LIA’s Laser Welding & Joining Workshop will bring together industry specialists from around the world with the goal of applying laser materials joining technologies to today’s manufacturing challenges and opportunities. www.lia.org/laserwelding • +1.407.380.1553 • 1.800.34.LASER • [email protected]Presented by: Aerospace Defense Automotive Battery & Electronics Government Energy & Chemical Power Generation & Advanced Energy Heavy Manufacturing Medical Laser Materials Joining Solutions for Today’s Manufacturing Challenges! Register Now! LASER WELDING & JOINING WORKSHO P October 23-24, 2012 Renaissance Schaumburg Convention Center Hotel Schaumburg, Illinois USA 1st ANNUAL Photo courtesy of Fraunhofer USA – Center for Coatings and Laser Applications Platinum Sponsor:
Transcript
LIA’s Laser Welding & Joining
Workshop will bring together industry
specialists from around the world with
the goal of applying laser materials
joining technologies to today’s
manufacturing challenges
and opportunities.
www. l ia .o rg / laserwe ld ing • +1 .407 .380 .1553 • 1 .800 .34 .LASER • lw j@l ia .o rg
Presented by:
AerospaceDefense
AutomotiveBattery & Electronics
GovernmentEnergy & ChemicalPower Generation
& Advanced EnergyHeavy Manufacturing
Medical
Laser Materials Joining Solutions for Today’s Manufacturing Challenges!
Register Now!
LASER WELDING& JOININGW O R K S H O P
October 23-24, 2012Renaissance Schaumburg Convention Center Hotel
Schaumburg, Illinois USA
1st ANNUAL
Photo courtesy of Fraunhofer USA – Center for Coatings and Laser ApplicationsPlatinum Sponsor:
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDINGAND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
August 2012
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3WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS29 Factors that Affect Hexavalent Chromium Emissions
A variety of stainless steel welding electrodes and processeswere evaluated to determine their potential hexavalentchromium generation ratesS. Ferree and F. Lake
38 Automating On-Site Beveling, Cutting, and WeldingProgrammable, variable-speed carriages are being used to achieve high-quality cutting and beveling in the fieldN. Drake and B. Malkani
42 How Would Lower Limits for Manganese Affect Welding?The amounts of manganese fume in welders’ personal breathing zones were measured and compared to the requirements of proposed new limitsP. Blomquist and D. Chute
48 Oxyfuel Safety: It’s Everyone’s ResponsibilityThese reminders detail the proper and responsible use ofoxyfuel cutting equipmentJ. Henderson
54 Putting Your Best Foot Forward on the JobThese tips will help you choose the right boots to wear duringyour workdayM. Reilly
58 Safeguarding Your VisionHere’s a guide to choosing this vital piece of personal protection equipmentJ. Bulan, E. Cull, and F. Stupczy
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is publishedmonthly by the American Welding Society for$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50per single issue for domestic AWS members and$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and$14.00 single issue for international. AmericanWelding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd.,Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353. Peri-odicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additionalmailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publications MailAgreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sentto Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542,London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies ofarticles for personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which are not for sale orresale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4Washington Watchword ..........6Press Time News ..................8News of the Industry ............10Aluminum Q&A ..................16Brazing Q&A ......................20Product & Print Spotlight ......22Coming Events....................62Certification Schedule ..........70Welding Workbook ..............72Society News ....................75
Personnel ........................92Classifieds ......................100Advertiser Index ................102
213-s Effect of the Consumable on the Properties of Gas MetalArc Welded EN 1.4003-Type Stainless SteelA modified 12% Cr ferritic stainless steel was welded with threedifferent consumables, then samples underwent tensile, bend, and Charpy impact toughness testingE. Taban et al.
222-s Continuous Drive Friction Welding of AI/SiC Compositeand AISI 1030Studies showed an aluminum matrix composite and AISI 1030steel can be joined through friction weldingS. Çel�k and D. Güneş
229-s Effect of Titanium Content on Microstructure and WearResistance of Fe-Cr-C Hardfacing LayersA good-performing hardfacing layer was obtained by addingvarying amounts of ferrotitanium into flux cored wireY. F. Zhou et al.
Features
Welding Research Supplement
38
48
42
August 2012 • Volume 91 • Number 8 AWS Web site www.aws.org
On the cover: Full eye and body protection, including safety glasses, correctlyshaded helmet, cap, gloves, and jacket, are key to personal protection for today’swelder. (Photo by Jenny Ogborn, photographer, Lincoln Electric Co., Cleve-land, Ohio.)
EDITORIAL
• Walking beneath the space shuttle Atlantis as she was being prepared for her finallaunch
• Touring the design, research, and testing facilities of Case New Holland• Walking alongside the USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78) as it was under construction at
Newport News• Viewing the manufacturing lines of Vermeer and Bucyrus in action• Seeing the stack of Discovery in the NASA Vehicle Assembly Building prior to her final
launch• Visiting the David Taylor Model Basin Building at NSWC Carderock including wit-
nessing a live test in the wave pool• Strolling through the Boeing Everett factory• Attending a dinner and reception aboard a retired offshore oil platform• Walking through the advanced materials lab at DuPont• Participating in VIP tours of the filler metal manufacturing line and automation cen-
ter at The Lincoln Electric Co.While the above may sound like a great vacation, it is actually a list of recent moments
shared by volunteers who serve on our AWS committees — moments made possiblestrictly because of their involvement with those committees.
Every so often we have to remind ourselves and inform others about why we volun-teer time to the American Welding Society. Others have written about volunteerism inthis space in the past, and I’m sure it will be necessary for others to do so again in thefuture. Following are the many reasons they have listed for why individuals volunteer:• Unique networking opportunities for connecting with others in the welding industry• The ability to affect the content of AWS standards for themselves and their companies• The satisfaction of giving back to the industry and helping it to advance forward• Getting involved in AWS programs and becoming part of the decision-making process
on how those programs develop and move forward• The opportunity for younger members to learn from experts in the industry• The opportunity for older members to mentor the next generation coming forward• Making lasting friendships that are forged by years of shared collaboration — and yes,
sometimes conflict — on AWS committees.While all of the above is true and are good reasons for becoming a member of and
staying active in AWS committees and other activities, I’d like to highlight one of thelesser-mentioned perks of serving on AWS committees. Quite often the other membersof these committees have really interesting jobs, and work at great companies and insome very interesting facilities. Every so often they will host an AWS committee meet-ing and oftentimes arrange VIP tours through their facilities; tours like those mentionedat the beginning of this Editorial. Yes, it is true that the general public can tour many ofthese facilities, but those public tours are rarely hosted by welding experts who can giveinsight on current productions. In addition, tours for AWS committee members often goto places the general tours do not. Even when committee members tour company muse-ums open to the general public, their experience is unique because they are seeing thedisplays and talking about them with a group of like-minded individuals. I’m sure you’drelish that more than having to explain to your spouse or some other disinterested fam-ily member why constructing towing carriage rails that follow the curvature of the earth’ssurface so as to provide constant gravity is such a neat thing.
Yes, most AWS committee meetings take place in hotel con-ference rooms and other less-than-memorable facilities. Thatis when all those other reasons for becoming involved in AWScommittee work take center stage. However, every once in awhile, we get that little extra bonus of having our work tied tosomething unique, interesting, and personally satisfying. I urgeyou to get out and get involved with the Society’s committeesand other activities. You won’t regret it, and you will have someunique memories and stories to carry home with you.
AUGUST 20124
OfficersPresident William A. Rice Jr.
OKI Bering
Vice President Nancy C. ColeNCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Vice President David J. LandonVermeer Mfg. Co.
Treasurer Robert G. PaliJ. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. ShookAmerican Welding Society
DirectorsT. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
J. C. Bruskotter (Past President), Bruskotter Consulting Services
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
D. A. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc.
R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Total Quality Testing
D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp.
J. Jones (Dist. 17), Victor Technologies
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C.
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
D. L. McQuaid (At Large), DL McQuaid & Associates
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center
N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
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House Subcommittee Examines NISTManufacturing Proposal
The House Subcommittee on Technology and Innovation re-cently held a hearing to examine the proposed National Networkfor Manufacturing Innovation (NNMI). The administration hasrequested $1 billion for the NNMI in the fiscal year 2013 budgetrequest for the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST).
The NNMI is designed to promote the development of newmanufacturing technologies through collaboration between thefederal government and public and private sector stakeholders.NIST has already moved forward this fiscal year by establishinga pilot institute for manufacturing innovation with an initial costof $45 million.
