Various gauges ofaluminum skin located on the sides of the box structureare part of the primary pylon structure. Reinforcedplastic fairings in the leading and aft surfaces form theairfoil contour of the pylon and are secondary structures.

The pylon houses an intermediate gearbox and a tailgearbox. The pylon is attached on the right side of theaircraft to the main fuselage by hinge fittings. Thesehinge fittings also serve as the pivot point for the pylonto fold alongside the right side of the fuselage. Foldingof the pylon reduces the overall length of the H-3helicopter by 7 1/2 feet, thereby aiding shipboardhandling.

Rotary Rudder Head

The rudder head is usually located on the left sideof the pylon. It produces antitorque forces, which maybe varied by the pilot to control flight heading. The

1-18

Figure 1-19.-Five stresses acting on an aircraft.

rotary rudder head is driven by the tail gearbox. Changein blade pitch is accomplished through the pitch changeshaft that moves through the horizontal shaft of the tailgearbox. As the shaft moves inward toward the tailgearbox, pitch of the blade is decreased. As the shaftmoves outward from the tail gearbox, pitch of the bladeis increased. The pitch control beam is connected bylinks to the forked brackets on the blade sleeves.

A flapping spindle for each blade permits flappingof the blade to a maximum of 10 degrees in eachdirection.

Rotary Rudder Blades

The blades are on the rotary rudder head. Each bladeconsists of the following:

Aluminum spar

Aluminum pocket with honeycomb core

Aluminum tip cap

Aluminum trailing edge cap

Abrasion strip

In addition, those blades that have deicing pro-visions have a neoprene anti-icing guard, embeddedwith electrical heating elements. The root end of theblade permits attaching to the rotary rudder headspindles. The abrasion strip protects the leading edge ofthe blade from sand, dust, and adverse weatherconditions. The skin is wrapped completely around thespar, and the trailing edge cap is installed over the edgesof the skin at the trailing edge of the blade, The tip capis riveted to the outboard end of the blade.

STRUCTURAL STRESS

Learning Objective: Identify the five basicstresses acting on an aircraft.

Primary factors in aircraft structures are strength,weight, and reliability. These three factors determine therequirements to be met by any material used in airframeconstruction and repair. Airframes must be strong andlight in weight. An aircraft built so heavy that it couldnot support more then a few hundred pounds ofadditional weight would be useless. In addition tohaving a good strength-to-weight ratio, all materialsmust be thoroughly reliable. This reliability minimizesthe possibility of dangerous and unexpected failures.

Numerous forces and structural stresses act on anaircraft when it is flying and when it is static. When it isstatic, gravity force alone produces weight. The weightis supported by the landing gear. The landing gear alsoabsorbs the forces imposed during takeoffs andlandings.

During flight, any maneuver that causesacceleration or deceleration increases the forces andstresses on the wings and fuselage. These loads aretension, compression, shear, bending, and torsionstresses. These stresses are absorbed by each componentof the wing structure and transmitted to the fuselagestructure. The empennage, or tail section, absorbs thesame stresses and also transmits them to the fuselagestructure. The study of such loads is called a stressanalysis. The stresses must be analyzed and consideredwhen an aircraft is designed. These stresses are shownin figure 1-19.

1-19

TENSION VARYING STRESS

Tension may be defined as pull. It is the stress ofstretching an object or pulling at its ends. An elevatorcontrol cable is in additional tension when the pilotmoves the control column. Tension is the resistance topulling apart or stretching, produced by two forcespulling in opposite directions along the same straightline.

COMPRESSION

If forces acting on an aircraft move toward eachother to squeeze the material, the stress is calledcompression. Compression is the opposite of tension.Tension is a pull, and compression is a push.Compression is the resistance to crushing, produced bytwo forces pushing toward each other in the samestraight line. While an airplane is on the ground, thelanding gear struts are under a constant compressionstress.

SHEAR

Cutting a piece of paper with a pair of scissors is anexample of shearing action. Shear in an aircraft structureis a stress exerted when two pieces of fastened materialtend to separate. Shear stress is the outcome of slidingone part over the other in opposite directions. The rivetsand bolts in an aircraft experience both shear and tensionstresses.

BENDING

Bending is a combination of tension andcompression. Consider the bending of an object such asa piece of tubing. The upper portion stretches (tension)and the lower portion crushes together (compression).The wing spars of an aircraft in flight undergo bendingstresses.

TORSION

Torsional stresses are the result of a twisting force.When you wring out a chamois skin, you are putting itunder torsion. Torsion is produced in an enginecrankshaft while the engine is running. Forces that causetorsional stresses produce torque.

All materials arc somewhat elastic. A rubberband isextremely elastic, whereas a piece of metal is not veryelastic.

All the structural members of an aircraft experienceone or more stresses. Sometimes a structural memberhas alternate stresses. It is under compression oneinstant of time and under tension the next. The strengthof aircraft materials must be great enough to withstandmaximum force of varying stresses.

SPECIFIC ACTION OF STRESSES

You should understand the stresses encountered onthe main parts of an aircraft. A knowledge of the basicstresses on aircraft structures helps you understand whyaircraft are built the way they are. The fuselage of theaircraft encounters the five types of stress-torsion,bending, tension, shear, and compression.

Torsional stress in a fuselage is created in severalways. An example of this stress is encountered in enginetorque on turboprop aircraft. Engine torque tends torotate the aircraft in the direction opposite to that inwhich the propeller is turning. This force creates atorsional stress in the fuselage. Figure 1-20 shows theeffect of the rotating propellers. Another example oftorsional stress is the twisting force in the fuselage dueto the action of the ailerons when the aircraft ismaneuvered.

When an aircraft is on the ground, there is a bendingforce on the fuselage. This force occurs because of theweight of the aircraft itself. Bending greatly increaseswhen the aircraft makes a carrier landing. This bendingaction creates a tension stress on the lower skin of thefuselage and a compression stress on the top skin. Thisbending action is shown in figure 1-21. These stressesare also transmitted to the fuselage when the aircraft isin flight. Bending occurs due to the reaction of theairflow against the wings and empennage. When theaircraft is in flight, lift forces act upward against thewings, tending to bend them upward. The wings areprevented from folding over the fuselage by the resistingstrength of the wing structure. This bending actioncreates a tension stress on the bottom of the wings anda compression stress on the top of the wings.

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Learning Objective: Recognize and identify theproperties of the various types of metallic andnonmetallic materials used in aircraftconstruction.

1-20

Figure 1-20.-Engine torque creates torsional stress in aircraft fuselages.

Figure 1-21.-Bending action occurring during carrier landing.

An aircraft requires materials that must be both lightand strong. Early aircraft were made of wood.Lightweight metal alloys with a strength greater thanwood were developed and used on later aircraft.Materials currently used in aircraft construction maybeclassified as either metallic or nonmetallic.

COMMON METALLIC MATERIALS

The most common metals in aircraft constructionare aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and theiralloys. Aluminum alloy is widely used in modernaircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industrybecause the alloy has a high strength-to-weight ratio.Aluminum alloys are corrosion-resistant and com-paratively easy to fabricate. The outstanding character-istic of aluminum is its lightweight.

Magnesium, the worlds lightest structural metal, isa silvery-white material weighing only two-thirds asmuch as aluminum. Magnesium is used in themanufacture of helicopters. Magnesiums lowresistance to corrosion has limited its use in con-ventional aircraft.

Titanium is a lightweight, strong, corrosion-resistant metal. It was discovered years ago, but onlyrecently has it been made suitable for use in aircraft.Recent developments make titanium ideal forapplications where aluminum alloys are too weak andstainless steel is too heavy. In addition, titanium isunaffected by long exposure to seawater and marineatmosphere.