In his testimony before the subcommittee, Dr. Patrick Gal-lagher, director of NIST, advocated for the proposal, saying, “The NNMI is a critical piece of innovation infrastructure thatcan help U.S.-based manufacturing to remain globally competi-tive by fostering cutting-edge technological advances, solvingproblems of interest to a wide range of manufacturing sectors,supporting small- and medium-size manufacturing enterprises,and strengthening the skills of workers, managers, andentrepreneurs.”
House Committee ApprovesManufacturing Bill
The House Energy & Commerce Committee has approvedthe American Manufacturing Competitiveness Act of 2012, H.R.5865. This legislation would create a bipartisan ManufacturingCompetitiveness Board consisting of 15 members, five from thepublic sector appointed by the president — including two gover-nors from different parties — and 10 from the private sector ap-pointed by the House and Senate, with the majority appointingthree and the minority two in each chamber.
The board would conduct a comprehensive analysis of theU.S. manufacturing sector, covering everything from trade issuesto taxation, regulation, and new technologies. Based on this analy-sis, it would develop a strategy that includes specific goals andrecommendations for achieving those goals. The first strategywould be due in 2014 and the second in 2018.
The particular areas of focus include the following:• Elimination or repeal of regulations that create disadvan-
tages for U.S. manufacturers compared to foreign competitors;• Improving government policies and coordination of policy
implementation;• Consolidation or elimination of government programs; and• Improving communication and interaction between govern-
ment and the manufacturing community.
United States Trade Representative IssuesReport on Standards as Trade Barriers
The Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR)has issued its third annual Report on Technical Barriers to Trade.
This report addresses nontariff trade barriers in the form ofproduct standards, testing requirements, and other technical re-quirements. In fact, as tariff barriers to trade have decreased,standards-related measures of this kind have emerged as a keyconcern.
As observed by the USTR, “When standards-related meas-ures are outdated, overly burdensome, discriminatory, or other-wise inappropriate, these measures can reduce competition, sti-fle innovation, and create unnecessary technical barriers totrade.”
Following are some of the topics addressed in the report:• A description of how the U.S. government identifies tech-
nical barriers to trade and the process of interagency and stake-holder consultation it employs to determine how to address them;
• An explanation of how the United States engages with itstrading partners to address standards-related measures that actas barriers and prevent their creation through multilateral, re-gional, and bilateral channels;
• A summary of current trends relating to standards-relatedmeasures; and
• An identification and description of significant standards-related trade barriers currently facing U.S. producers, along withU.S. government initiatives to eliminate or reduce the impact ofthese barriers in 19 countries.
New Executive Order Requires PublicParticipation in Agency Regulations Review
The White House has issued an executive order requiring fed-eral agencies to publish a semiannual notice of significant regu-lations that have undergone a review by each agency. This is thelatest in a series of executive orders and memoranda on the sub-ject of regulatory review.
The new executive order establishes public participation in aregulatory review, setting priorities and accountability as manda-tory elements of every agency’s regulatory process, which nowmust include a review of significant regulations on an ongoingbasis. Public participation must include a system for requestingand evaluating nominations of regulations in need of a review.
By requiring the agencies to publish reports on their reviewpriorities on a semiannual basis and to make available relevantsupporting data, the order seeks to make regular, ongoing regu-latory review a permanent part of agency rulemaking.
New Government Data Sources Released
The U.S. Employment and Training Administration has re-leased the second edition of its Guide to State and Local Work-force Data, which provides comprehensive coverage of workforcedata sources from government and the private sector. A new fea-ture is direct links to the data source listed.
In addition, the Department of Education released its Edu-cation Data Initiative, designed to serve “as a central guide foreducation data resources, including high-value data sets, data vi-sualization tools, resources for the classroom, applications cre-ated from open data, and more.” This includes a dataset on vo-cational education.♦
WASHINGTONWATCHWORD
AUGUST 20126
BY HUGH K. WEBSTERAWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail [email protected]; FAX (202) 835-0243.
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PRESS TIMENEWS
AWS/GSI Conference on U.S. and European WeldingStandards to Cover Structural Fabrication, Pipelines
Germany’s Gesellschaft für Schweißtechnik International (GSI) and the AmericanWelding Society (AWS) have partnered to deliver the Conference on U.S. and Euro-pean Welding Standards: Structural, Pressure Piping, Pipelines, Railroad, NDT.
The event will be conducted in English and take place in Munich, Germany, on Oc-tober 22 from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. and October 23 from 8:30 a.m. to 2:30 p.m. The earlybooking fee by August 31 is 690 euros, equivalent to about $850 in U.S. currency, whilethe fee after that date is 790 euros, approximately $970.
With increased globalization and complexity of supply chains, more companies haverealized the need to be knowledgeable about multiple national and international fabri-cation codes and standards. The conference will benefit engineers, inspectors, supervi-sors, and quality control personnel who are familiar with one set of standards but needto know more about other standards.
The format will be one expert presentation on the U.S. standards followed by an ex-pert presentation on the comparable European standards for each topic. There will alsobe open discussion allotted for each topic. For more information, visit www.aws.org/conferences.
In addition, a tour of Munich will be organized by GSI the day before the conferenceand an optional tour on the afternoon of the second day that concludes the event. Adinner in a Bavarian brewery will be organized by GSI for the night of October 22.
Permira Funds to Acquire Intelligrated®
Intelligrated, Mason, Ohio, a provider of automated material-handling solutions, serv-ices, and products, has entered into an agreement to be acquired by a holding companyowned by the Permira funds in a transaction valuated in excess of $500 million. Its manage-ment, led by founders Chris Cole and Jim McCarthy, will maintain a significant stake in thecompany and continue to lead the business. Intelligrated will remain headquartered inMason, Ohio, with operations throughout the United States as well as in Canada, Mexico,and Brazil. The investment will support the company’s vast growth opportunities.
Victor Technologies Launches Contest for WeldingStudents, Schools; More Than $30,000 in Prizes Offered
Victor Technologies™ recently announced its 2012 “Innovation to Shape the World”contest for students in welding and cutting programs at secondary and post secondaryschools. Three beginning (first- or second-year) students will win $250 by submitting a500-word essay supporting the contest theme, and members on three intermediate/advanced teams will each win $500 for completing a welding and cutting project.
According to Martin Quinn, CEO, Victor Technologies, the six schools associatedwith the winners will receive a cutting, welding, and gas control package valued at $4000.
The contest began June 25 and ends October 30. Winners will be announced at the2012 FABTECH show in Las Vegas. Contest rules, entry forms, and submission guide-lines are available at www.victortechnologies.com/innovationcontest.
RealWeld Systems Addresses Welding Labor Shortage
EWI, Columbus, Ohio, recently founded a spin-off company, RealWeld Systems,Inc., to commercialize its welder training advancements. Bill Forquer, previously a sen-ior marketing executive for Open Text Corp., will serve as launch CEO.
The new company’s product, RealWeld Trainer™, is based upon exclusive licenses ofEWI’s patent-pending technology that measures and scores motions required in properwelding technique. For each welding skill to be taught, instructors can configure a weld-ing specification in the software application that includes a targeted zone for each ofthese motions. Every time the trainee performs a specific weld, it provides immediate,objective, graphical feedback of all deviations from this zone.
Henry Cialone, EWI president and CEO, and chairman of RealWeld Systems, alsomentioned the current critical shortage of welders in the United States and how manu-facturers, vocational schools, and unions can use this training device to help alleviatethat problem.◆
AUGUST 20128
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth JohnsenAssociate Editor Howard M. Woodward
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NEWS OF THEINDUSTRY
AWS Weldmex-FABTECH-MetalformMexico Exposition Breaks Record
The AWS Weldmex-FABTECH-Metalform Mexico Exposi-tion, held May 2–4 in Mexico City, Mexico, broke exhibit spaceand attendance records for the fourth consecutive year.
The exhibit space of 67,900 net sq ft increased 32% and atten-dance of 10,452 increased 33% compared to last year’s expo. Theevent is now the largest manufacturing show in Latin America.
The show featured 315 exhibitors from North America, Asia,Europe, UK, and India looking at Mexico for access to the U.S.marketplace. Several exhibitors sold machines right off the floor.
“Throughout the course of the show, attendees expressed that
ESAB Opens New Wire Manufacturing Facility
AUGUST 201210
Daniel Young (left), South Carolina Dept.of Commerce, and Lanny Pickens, vicepresident of Operations, ESAB NorthAmerica, prepare to cut the ribbon to offi-cially open the company’s new wire man-ufacturing plant in Union County, S.C.The 260,000-sq-ft building was selected inpart because it offered room for expansionof production capacity.