An alloy is composed of two or more metals. Themetal present in the alloy in the largest portion is called

1-21

the base metal. All other metals added to the alloy arecalled alloying elements. Alloying elements, in eithersmall or large amounts, may result in a marked changein the properties of the base metal. For example, purealuminum is relatively soft and weak. When smallamounts of other elements such as copper, manganese,and magnesium are added, aluminums strength isincreased many times. An increase or a decrease in analloys strength and hardness may be achieved throughheat treatment of the alloy. Alloys are of greatimportance to the aircraft industry. Alloys providematerials with properties not possessed by a pure metalalone.

Alloy steels that are of much greater strength thanthose found in other fields of engineering have beendeveloped. These steels contain small percentages ofcarbon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum.High-tensile steels will stand stresses of 50 to 150 tonsper square inch without failing. Such steels are madeinto tubes, rods, and wires.

Another type of steel that is used extensively isstainless steel. This alloy resists corrosion and isparticularly valuable for use in or near salt water.

COMMON NONMETALLIC MATERIALS

In addition to metals, various types of plasticmaterials are found in aircraft construction. Transparentplastic is found in canopies, windshields, and othertransparent enclosures. Handle transparent plasticsurfaces with care, because this material is relativelysoft and scratches easily. At approximately 225F,transparent plastic becomes soft and very pliable.

Reinforced plastic is made for use in the con-struction of radomes, wing tips, stabilizer tips, antennacovers, and flight controls. Reinforced plastic has a highstrength-to-weight ratio and is resistant to mildew androt. Its ease of fabrication make it equally suitable forother parts of the aircraft.

Reinforced plastic is a sandwich-type material. Seefigure 1-22. It is made up of two outer facings and acenter layer. The facings are made up of several layersof glass cloth, bonded together with a liquid resin. Thecore material (center layer) consists of a honeycombstructure made of glass cloth. Reinforced plastic isfabricated into a variety of cell sizes.

High-performance aircraft require an extra highstrength-to-weight ratio material. Fabrication ofcomposite materials satisfies the special requirement.This construction method uses several layers of bonding

Figure 1-22.-Reinforced plastic.

materials (graphite epoxy or boron epoxy). Thesematerials are mechanically fastened to conventionalsubstructures. Another type of composite constructionconsists of thin graphite epoxy skins bonded to analuminum honeycomb core.

METALLIC MATERIALS

Learning Objective: Identify properties ofmetallic materials used in aircraft con-struction.

Metallurgists have been working for more than ahalf century improving metals for aircraft construction.Each metal has certain properties and characteristics thatmake it desirable for a particular application, but it mayhave other qualities that are undesirable. For example,some metals are hard, others comparatively soft; someare brittle, some lough; some can be formed and shapedwithout fracture; and some are so heavy that weightalone makes them unsuitable for aircraft use. Themetallurgists objectives are to improve the desirablequalities and tone down or eliminate the undesirableones. This is done by alloying (combining) metals andby various heat-treating processes.

You do not have to be a metallurgist to be a goodAM, but you should possess a knowledge and under-standing of the uses, strengths, limitations, and othercharacteristics of aircraft structural metals. Suchknowledge and understanding is vital to properlyconstruct and maintain any equipment, especiallyairframes. In aircraft maintenance and repair, even aslight deviation from design specifications or thesubstitution of inferior materials may result in the lossof both lives and equipment. The use of unsuitablematerials can readily erase the finest craftsmanship. Theselection of the specific material for a specific repair job

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demands familiarity with the most common propertiesof various metals.

PROPERTIES OF METALS

This section is devoted primarily to the terms usedin describing various properties and characteristics ofmetals in general. Of primary concern in aircraftmaintenance are such general properties of metals andtheir alloys as hardness, brittleness, malleability,ductility, elasticity, toughness, density, fusibility,conductivity, and contraction and expansion. You mustknow the definition of the terms included here becausethey form the basis for further discussion of aircraftmetals.

Hardness

Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resistabrasion, penetration, cutting action, or permanentdistortion. Hardness may be increased by working themetal and, in the case of steel and certain titanium andaluminum alloys, by heat treatment and cold-working(discussed later). Structural parts are often formed frommetals in their soft state and then heat treated to hardenthem so that the finished shape will be retained.Hardness and strength are closely associated propertiesof all metals.

Brittleness

Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows littlebending or deformation without shattering. In otherwords, a brittle metal is apt to break or crack withoutchange of shape. Because structural metals are oftensubjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a verydesirable property. Cast iron, cast aluminum, and veryhard steel are brittle metals.

Malleability

A metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressedinto various shapes without cracking or breaking orother detrimental effects is said to be malleable. Thisproperty is necessary in sheet metal that is to be workedinto curved shapes such as cowlings, fairings, and wingtips. Copper is one example of a malleable metal.

Ductility

Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it tobe permanently drawn, bent, or twisted into variousshapes without breaking. This property is essential for

metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile metalsare greatly preferred for aircraft use because of theirease of forming and resistance to failure under shockloads. For this reason, aluminum alloys are used forcowl rings, fuselage and wing skin, and formed orextruded parts, such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.Chrome-molybdenum steel is also easily formed intodesired shapes. Ductility is similar to malleability.

Elasticity

Elasticity is that property that enables a metal toreturn to its original shape when the force that causesthe change of shape is removed. This property isextremely valuable, because it would be highlyundesirable to have a part permanently distorted after anapplied load was removed. Each metal has a pointknown as the elastic limit, beyond which it cannot beloaded without causing permanent distortion. Whenmetal is loaded beyond its elastic limit and permanentdistortion does result, it is referred to as strained. Inaircraft construction, members and parts are so designedthat the maximum loads to which they are subjected willnever stress them beyond their elastic limit.

NOTE: Stress is the internal resistance of anymetal to distortion.

Toughness

A material that possesses toughness will withstandtearing or shearing and may be stretched or otherwisedeformed without breaking. Toughness is a desirableproperty in aircraft metals.

Density

Density is the weight of a unit volume of a material.In aircraft work, the actual weight of a material per cubicinch is preferred, since this figure can be used indetermining the weight of a part before actualmanufacture. Density is an important considerationwhen choosing a material to be used in the design of apart and still maintain the proper weight and balance ofthe aircraft.

Fusibility

Fusibility is defined as the ability of a metal tobecome liquid by the application of heat. Metals arefused in welding. Steels fuse at approximately 2,500F,and aluminum alloys at approximately 1, 110F.

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Conductivity

Conductivity is the property that enables a metal tocarry heat or electricity. The heat conductivity of a metalis especially important in welding, because it governsthe amount of heat that will be required for properfusion. Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent,determines the type of jig to be used to control expansionand contraction. In aircraft, electrical conductivity mustalso be considered in conjunction with bonding, whichis used to eliminate radio interference. Metals vary intheir capacity to conduct heat. Copper, for instance, hasa relatively high rate of heat conductivity and is a goodelectrical conductor.

Contraction and Expansion

Contraction and expansion are reactions producedin metals as the result of heating or cooling. A highdegree of heat applied to a metal will cause it to expandor become larger. Cooling hot metal will shrink orcontract it. Contraction and expansion affect the designof welding jigs, castings, and tolerances necessary forhot-rolled material.

QUALITIES OF METALS

The selection of proper materials is a primaryconsideration in the development of an airframe and inthe proper maintenance and repair of aircraft. Keepingin mind the general properties of metals, it is nowpossible to consider the specific requirements thatmetals must meet to be suitable for aircraft purposes.