Workers oversee the welding wire production lines atESAB’s new facility. The plant brought 101 new jobs toSouth Carolina.
ESAB Welding and Cutting Products officially opened itsnew manufacturing facility for the production of welding wireon Midway Dr. in Union County, S.C., on June 20. The com-pany spent millions to refit the facility, which was originally builtin the 1970s. The state-of-the-art plant also brings 101 new jobsto the area.
During the ribbon-cutting ceremony, Daniel Young, execu-tive director, South Carolina Coordinating Council for Eco-nomic Development, declared South Carolina is a manufactur-ing state and noted that 24,000 manufacturing jobs have beenadded since January 2011. He later explained that South Car-olina has targeted automotive as an industry it wants to attractand welding wire fits in with that automotive cluster. ESAB,with facilities in Florence, S.C., “is an existing industry that’sexpanding, which shows that we’re doing something right,” headded.
State and local lawmakers, Union County dignitaries, andmembers of the press were on hand for the grand opening. “Wehope to soon grow into this extra room,” said Lanny Pickens,vice president, Operations, ESAB North America. “I hope youleave with the same passion we have for this facility and ESAB.”
The plant will produce the company’s gas metal arc and sub-merged arc welding wires as well as AristoRod and copper-coated wires. The opening of the new plant signaled the closingof the company’s wire production facility in Ashtabula, Ohio.Jerry Schopp, ESAB’s technical director of the Americas, saidthe decision to close Ashtabula had nothing to do with the qual-ity of the workforce there, but everything to do with the aging,inadequate buildings. “It is an old Union Carbide facility thathas outlasted its life,” he said, and there was no room for expansion.
Earlier, Schopp said the company focused on solid wire atthe new facility because “solid wire is the single largest volumefiller metal. It is approximately a 500 million pounds per yearbusiness in North America.”
Even though the new plant features mostly new, automatedequipment and is set up according to the principles of Leanmanufacturing, Schopp said 19 of the manufacturing lead oper-ators were sent for 12 weeks of training at the company’s facili-ties in Italy, Czech Republic, and Mexico. The intention was forthem to learn to make wire a more old-fashioned way from ex-perienced craftsmen and then take that “craft” philosophy backto South Carolina.
— Mary Ruth Johnsen, editor, Welding Journal
11WELDING JOURNAL
the event was the place to be to see the latest technology, expe-rience live equipment demonstrations, and connect face-to-facewith suppliers who offered solutions to help them achieve betterresults,” said Chuck Cross, show manager.
The event is sponsored by AWS, the Fabricators & Manufac-turers Association, International, the Society of ManufacturingEngineers, and the Precision Metalforming Association.
The next show is scheduled for May 7–9, 2013, in Monterrey,Mexico. For more information, contact Chuck Cross, Trade ShowConsulting, LLC, at [email protected].
Welding Facilities Evolve at SAITPolytechnic
More than 100 welding booths are being installed in SAITPolytechnic’s new Trades and Technology Complex, a $400 mil-lion, 740,000-sq-ft facility opening in Calgary, Alb., Canada thisfall.
“We’ve found a way to protect and isolate the equipment fromthe students, while giving them a larger work area,” said GeorgeRhodes, academic chair, school of manufacturing and automa-tion. There is a master shut-off located in the shops as well.
The booth working area is 6.8 × 5.9 ft. Equipment is in cup-boards, controls are behind a barrier, and cables are in drawers.
A crowd awaits the opening of the 2012 Weldmex expo.
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A SAIT Polytechnic student uses shielded metal arc welding on ahorizontal fillet weld. (Photo courtesy of SAIT Polytechnic.)
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Screens give instructors a view of what’s taking place in each booth.During the past two years, hundreds of the school’s welding
students took part in the design process. They participated in asurvey of what was important in a booth, and spent a few days inthe prototype trying it out and offering feedback. Also, industrypartners were involved in the early stages. Scott MacKay of Cal-gary’s Miller Electric office helped Rhodes enhance the prototypeso equipment could fit into the space while leaving room to grow.
The self-contained nature of the booth means each one caneasily be disassembled and relocated. It is designed to be lowmaintenance with bright lights and steel walls.
In addition, the school has developed a flexible training op-tion program for welders, termed blended learning, allowing stu-dents to complete their theory online over 12 weeks before hands-on shop classes using SAIT’s facilities over a three-week period.
Final Steel Beam Placed at Top of4 World Trade Center
Silverstein Properties President and CEO Larry A. Silversteinwas joined by approximately 1000 construction workers and NewYork government, civic, and business leaders at a ceremony mark-ing the completion of steel erection for the new 4 World TradeCenter (WTC).
The final steel beam, weighing 8 tons and adorned with anAmerican flag, was signed by Silverstein and other dignitaries,then it was raised 977 ft in the air and placed at the top of the72-story tower.
“The World Trade Center site is at the heart of Lower Man-hattan’s rebirth,” said Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg.
Designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Fumihiko Maki,4 WTC is located at 150 Greenwich St. It will be the first officetower completed on the original 16-acre WTC site and is sched-uled to open in fall 2013.
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The 4 World Trade Center, captured here in June, is the first officetower that will be completed on the original World Trade Centersite. Its final steel beam was recently placed. (Image credit, JoeWoolhead, and courtesy of Silverstein Properties.)
AWS President Recently Profiled inCharleston Gazette-Mail
AWS President William A. Rice Jr. was profiled in an articlewritten by Sandy Wells in the June 24 Charleston Gazette-Mail, aCharleston, W.Va., newspaper.
Rice described his goodwill role on behalf of AWS, where healso once served as interim executive director, to promote thewelding industry not only here in the United States but aroundthe world.
“In this country, we are short about 250,000 welders, all dueto people like me who are retiring. It’s a good-paying job, but itrequires schooling and some effort,” Rice said.
He pointed out significant AWS projects, including his per-sonal role in helping to get virtual welding machines and a start-up cash donation from The Lincoln Electric Co. to build the AWSCareers in Welding Trailer. Rice further mentioned that heawarded the first welding merit badge for the Boy Scouts of Amer-ica and work is in progress to get a Girls Scouts welding badge.
In addition, he spoke about his long career in the field. Hisgrandfather, V. S. Rice, established the family business, VirginiaWelding, in 1917. Eventually, the company changed to distribut-ing equipment under Virginia Welding Supply. Rice grew up inthe business, and when he started working for his father there,he acquired several welding supply distributorships.
“In the ’80s, we were named the oldest family-owned weldingsupply distributorship in the U.S. My kids are now in the indus-try, so it’s fourth-generation,” Rice said.
In 1992, he sold out to Airgas but stayed on a year to run thebusiness. After, he was asked to set up its purchasing group and
hard goods distribution; got promoted to president of industrialdistribution and bought companies to go into that; and later couldnot pass up the opportunity when asked to become the presidentof Airgas.
Currently, Rice serves as the CEO of OKI Bering.
Industry Notes
• Deere & Co. will invest $47 million to expand manufacturingcapacity in its Moline, Ill., cylinder operations where the ven-ture will result in upgrading machining tools but will not re-quire an addition to the physical building.
• TRUMPF, Inc., chose Ohio Laser LLC, Plain City, Ohio, as abeta test site for the new TruLaser 1030. Its solid-state disclaser system sends the beam to the cutting head by fiber. Also,the machine cuts parts and virtually any shape from steel plate,stainless steel, and aluminum material up to 0.187 in. thick.
• Oxford Alloys CEO Mark Ashworth was presented with thePresidential “E Star” Award for Exports by U.S. Departmentof Commerce Secretary John Bryson at the White House.
• Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, acquiredWayne Trail Technologies, Inc., a privately held Ohio-basedmanufacturer of automated systems and tooling.
• Mesabi Range Community & Technical College will offer itswelding diploma program in Two Harbors, Minn., beginningthis fall semester. For more details, visit www.mr.mnscu.edu.
• Desert Industrial X-Ray, L.P., Odessa, Tex., received a ma-jority investment from Sterling Partners, a Chicago-basedprivate equity firm. It will now operate as Desert NDT.◆
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ALUMINUMQ&A BY TONY ANDERSON
Q: Please explain the differences betweenheat-treatable and nonheat-treatable alu-minum alloys. How are they different, anddo they respond the same way during andafter welding?
A: There are two distinctly different typesof aluminum alloys, one that responds fa-vorably to thermal treatment applied formechanical-strengthening purposes (heattreatable), and the other that does not re-spond favorably to this form of thermaltreatment (nonheat treatable). To betterunderstand the differences between thesetwo alloy groups, it is convenient to ap-preciate the fundamental methods usedto strengthen aluminum.