Strength, weight, and reliability determine therequirements to be met by any material used in airframeconstruction and repair. Airframes must be strong andas light in weight as possible. There are very definitelimits to which increases in strength can be accompaniedby increase in weight. An aircraft so heavy that it couldnot support more than a few hundred pounds ofadditional weight would be of little use. All metals, inaddition to having a good strength/weight ratio, must bethoroughly reliable, thus minimizing the possibility ofdangerous and unexpected failures. In addition to thesegeneral properties, the material selected for definiteapplication must possess specific qualities suitable forthe purpose. These specific qualities are discussed in thefollowing text.

Strength

The material must possess the strength required bythe demands of dimensions, weight, and use. There are

five basic stresses that metals may be required towithstand. These are tension, compression, shear,bending, and torsion. Each was discussed previously inthis chapter.

Weight

The relationship between the strength of a materialand its weight per cubic inch, expressed as a ratio, isknown as the strength/weight ratio. This ratio forms thebasis of comparing the desirability of various materialsfor use in airframe construction and repair. Neitherstrength nor weight alone can be used as a means of truecomparison. In some applications, such as the skin ofmonocoque structures, thickness is more important thanstrength; and in this instance, the material with thelightest weight for a given thickness or gauge is best.Thickness or bulk is necessary to prevent buckling ordamage caused by careless handling.

Corrosive Properties

Corrosion is the eating away or pitting of the surfaceor the internal structure of metals. Because of the thinsections and the safety factors used in aircraft design andconstruction, it would be dangerous to select a materialsubject to severe corrosion if it were not possible toreduce or eliminate the hazard. Corrosion can bereduced or prevented by using better grades of basemetals; by coating the surfaces with a thin coating ofpaint, tin, chromium, or cadmium; or by anelectrochemical process called anodizing. Corrosioncontrol is discussed at length in Aviation MaintenanceRatings Fundamentals, and it is not covered in detail inthis TRAMAN.

Working Properties

Another significant factor to consider in theselection of metals for aircraft maintenance and repairis the ability of material to be formed, bent, or machinedto required shapes. The hardening of metals bycold-working or forming is called work hardening. Ifa piece of metal is formed (shaped or bent) while cold,it is said to be cold-worked. Practically all the work youdo on metal is cold-work. While this is convenient, itcauses the metal to become harder and more brittle.

If the metal is cold-worked too much (that is, if it isbent back and forth or hammered at the same place toooften), it will crack or break. Usually, the moremalleable and ductile a metal is, the more cold-workingit can withstand.

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Joining Properties

Joining metals structuraly by welding, brazing, orsoldering, or by such mechanical means as riveting orbolting, is a tremendous help in design and fabrication.When all other properties are equal, material that can bewelded has the advantage.

Shock and Fatigue Properties

Aircraft metals are subject to both shock and fatigue(vibrational) stresses. Fatigue occurs in materials thatare exposed to frequent reversals of loading orrepeatedly applied loads, if the fatigue limit is reachedor exceeded. Repeated vibration or bending willultimately cause a minute crack to occur at the weakestpoint. As vibration or bending continues, the cracklengthens until complete failure of the part occurs. Thisis termed shock and fatigue failure. Resistance to thiscondition is known as shock and fatigue resistance. It isessential that materials used for critical parts be resistantto these stresses.

The preceding discussion of the properties andqualities of metals is intended to show why you mustknow which traits in metals are desirable and which areundesirable to do certain jobs. The more you know abouta given material, the better you can handle airframerepairs.

METAL WORKING PROCESSES

When metal is not cast in a desired manner, it isformed into special shapes by mechanical workingprocesses. Several factors must be considered whendetermining whether a desired shape is to be cast orformed by mechanical working. If the shape is verycomplicated, casting will be necessary to avoidexpensive machining of mechanically formed parts. Onthe other hand, if strength and quality of material are theprime factors in a given part, a cast will beunsatisfactory. For this reason, steel castings are seldomused in aircraft work.

There are three basic methods of metal working.They are hot-working, cold-working, and extruding.The process chosen for a particular application dependsupon the metal involved and the part required, althoughin some instances you might employ both hot- andcold-working methods in making a single part.