Strengthening Aluminum
Pure aluminum (1xxx series) is not gen-erally used for welded structural applica-tions as its tensile strength is relativelylow, around 10–12 ksi in the annealed con-dition. These alloys do, however, have
other properties, such as excellent corro-sion resistance and electrical and thermalconductivity, which make them very at-tractive for other applications. To producealuminum with the higher strength char-acteristics needed for structural applica-tions, it is necessary to employ one ormore of the following methods.
Alloying
The addition of alloying elements topure aluminum is the primary methodused in strengthening aluminum. Figure1 shows the effect of adding magnesiumto pure aluminum. The chart shows thatas we increase the ratio of magnesium toaluminum, there is a corresponding in-
Increasing Strength - Alloying
508350865454
5052
5005Stre
ngth
ksi
% Magnesium
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strain Hardening 5052
75% Reduction In Area
1in. Plate 1/4in. Plate
Hx8 Temper
5052-0
Tensile - 28ksi
Yield - 13ksi
Elongation - 30%
5052-H38
Tensile - 42ksi
Yield - 37ksi
Elongation - 8%
Fig. 1 — The effect of adding magnesiumto pure aluminum. As we increase the per-centage of magnesium to aluminum, thereis a corresponding increase in tensilestrength.
Fig. 2 — The effect of strain hardening onnonheat-treatable Alloy 5052. The strain-hardening process has provided a substan-tial increase in strength but also a corre-sponding decrease in ductility.
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17WELDING JOURNAL
crease in tensile strength. This is a verygood example of strengthening aluminumthrough alloying. Alloying elements suchas magnesium, copper, manganese, zinc,silicon, and lithium are added to alu-minum (often in combinations) to pro-duce material that is stronger than purealuminum.
After alloying, depending on which al-loying elements are added to aluminum,one or both of the following treatments(strain hardening and/or thermal treat-ment) are generally employed for furtherstrengthening of the aluminum alloy.
Strain Hardening
Strain hardening (also known as workhardening or cold working) is an impor-tant method used to increase the strengthof some aluminum alloys that cannot bestrengthened by heat treatment (thesebeing the nonheat-treatable alloys). Thismethod of strengthening involves achange of shape that is brought about bythe input of mechanical energy. As me-chanical deformation progresses, the ma-terial becomes stronger, harder, and lessductile. This process produces an elonga-tion of the grains within the material inthe direction of working, which gives apreferred grain orientation and high levelof internal stress.
An example of the effect of this typeof strengthening on a nonheat-treatablealloy can be seen when we compare theproperties of 5052-0 in the annealed con-dition (with no strain hardening) to theproperties of 5052-H38; this is the samealloy that has been subjected to strainhardening to the –HX8 full-hard condi-tion (which is usually obtained with coldwork equal to around a 75% reduction inarea, see Fig. 2). The 5052-0 has a typicalultimate tensile strength of 28 ksi, yieldstrength of 13 ksi, and elongation of 30%.The 5052-H38 has a typical ultimate ten-sile strength of 42 ksi, yield strength of 37ksi, and elongation of 8%.
Consequently, the strain-hardeningprocess has provided a substantial in-crease in strength but also a correspon-ding decrease in ductility. These are char-acteristic changes in mechanical proper-ties typically associated with the strain-hardening process.
Heat Treatment
The particular heat treatment used tostrengthen the heat-treatable aluminumalloys is called solution heat treatment andartificial aging (also known as precipita-tion hardening). Solution heat treatmentis achieved by heating the metal to a suit-ably high temperature, holding at thattemperature long enough to allow con-stituents to enter into solid solution, andcooling rapidly enough to hold the con-stituents in solution (this is often achievedby quenching in water).
Controlled precipitation of fine parti-cles, either at room temperature or ele-vated temperature after the quenchingoperation, helps develop the mechanicalproperties of the heat-treatable alloys.Most alloys will change properties at roomtemperature, and this condition is the –T4
temper (solution heat treated and natu-rally aged). The natural-aging processvaries extensively from alloy to alloy andmay take as little as a few days or as longas several years to produce a substantiallysignificant and stable condition.
Precipitation can be accelerated in theheat-treatable alloys by heating themabove room temperature after quenching;this operation is called artificial aging andproduces the –T6 temper (solution heattreated and artificially aged). The alloyswith slow precipitation reactions at roomtemperature are generally precipitationheat treated to attain their high strengths.
A typical example of the solution heattreatment and artificial-aging process for6061-T6 is as follows: Heat alloy to 990°F,immediately quench in water, then reheatto 350°F for around 10 to 12 h — Fig. 3.
Aluminum Alloy Responseto Welding
Nonheat-Treatable AluminumAlloys
The nonheat-treatable alloys are com-prised of pure aluminum (1xxx series), man-
Heat Treating
Solution Heat Treatment & Artificial Ageing of 6061
Fig. 3 — A typical example of the solutionheat treatment and artificial-aging processfor 6061-T6 is as follows: Heat alloy to990°F, immediately quench in water, thenreheat to 350°F for around 10 to 12 h.
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18
ganese alloys (3xxx series), and magnesiumalloys (5xxx series). The strength of thesealloys is initially produced by alloying thealuminum with these elements and oftenfurther enhanced by strain hardening.
When arc welded, these strain-hard-ened, nonheat-treatable alloys are sub-jected to sufficient heat during welding toremove the strain-hardened propertiesand return the base material adjacent tothe weld to its annealed condition. Thetransverse tensile strength of a completepenetration groove weld in these materi-als is controlled by the reaction of the basematerial to the heating during the weld-ing operation. This reduction in strengthwithin the heat-affected zone (HAZ) isunavoidable when arc welding these ma-terials. The reduction in strength occursvery quickly as the material reaches theannealing temperature; extended time atthis temperature is not required. The as-welded transverse tensile strength of agroove weld made in the nonheat-treat-able alloys is usually quite predictable asit is based on the annealed strength of thebase material.
Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
The initial strength of these alloys isalso produced by the addition of alloyingelements to pure aluminum. These ele-ments include copper (2xxx series), mag-nesium and silicon (which is able to formthe compound called magnesium silicide,6xxx series), and zinc (7xxx series). Whenpresent in a given alloy, singly or in vari-ous combinations, these elements exhibitan increasing solid solubility in aluminumas the temperature increases. Because ofthis reaction, it is possible to produce sig-nificant additional strengthening in theheat-treatable alloys by subjecting themto an elevated thermal treatment,quenching, and, when applicable, precip-itation heat treatment (also known as ar-tificial aging).
Unlike the nonheat-treatable alloys,the heat-treatable alloys are usually notfully annealed during the welding opera-tion but are subjected to a partial annealand overaging process. These alloys reactto time and temperature; the higher thetemperature and the longer the time at
temperature, the more significant the lossof strength in the base material adjacentto the weld. For this reason, it is impor-tant to control the overall heat input, pre-heating, and interpass temperatures whenwelding the heat-treatable alloys.
Typically, the reduction in strengthfrom arc welding the heat-treatable alloysis more pronounced than that of the non-heat-treatable alloys. An example is the6061-T6 base alloy which, prior to weld-ing, has a typical tensile strength of 45 ksiand an after-welded strength of around25 ksi in the HAZ. One option for heat-treatable alloys but not for the nonheat-treatable alloys is postweld heat treatmentto return the mechanical strength to thewelded component. If postweld heat treat-ing is considered, the filler metal’s abilityto respond to the heat-treatment shouldbe evaluated. Most of the commonly usedfiller metals may not respond to postweldheat treatment effectively without ade-quate dilution with the heat-treatable basemetal. This is not always easy to achieveand can be difficult to control consistently.For this reason, filler metals have beendeveloped to independently respond toheat treatment.
Summary
The heat-treatable and nonheat-treat-able aluminum alloys are fundamentallydifferent; the primary difference betweenthese two groups of alloys is related to themethods used to strengthen them. How-ever, it also extends to the way these al-loys react during and after welding, whichcan influence the way we design and exe-cute our welding procedures to minimizestrength loss in our aluminum weldedstructures.◆
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TONY ANDERSON is director of alu-minum technology, ITW Welding NorthAmerica. He is a Fellow of the BritishWelding Institute (TWI), a RegisteredChartered Engineer with the British En-gineering Council, and holds numerouspositions on AWS technical committees.He is chairman of the Aluminum Asso-ciation Technical Advisory Committee forWelding and author of the book WeldingAluminum Questions and Answers cur-rently available from the AWS. Questionsmay be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o WeldingJournal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami,FL 33126, or via e-mail at [email protected].
AUGUST 2012
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AUGUST 201220
BRAZINGQ&A BY ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO
Q: Many times in our repair business, weencounter the problem of brazing steeltubes that have deviations in diameters,so there is no consistency in the size of thejoint clearance of the joints to be brazed.Sometimes the tubes match each otherand the joint clearance is small, but oftenthey do not match and the joint clearancesare extensive, and often the centering oftubes is far from symmetrical. In thesecases, we get voids on the side of the widerjoint clearance. What can be done to brazewide nonuniform joint clearances prop-erly, without these voids that cause leak-ages and require rebrazing after testingunder pressure? We use torch and induc-tion brazing with BAg-1a for carbon steeltubes and BAg-22 for stainless steel tubes.
A: Successful brazing or soldering re-quires a capillarity force in the joint clear-ance between the parts to be joined. Inyour case, the joint clearance should be inthe range of 0.004–0.008 in. (0.1–0.2 mm)for induction or torch brazing in air, or0.002–0.006 in. (0.05–0.015 mm) for fur-nace brazing in a shielding atmosphere.
In mass production, manufacturers areobliged to meet these rigid specifications,but in the individual production or in re-pair business, as in your case, sometimes itis impossible or economically inefficient.Therefore, one can try special adjustmentsto the process, change the joint design, orapply some “tricky” methods to brazewider joint clearances.
There are many methods known in in-dustrial practice to braze parts having
noncapillary joint clearances. However,capillarity is necessary in order to hold theliquid braze alloy in the joint at brazingtemperature. Therefore, all these meth-ods involve a complete or at least partialformation of a capillary system in the widejoint clearances.
Let’s start with the methods applicablefor brazing in air. The easiest way is to puta thin steel mesh or even steel turning inthe joint clearance in order to form a cap-
Fig. 1 — Steel tubes brazed with two wire rings that close the wide joint clearance fromboth sides.
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illary system there. Firstly, both the meshand the turning should be carefullycleaned in acetone and alcohol. Secondly,the mesh should have large cells, prefer-ably bigger than 0.08 × 0.08 in. (2 × 2 mm)in order to create conditions for flow ofliquid flux and braze alloy into the joint, aswell as to provide free evacuation of gasesand slag. Appropriately, the capillary sys-tem made with the steel turning shouldprovide the same.
Two drawbacks of this method are thepractically inevitable porosity of the jointmetal, and bad fillet formation. Thismeans that this approach can be recom-mended only for joining tubes that do notwork under fatigue loading or need to beair- and leakproof.
The next method is more complicatedbecause it includes preparation of two ad-ditional parts and a change of the joint de-sign, but it is more reliable. You can maketwo rings (Fig. 1) from steel wire that havea diameter bigger than the width of yourlargest joint clearance to be brazed. Theinside diameter of the rings should fit theOD of the tube as shown in Fig. 1. Bothwire rings are fixed at the edges of the jointwhen you assemble the tubes before braz-ing. Then, you can braze the steel tubesusing your regular process either by in-duction or torch brazing with the flux.Wire rings form local capillary gaps in theentrance and exit of the wide joint clear-ance. These local capillaries hold liquidfiller metal inside the wide joint clearance.After two or three trials, you should findthe process parameters that give the bestfully dense joints. Placing a part of thefiller metal and flux inside the joint clear-ance before heating usually helps.
The third approach is most widely usedin the industry; however, it is suitable only
for furnace brazing. The filler metal is pre-pared in the form of paste containing thebrazing alloy powder and a filler powder.The filler has melting temperature higherthan that of the braze alloy. For example,the brazing paste comprises 60% of yellowbrass powder as the braze alloy and 40%of steel or iron powder as the filler. Theiron particles in the filler do not melt atbrazing temperature and form a capillarysystem in the joint. The filler is infiltratedwith the liquid braze alloy, and the result-ing joint metal has a compositemacrostructure. Figure 2 shows a typicalstructure of a wide joint clearance brazedwith this type of composite brazing paste.Figure 3 illustrates that even ultrawidejoint clearances of different shapes can bebrazed using this method.
This method is successfully used forbrazing stainless steel or superalloy jointshaving asymmetric configurations such asfor repairing compressor or turbineblades, nozzles, etc. Brazing is done in vac-uum furnaces, and the composite brazemixture or paste comprises a nickel-basedeutectic alloy as the melting phase and abase metal or similar alloy powder as thenot-melting filler. The advantages anddrawbacks follow from the nature of thisprocess. On the one hand, one can easily
adjust the ratio between the braze andfiller particles in the paste in order to den-sify joint clearances of any width andshape. On the other hand, there are nostandard applications, and the user alwayshas to test and optimize the compositionof such double-phase brazing materialsexperimentally.♦
Fig. 3 — Ultrawide joint clearances of asymmetric geometry brazed with a composite fillermetal containing 60% braze alloy and 40% iron powder.
This column is written sequentially byTIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe andShapiro are members of and Kay is an ad-visor to the C3 Committee on Brazing andSoldering. All three have contributed to the5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe ([email protected]) currentlyserves as a BSMC vice chair and owns hisown consulting business.
Shapiro ([email protected]) is brazing products manager at Ti-tanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay ([email protected]), with 40years of experience in the industry, operateshis own brazing training and consultingbusiness.
Readers are requested to post their ques-tions for use in this column on the BrazingForum section of the BSMC Web sitewww.brazingandsoldering.com.
Fig. 2 — Macrostructure of a wide jointclearance, steel tubing joint brazed with acomposite filler metal that includes up to40% of not-melted powder. This powderforms a capillary system in the joint clearance.
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The Robotic Profile Cutting Line isdesigned for plasma cutting profiles inthe offshore/onshore and steel construc-tion industries. The line incorporates thecompany’s laser triangulation vision sys-tem that automatically scans beams forcommon imperfections. It also combinesthe company’s electronic measuring de-vices that compare the outside shape andposition dimensions of the raw materialto the cutting program, automaticallycompensating for any deviation on-the-fly and without interrupting materialpreparation or profile cutting time. Theline includes company software for pro-gramming and work preparation, an in-feed and out-feed roller conveyor, a cut-
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Two Fall-ProtectionStandards Published
Recently released are a new standard,ANSI/ASSE Z359.14-2012, Safety Re-quirements for Self-Retracting Devices forPersonal Fall Arrest and Rescue Systems,and the revised Z359.4-2012, Safety Re-quirements for Assisted-Rescue and Self-Rescue Systems, Subsystems and Compo-nents. Both standards are part of theZ359 Fall Protection Code. The Z359.14standard establishes the requirements forthe performance, design, qualificationtesting, markings, and instructions, in-spections, maintenance and storage, andremoval from service of self-retractingdevices. The Z359.4 revisions emphasizethe need for preplanning each potentialrescue scenario with the expectation thatemployers and equipment users will usethe code to develop effective rescue pro-cedures, including analysis of rescueneeds, equipment selection, training, andthe periodic evaluation of training effectiveness.
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Welding Apparel Made forWarm and Cool Climates
An addition to the Weld Warrior lineof personal protection equipment in-cludes the Jersey, a lightweight pulloverfor warmer climates. The fleece featuresa full-zip front and is weighted for coolerclimates. Also, the Winter is a full-zipjacket designed for the coldest climates.
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Various stainless steel welding electrodes and processeswere evaluated to determine their potential hexavalentchromium [Cr(VI)] emissions or generation rates. Com-
parisons were made to help end users select the optimum solu-tion for their welding application and fume control.
Welding fume generation rates and analyses were done usinggas metal arc welding (GMAW), flux cored arc welding(FCAW), metal cored arc welding (MCAW), and shielded metalarc welding (SMAW) processes. Stainless steel electrodes inthe ferritic, austenitic, martensitic, and duplex grades were usedfor these tests. The submerged arc welding (SAW) and gas tung-sten arc welding (GTAW) processes and electrodes were notevaluated in this study because their fume emissions are ex-tremely low (Refs. 1–4).
The effects on Cr(VI) generation rates were studied for dif-ferent electrode slag systems, product designs, and welding pa-rameters. Shielding gases and their effects on Cr(VI) emissionrates were also evaluated for the GMAW, FCAW, and MCAWprocesses.