Hot-Working

Almost all steel is hot-worked from the ingot intosome form from which it is either hot- or cold-workedto the finished shape. When an ingot is stripped from itsmold, its surface is solid, but the interior is still molten.The ingot is then placed in a soaking pit, which retardsloss of heat, and the molten interior gradually solidifies.After soaking, the temperature is equalized throughoutthe ingot, which is then reduced to intermediate size byrolling, making it more readily handled.

The rolled shape is called a bloom when its sectionaldimensions are 6 x 6 inches or larger and approximatelysquare. The section is called a billet when it isapproximately square and less than 6 x 6 inches.Rectangular sections that have width greater than twicethe thickness are called slabs. The slab is theintermediate shape from which sheets are rolled.

HOT-ROLLING. -Blooms, billets, or slabs areheated above the critical range and rolled into a varietyof shapes of uniform cross section. The more commonof these rolled shapes are sheets, bars, channels, angles,I-beams, and the like. In aircraft work, sheets, bars, androds are the most commonly used items that are rolledfrom steel. As discussed later in this chapter, hot-rolledmaterials are frequently finished by cold-rolling ordrawing to obtain accurate finish dimensions and abright, smooth surface.

FORGING. -Complicated sections that cannot berolled, or sections of which only a small quantity isrequired, are usually forged. Forging of steel is amechanical working of the metal above the critical rangeto shape the metal as desired. Forging is done either bypressing or hammering the heated steel until the desiredshape is obtained.

Pressing is used when the parts to be forged are largeand heavy, and this process also replaces hammeringwhere high-grade steel is required. Since a press is slowacting, its force is uniformly transmitted to the center ofthe section, thus affecting the interior grain structure aswell as the exterior to give the best possible structurethroughout.

Hammering can be used only on relatively smallpieces. Since hammering transmits its force almostinstantly, its effect is limited to a small depth. Thus, it isnecessary to use a very heavy hammer or to subject thepart to repeated blows to ensure complete working ofthe section. If the force applied is too weak to reach thecenter, the finished forging surface will be concave. Ifthe center is properly worked, the surface will be convex

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Figure 1-23.-Cold-drawing operations for rod, tubing, and wire.

or bulged. The advantage of hammering is that theoperator has control over the amount of pressure appliedand the finishing temperature, and is able to produceparts of the highest grade.

This type of forging is usually referred to as smithforging, and it is used extensively where only a smallnumber of parts are needed. Considerable machiningand material are saved when a part is smith forged toapproximately the finished shape.

Cold-Working

Cold-working applies to mechanical workingperformed at temperatures below the critical range, andresults in a strain hardening of the metal. It becomes so

hard that it is difficult to continue the forming processwithout softening the metal by annealing.

Since the errors attending shrinkage are eliminatedin cold-working, a much more compact and better metalis obtained. The strength and hardness as well as theelastic limit are increased, but the ductility decreases.Since this makes the metal more brittle, it must be heatedfrom time to time during certain operations to removethe undesirable effects of the working.

While there are several cold-working processes, thetwo with which you are principally concerned arecold-rolling and cold-drawing. These processes give themetals desirable qualities that cannot be obtained byhot-working.

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COLD-ROLLING. -Cold-rolling usually refers tothe working of metal at room temperature. In thisoperation, the materials that have been hot-rolled toapproximate sizes are pickled to remove any scale, afterwhich they are passed through chilled finished rolls.This action gives a smooth surface and also brings thepieces to accurate dimensions. The principal forms ofcold-rolled stocks are sheets, bars, and rods.

COLD-DRAWING. -Cold-drawing is used inmaking seamless tubing, wire, streamline tie rods, andother forms of stock. Wire is made from hot-rolled rodsof various diameters. These rods are pickled in acid toremove scale, dipped in lime water, and then dried in asteam room, where they remain until ready for drawing.The lime coating adhering to the metal serves as alubricant during the drawing operation. Figure 1-23shows the drawing of rod, tubing, and wire.