Collecting and Analyzing Fumes
When joining or cladding with the stainless steel electrodesevaluated in this investigation, Cr(VI) is one of the major weld-ing fume constituent that must be controlled to provide safeworking environments and to meet industry regulation require-ments. Although there are other constituents (i.e., manganese,nickel, etc.) in stainless steel welding fumes, this investigationonly provides Cr(VI) data. Also, the various options for con-trolling welding fumes by extraction methods or personal pro-tective equipment are not addressed.
Because there are many welding processes and electrodesused for joining and cladding stainless steels, it is useful to un-derstand fume emission rates when selecting a combination foran application or workplace. Welding engineers use welding
deposition efficiencies, technical advantages, and welding coststo select a welding process and electrode for stainless steel ap-plications. However, the need to understand fume emission dif-ferences of these processes and electrodes is also important be-cause of the very low permissible exposure limit (PEL) forCr(VI) in most countries. For instance, a few years ago, the Oc-cupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) reducedthe PEL for Cr(VI) from 0.052 to 0.005 mg/m3. Because Cr(VI)is one of the key components of the welding fume to controlwhen welding or cladding stainless steels, it is the area studiedin this work. However, to fully comply with OSHA and otherregulatory requirements, workers should be monitored for po-tential exposures to all major fume constituents on a regularbasis to assure safe work practices.
When comparing fume emissions of welding processes orelectrodes, the methods used for collecting and analyzing fumesmust be clearly defined. In the United States comparative fumedata may be generated in the laboratory using procedures de-fined in AWS F1:2:2006, Laboratory Method for Measuring FumeGeneration Rates and Total Fume Emission of Welding and Al-lied Processes. However, potential fume exposure data forwelders are often obtained through the use of AWS F1.1M:2006,Method for Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Weldingand Allied Processes. AWS F1.5M:2003, Methods for Samplingand Analyzing Gases from Welding and Allied Processes, may alsobe used in field situations for monitoring gases in the work-place. Other similar specifications and methods are usedthroughout the world. Therefore, the actual results and unitsused for collecting data from these various methods cannot al-ways be directly compared.
The comparisons between welding processes and electrodesin this study (using AWS F1.2 procedures) are meant to pro-vide fabricators with information to help select the optimumsolution for their stainless steel arc welding applications andfume control. However, because electrode manufacturers make
29WELDING JOURNAL
This study analyzed a variety of processes, consumables, and shielding
gas combinations to better understand fume emission rates for
stainless steel joining and cladding applications
STAN FERREE and FRANKLAKE are with ESAB Welding and
Cutting Products, Hanover, Pa.
Factors that AffectHexavalent Chromium
Emissions
BY STAN FERREE ANDFRANK LAKE
products using different processes, materials, and formulations,the fumes from electrodes of the same classification may be dif-ferent.
Welding Fume Generation Rates
The solid particulates or constituents that evolve in the weld-ing plume during arc welding can be measured and the quan-tity used for various calculations. One of the areas of interest isthe fume generation rate (FGR), which may also be describedas fume emission rate (FER). These calculations may be in unitsof weight of fume per arc welding time, weight of fume per welddeposited, or weight of fume per weight of electrode consumed.For this study, the FGR was assessed by the weight of fume perarc welding time.
Effects of Welding Current and Electrode Type
In this section, for general comparisons of welding processes,welding fume generation rates were done with 3XX series stain-less steel electrodes using the GMAW, FCAW, MCAW, andSMAW processes. Three types of FCAW electrodes were eval-uated. They were classified by the American Welding Society(AWS) A5.22/A5.22M:2010 specification as EXXXT0-3 (flatposition, self-shielded), EXXXT0-1 (flat position, 100% CO2shielded), and EXXXT1-4 (all-positional, 75% Ar/25% CO2shielded). The SMAW basic rutile electrodes classified by AWSA5.4/A5.4M:2006 as EXXX-16 were also evaluated. TheMCAW and GMAW electrodes were ECXXX and ERXXXtypes classified to AWS A5.22/A5.22M:2010 andA5.9/A5.9M:2010, respectively (98% Ar/2% O2 shielded). Var-ious electrode sizes and welding currents were used to producefume generation data.
As shown in Fig. 1, the FGR increased as current increased.Increasing current increases the surface temperature and va-porization rate of the molten droplets crossing the arc (Refs. 2,5). This trend has been reported by many authors for varioustypes of electrodes (Refs. 2–12). The self-shielded and the CO2-shielded flux cored electrodes produced similar FGR trends,which were the highest levels of the electrodes tested. The FGRof the 75% Ar/25% CO2-shielded all-positional flux cored elec-trode was 10 to 25% lower than those two cored wires, but 30to 40% higher than the SMAW E3XX-16 electrode. The MCAWelectrode’s FGR was 40 to 75% lower than the SMAW elec-trode, but still slightly higher than the lowest FGR levels pro-duced by the GMAW electrode.
In general, the electrodes containing slag systems producedhigher FGRs than the solid and metal cored electrodes. Thiswas partially due to the melting, vaporization, and condensa-
AUGUST 201230
Fig. 1 — Fume generation rate: electrode type vs. current.
Fig. 2 — Fume generation rate vs. current and shielding gasfor flux cored electrodes designed for welding in the flat andhorizontal positions.
Fig. 3 — Fume generation rate vs. current and shielding gasfor flux cored electrodes designed for welding in all positions.
Fig. 4 — Fume generation rate vs. current for SMAW elec-trodes.
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tion of some slag components, as well as their arc transfer char-acteristics (Refs. 2, 6–12). The MCAW and GMAW electrodescontained little or no slag components, and they were alsowelded in a more inert atmosphere (98% Ar/2% O2), which re-duced the oxidation rate of molten droplets crossing the arc,and therefore their FGR (Refs. 2, 5). The MCAW electrode’sFGR was slightly higher than the GMAW solid electrode be-cause the metallic particles in its core were more easily meltedand oxidized crossing the arc.
Effects of Shielding Gas
The gas shielded types of stainless steel flux cored electrodesare often used with 100% CO2 or 75–80% Ar/rem CO2 shield-ing gases. Other gas combinations may also be approved forsome electrodes and welding applications. Therefore, the coredwire manufacturer should always be contacted for its recom-mendations if a different shielding gas is contemplated.
Fume generation rate tests were done on various flux coredelectrodes designed for welding in the flat and horizontal posi-tions using a 100% CO2 shielding gas (E3XXT0-1). Since thesame products were also designed for Ar/CO2 mixtures(E3XXT0-4), another set of tests were done using a 75% Ar/25%CO2 shielding gas. The FGR results are shown in Fig. 2.
The FGR results were about 25% lower when using 75%Ar/25% CO2. Higher fume levels were emitted when using theCO2 shielding gas because it oxidized more molten dropletsduring the transfer across the arc (Refs. 2, 5–7, 9, 10, 12, 15,and 17). The more unstable arc transfer with the CO2 shieldinggas also contributed to the higher FGR because the moltendroplets spent more time in the high-temperature arc atmos-phere, which increased the oxidation rate (Refs. 2, 5–7).
A similar series of FGR tests were done on flux cored elec-trodes designed for good welding performance in all positions(E3XXT1-1 and E3XXT1-4). The FGR results are shown inFig. 3. Again, the 75% Ar/25% CO2 shielding gas producedlower FGR, but only about 10%.
Effects of SMAW Electrode Coating Type
Over the years, three major SMAW electrode coating typeswere developed for stainless steel applications. They are classi-fied by AWS A5.4 as EXXX-16 (rutile coating), EXXX-15 (basiccoating), and EXXX-17 (acid-rutile coating). A series of FGRtests as done on each type to determine the effects of the coat-ing type. The FGR results are shown in Fig. 4.
The E3XX-17 type produced slightly higher fume emissions(10–15%) because it was designed with the largest coating thick-ness or percentage (weight of coating per weight of total elec-trode). No significant differences were found between theE3XX-15 and E3XX-16 electrodes.
31WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 5 — Cr(VI) in welding fumes vs. Cr in the weld metal.
Fig. 6 — Cr(VI) in E309L-17 welding fumes vs. current andsize.
Fig. 7 — Cr(VI)GR of an E309L-17 electrode vs. current andsize.
Fig. 8 — Cr(VI)GR for alloys of 1.2-mm self-shielded fluxcored electrodes.
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Hexavalent Chromium in Welding Fumes
Previous investigators found the chromium (Cr) content inwelding fumes consisted of complex Cr(III) and Cr(VI) com-pounds (Refs. 8, 11, 12). The tests conducted for this paperfound similar results, but only the Cr(VI) content was studied.Welding fume samples were collected using AWS F1:2:2006procedures and Cr(VI) analyses were done using OSHA ID215methods.
Effects of Alloy Grade and Electrode Type
Fume samples were analyzed using various stainless steel al-loys of the electrode types tested in Fig. 1. The average resultsfor the Cr(VI) level in the fumes are shown in Fig. 5. The weldmetal Cr content represents the levels typically found in the308, 316, 309, and 312 alloys.
As expected, the Cr(VI) level in the fumes increased as theCr content in the weld metal increased. However, some inter-esting differences in Cr(VI) levels of the fumes were found be-tween the electrodes and the results did not follow the sameorder as found with FGR tests in Fig. 1.
The SMAW electrodes (E3XX-16) produced the highestCr(VI) levels in the fumes, followed by the self-shielded fluxcored electrodes (E3XXT0-3). The all-positional FCAW elec-trodes (E3XXT1-4) and the MCAW electrodes (EC3XX) pro-duced similar Cr(VI) levels, which were substantially lower thanthe previous two types. The flat position FCAW CO2 electrodes(E3XXT0-1), which produced one of the highest FGR, hadfairly low Cr(VI) levels. And, these levels were similar to theGMAW (ER3XX) solid electrodes.
The exact mechanisms for Cr(VI) emissions in welding fumesare not clearly understood. However, several researchers re-ported that the slag compositions, especially the types of arcstabilizers used, influence the Cr(VI) level in welding fumes(Refs. 12–16). Most researchers found that potassium com-pounds create more Cr(VI), while sodium- and lithium-basedarc stabilizers produce lower levels.
Effects of Current on an E309L-17 SMAW Electrode
A series of fume tests was done on four sizes of an E309L-17 electrode to determine if the Cr(VI) level in the fume wouldbe affected by current. As shown in Fig. 6, the Cr(VI) level de-creased as the current and electrode size increased. The rea-sons for this trend were not clear.
AUGUST 201232
Fig. 9 — Cr(VI)GR for alloys of 1.2-mm metal cored elec-trodes.
Fig. 10 — Cr(VI)GR for alloys of 3.2-mm EXXX-15 SMAWelectrodes.
Fig. 11 — Cr(VI)GR for 1.2-mm metal cored and solid wire308L electrodes.
Fig. 12 — Cr(VI)GR for 309L electrodes of various weldingprocesses.
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Hexavalent Chromium Generation Rate
As previously discussed, many variables affect the fume gen-eration rates and the Cr(VI) level in the welding fumes of stain-less steel electrodes. To better compare the differences of weld-ing fumes generated by the various stainless steel electrodesand welding processes, this section evaluated hexavalentchromium generation rates [Cr(VI)GR]. To determineCr(VI)GR, the %Cr(VI) in the welding fume was multipliedby the FGR (g/min), and the units were adjusted to mg/min.
Effects of Current on an E309L-17 SMAW Electrode
The FGR data from Fig. 4 and the Cr(VI) levels from Fig. 6were used to calculate the Cr(VI)GR for an E309L-17 SMAWelectrode, as shown in Fig. 7. From these calculations, it is clearthat Cr(VI)GR increased as the current and electrode size in-creased, which was not clear from the results shown in Fig. 6.The Cr(VI)GR increased about 50% when using the 4.0-mmsize (195 A) vs. the 2.4-mm size (80 A).
Effects of Alloy Grade and Electrode Type
The Cr(VI)GR were studied for 309L, 308L, and 316L al-loys of 1.2 mm self-shielded flux cored electrodes, 1.2 mm metalcored electrodes, and 3.2 mm E3XX-15 SMAW electrodes. Theresults are shown in Figs. 8–10.
In all cases, the Cr(VI)GR decreased as the total Cr in theelectrode or weld metal decreased. The SMAW electrodes hadthe highest Cr(VI)GR, followed by the self-shielded flux coredelectrodes. The metal cored electrodes produced the lowestCr(VI)GR, even at much higher current and voltage levels, be-cause of the fairly inert shielding gas (98% Ar/2% O2) used forthese tests and their no slag system design. The higherCr(VI)GR of the other electrodes could be attributed to thepotassium and sodium components in their slag systems andtheir overall higher FGR (Refs. 12–16).
Although some general trends in Cr(VI)GR were found be-tween the welding processes, the results must be carefully in-terpreted. It may appear that the SMAW electrodes’ Cr(VI)GRwere up to 100% higher than the other processes. However, inpractice, the continuous wire processes would likely producemore actual arc welding time and fumes than SMAW electrodes.Therefore, it is difficult to make direct comparisons from labo-ratory data without knowing the actual variables in a given weld-ing shop.
33WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 13 — Cr(VI)GR for 309L gas shielded FCAW-G elec-trodes vs. current and shielding gas type.
Fig. 14 — Cr(VI)GR vs. shielding gas for 2.4-mm self-shieldedFCAW-S electrode compared to 1.6 mm gas-shielded FCAW-G electrode.
Fig. 15 — FGR vs. shielding gas for 2.4-mm self-shieldedFCAW-S electrode compared to 1.6 mm gas-shielded FCAW-G electrode.
Fig. 16 — Cr(VI) in fumes vs. shielding gas for 2.4-mm self-shielded FCAW-S electrode compared to 1.6 mm gas-shielded FCAW-G electrode.
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Another test was conducted to determine the Cr(VI)GR dif-ferences between similar continuous wire processes. A 308Lalloy grade of a 1.2-mm metal cored electrode and a 1.2-mmsolid wire were welded using the same shielding gas and simi-lar current and voltage. The results are shown in Fig. 11.
The solid wire electrode’s Cr(VI)GR was about 75% lowerthan the metal cored type. Since some of the Cr of the metalcored electrode came from Cr powder additions to the core, itis likely that the formation of Cr(VI) in the welding fumes oc-curred faster because of the increased surface area of these par-ticles, which were more readily vaporized and oxidized crossingthe arc column.
To compare the Cr(VI)GR differences between weldingprocesses, 309L electrodes were used to evaluate SMAW(E309L-17), FCAW-S (E309LT0-3), FCAW-G (E309LT0-4,E309LT0-1, and E309LT1-4), and GMAW (ER309LSi) prod-ucts. The welding current was optimized for each process andas similar as possible. The results are shown in Fig. 12.
The SMAW and self-shielded flux cored electrodes producedthe highest Cr(VI)GR. The Cr(VI)GR of gas-shielded fluxcored wire designed for welding in the flat and horizontal posi-tions (flat) was reduced about 70% by using 100% CO2 shield-ing gas compared to 75% Ar/25% CO2. The Cr(VI)GR of theall-positional (AP) flux cored electrode (E309LT1-4) was about40% less than the flat position type (E309LT0-4) when using a75% Ar/25% CO2 shielding gas. The GMAW solid wire had thelowest Cr(VI)GR.
The differences in the electrodes’ flux compositions (fromthe coating or core) produced the differences in Cr(VI)GR.The SMAW and self-shielded flux cored electrodes containedvarious potassium and sodium compounds and some volatilecompounds like carbonates and fluorides. The gas-shielded fluxcored electrodes’ slag systems had relatively high levels of tita-nium dioxide, which is not as volatile and it also acts as an arcstabilizer. Therefore, less potassium and sodium compoundswere required to achieve a stable arc compared to SMAW andself-shielded flux cored electrodes. The GMAW solid wire elec-trode contained extremely low potassium and sodium com-pounds (on the wire surface) and no slag, which helped pro-duce low FGR and Cr(VI)GR.
Effects of Shielding Gas and Current: FCAW-G Types
The effects of shielding gas composition and welding cur-rent on Cr(VI)GR were evaluated on a 309L alloy grade of twogas-shielded flux cored electrodes. One of the flux cored elec-trodes was designed for welding in flat/horizontal positions(E309LT0-1 and E309LT0-4), and one was an AP type(E309LT1-4). The flat type was evaluated using 100% CO2 and75% Ar/25% CO2. The AP type was evaluated with 75% Ar/25%CO2.
As shown in Fig. 13, all products showed an increase inCr(VI)GR as the welding current increased. The Cr(VI)GR of
the flat positional electrode was reduced about 55–70% by usinga 100% CO2 shielding gas instead of 75% Ar/25% CO2. TheCr(VI)GR of the AP positional electrode was similar to the flattype when using 75% Ar/25% CO2.
The effects of the welding current on Cr(VI)GR was antici-pated because of the strong influence it also has on FGR, asshown in Figs. 1–3. The substantial decrease in Cr(VI)GR withthe 100% CO2 shielding gas was not expected since the FGRwas higher, as shown in Fig. 2, with this gas. However, other in-vestigators found that CO2 reduces the quantity of ozone avail-able for oxidation of Cr to Cr(VI), and it also provides betterprotection of the arc because it is denser than 75% Ar/25% CO2(Refs. 12, 13, 17).