The size of the rod used for drawing depends uponthe diameter wanted in the finished wire. To reduce therod to the desired wire size, it is drawn cold through adie. One end of the rod is filed or hammered to a pointand slipped through the die opening, where it is grippedby the jaws of the draw, then pulled through the die. Thisseries of operations is done by a mechanism known asthe drawbench, as shown in figure 1-23.

To reduce the rod gradually to the desired size, it isnecessary to draw the wire through successively smallerdies. Because each of these drawings reduces theductility of the wire, it must be annealed from time totime before further drawings can be accomplished.Although cold-working reduces the ductility, itincreases the tensile strength of the wire enormously.

In making seamless steel aircraft tubing, the tubingis cold-drawn through a ring-shaped die with a mandrelor metal bar inside the tubing to support it while thedrawing operations are being performed. This forces themetal to flow between the die and the mandrel andaffords a means of controlling the wall thickness and theinside and outside diameters.

and other favorable properties, can be economicallyextruded to more intricate shapes and larger sizes thanis practicable with many other metals. Extruded shapesare produced in very simple as well as extremelycomplex sections.

A cylinder of aluminum, for instance, is heated to750F to 850F, and is then forced through the openingof a die by a hydraulic ram. Many structural parts, suchas stringers, are formed by the extrusion process.

ALLOYING OF METALS

A substance that possesses metallic properties andis composed of two or more chemical elements, ofwhich at least one is a metal, is called an alloy. Themetal present in the alloy in the largest proportion iscalled the base metal. All other metals and/orelements added to the alloy are called alloyingelements. The metals are dissolved in each other whilemolten, and they do not separate into layers when thesolution solidifies. Practically all the metals used inaircraft are made up of a number of alloying elements.

Alloying elements, either in small or in largeamounts, may result in a marked change in the propertiesof the base metal. For example, pure aluminum is arelatively soft and weak metal, but by adding smallamounts of other elements such as copper, manganese,magnesium, and zinc, its strength can be increased manytimes. Aluminum containing such other elementspurposely added during manufacture is called analuminum alloy.

In addition to increasing the strength, alloying maychange the heat-resistant qualities of a metal, itscorrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, ormagnetic properties. It may cause an increase ordecrease in the degree to which hardening occurs aftercold-working. Alloying may also make possible anincrease or decrease in strength and hardness by heattreatment. Alloys are of great importance to the aircraftindustry in providing materials with properties that puremetals alone do not possess.

ExtrudingFERROUS AIRCRAFT METALS

The extrusion process involves the forcing of metalthrough an opening in a die, thus causing the metal totake the shape of the die opening. Some metals such aslead, tin, and aluminum may be extruded cold; butgenerally, metals are heated before the operation isbegun.

The principal advantage of the extrusion process isin its flexibility. Aluminum, because of its workability

A wide variety of materials is required in the repairof aircraft. This is a result of the varying needs withrespect to strength, weight, durability, and resistance todeterioration of specific structures or parts. In addition,the particular shape or form of the material plays animportant role. In selecting materials for aircraft repair,these factors, plus many others, are considered inrelation to their mechanical and physical properties.

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Table 1-1.-SAE Numerical Index

Type of steel Classification

Carbon 1xxx

Nickel 2xxx

Nickel-chromium 3xxx

Molybdenum 4xxx

Chromium 5xxx

Chromium-vanadium 6xxx

Tungsten 7xxx

Silicon-manganese 9xxx

Among the common materials used are ferrous metals. HARDNESS TESTING METHODS. -HardnessThe term ferrous applies to the group of metals havingiron as their principal constituent.

Identification

If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging upto approximately 1.00 percent, the product will be vastlysuperior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel.Carbon steel forms the base of those alloy steelsproduced by combining carbon with