Effects of Shielding Gas on a FCAW-S Electrode
The effects of adding a 100% CO2 shielding gas to a self-shielded flux cored electrode were evaluated because of the in-teresting results found in Fig. 13. Experiments were done usinga 2.4-mm E309LT0-3 electrode by running tests without an ex-ternal shielding gas and using a 100% CO2 shielding gas at twolevels of gas flow (30 and 70 ft3/h, 0.9 and 2.0 m3/h). The resultswere compared to a 1.6 mm gas-shielded flat positional elec-trode welded with the same gas and a similar current, as shownin Fig. 14.
Using a 100% CO2 shielding gas on the self-shielded fluxcored electrode reduced the Cr(VI)GR by 80%, although theactual FGR increased about 45%, as shown in Fig. 15. How-ever, as shown in Fig. 16, the Cr(VI) level in the welding fumeswas reduced about 85% when using the CO2 shielding gas. Nosignificant differences in Cr(VI)GR, which was similar to thegas-shielded flat positional electrode, were found between thetwo gas flow rates. It should be noted that the ferrite in the weldmetal would increase substantially when welding a self-shielded
AUGUST 201234
Fig. 17 — Cr(VI)GR for 1.6-mm gas-shielded FCAW elec-trodes (all-positional) vs. alloy type (Cr in weld metal).
Fig. 18 — Cr(VI)GR for 3.2-mm EXXX-16 SMAW electrodesvs. alloy type (Cr in weld metal).
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flux cored electrode with a CO2 shielding gas. The gas wouldprovide better protection of the solidifying weld from the at-mosphere, which would decrease the nitrogen level and increasethe ferrite content.
The reduction in Cr(VI)GR when using the CO2 shieldinggas with the self-shielded flux cored electrode was possibly dueto the less oxidizing properties of this gas compared to air, alower arc temperature, differences in arc transfer characteris-tics and a reduction in ozone (Refs. 5, 7, 16, 17).
Typical Cr(VI)GR for Various Stainless Steel Alloys
Various Cr(VI)GR tests were conducted to study the effectsof alloy compositions and electrode types. Optimum currentand voltage settings were used for each group of tests.
In most cases, the Cr(VI)GR increased as the Cr content inthe weld metal increased, as shown in Figs. 17–19. However, asshown in Fig. 17, the Cr(VI)GR for the all-positional FCAWE410NiMoT1-4 electrode was slightly higher than expected forits relatively low weld metal Cr content (11.5% Cr). This oc-curred because the product design and slag components weredifferent than the other products tested. Also, as shown in Fig.18, the SMAW E320LR-16 electrode (20% Cr) produced anequivalent Cr(VI)GR as the E312-16 alloy (29% Cr) eventhough there were substantial differences in the Cr content inthe weld metal. Again, this occurred because of differences incoating formulations between the two types.
The Cr(VI)GR of the duplex stainless steel types were simi-lar at the welding parameters used in these tests, as shown inFig. 20. The SMAW E2209-17 results were also higher than ex-pected, based on the Cr content in the weld metal. Again, thisoccurred because of differences in coating formulations com-pared to the other E3XX-16 SMAW electrodes.
Conclusions
Various stainless steel welding electrodes, processes, and pa-rameters were evaluated to determine their effects on hexava-lent chromium generation rates in welding fumes. Below arethe conclusions from this work.
1) For all electrodes and welding processes, the FGR andCr(VI)GR increased as the welding current was increased.
2) The FGR varied substantially between product types,welding processes, and welding parameters. The self-shieldedflux cored and the gas-shielded (using 100% CO2) flux coredelectrodes produced the highest FGR. The GMAW solid wireand metal cored electrodes produced the lowest FGR.
3) The FGR of the gas-shielded flux cored electrodes wasreduced about 10–20% with a 75% Ar/25% CO2 shielding gascompared to 100% CO2.
4) No major differences in FGR were found between thethree SMAW electrode types.
5) The Cr(VI) levels, expressed as a percentage of the totalfume, varied significantly between the electrode types and weld-ing parameters. However, since the FGR also played a role inthe final Cr(VI)GR, the %Cr(VI) in the welding fumes couldnot be used as a final comparison between welding electrodes,processes, and parameters.
6) The Cr(VI)GR increased as the Cr content of the elec-trode and weld metal increased. Although this trend was ex-pected, it was not possible to use the final weld metal Cr con-tent to estimate the Cr(VI)GR when comparing different elec-trodes. This occurred because the electrode’s composition andslag system greatly influenced the FGR and Cr(VI)GR.
7) When comparing 309L alloyed electrodes, the self-shielded flux cored and SMAW electrodes produced the high-est Cr(VI)GR. The GMAW solid wire and the gas-shielded fluxcored electrode (using 100% CO2) produced the lowestCr(VI)GR.
8) The Cr(VI)GR decreased about 55–70% when using a100% CO2 shielding gas compared to a 75% Ar/25% CO2 gasto weld the gas-shielded flux cored electrodes designed for flatand horizontal positions (E309LT0-1 vs. E309LT0-4).
9) Using a 100% CO2 shielding gas to weld a self-shieldedflux cored electrode (E309LT0-3) decreased the Cr(VI)GR by80%. However, the weld metal ferrite level would be expectedto increase significantly.
10) In general, the lowest Cr(VI)GR were found at low cur-rents, using GMAW solid wires, and a 100% CO2 shielding gasfor gas shielded flux cored electrodes.
Summary and Cautions
The data and comments included in this report are for gen-eral references only. The only way to determine whether thefume levels and any elements in the fumes, like Cr(VI), Mn,etc., are meeting the requirements of OSHA, ACGIH, or otherregulatory agencies is by measuring the fumes at the worker’s
35WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 19 — Cr(VI)GR for 4.0-mm EXXX-16 SMAW electrodevs. alloy type (Cr in weld metal).
Fig. 20 — Cr(VI)GR for 4.0-mm E2209-17 SMAW and 1.6-mmE2209T1-4 FCAW-G electrodes.
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breathing zone. There are many variablesin the workplace that will affect the po-tential fume exposure levels that work-ers may experience. Therefore, weldingfabricators must measure fume levels andfume constituents at their work stationsto assure compliance to laws and safewelding practices. Calculations from datadeveloped in the lab should only be usedas guidelines for selecting a potentialprocess or product. Also, the appropri-ate Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)should always be consulted to determinethe potential hazards of a product.♦
References
1. EPA AP-42, Section 12.19. 1994.Development of Particulate and Haz-ardous Emission Factors for Electric ArcWelding.
2. Heile, R. F., and Hill, D. C. 1975.Particulate fume generation in arc weld-ing processes. Welding Journal 54(7): 201-s to 210-s.
3. Evans, R. M., et al. 1979. Fumes andGases in the Welding Environment, AWS,Miami, Fla.
5. Kobayashi, M., et al. 1978. Someconsiderations about formation mecha-nism of welding fumes. Welding in theWorld 16(11/12): 238–249.
6. Moreton, J., et al. 1981. Flux-CoredWire Welding – Fume Emission Rates andFume Composition. The Welding Insti-tute Research Bulletin 22(2).
7. Carter, G. J., and Worrall, D. A.1984. A Review of Factors Influencing Par-ticulate Fume Emission During Arc Weld-ing. The Welding Institute Research Bul-letin 257, Dec.
8. Moreton, J., et al. 1985. Fume emis-sion when welding stainless steel. MetalConstruction, Dec.
9. Carter, G. J. 1989. Fume EmissionRate and Composition for Flux-Cored ArcWelding of Stainless Steel Using All-Posi-tional Consumables. The Welding Insti-tute Research Report 409, Sept.
10. Ferree, S. E. 1995. New genera-tion of cored wire creates less fume andspatter. Welding Journal 74(12): 45–49.
11. Kimura, S., et al. Investigation onChromium in Stainless Steel WeldingFumes, IIW II-286-79 report.
12. Metal Fume Research Group atUniversity of Bradford. 1991. Ozone andOxides of Nitrogen Formation inMIG/MAG and Self Shielded ContinuousWelding and Their Relation to HexavalentChromium Formation, Report 9203.
13. Dennis, J. H., et al. Control of Oc-cupational Exposure to HexavalentChromium and Ozone in Tubular Wire ArcWelding Processes by Replacement ofPotassium by Lithium or by Additions ofZinc. University of Bradford, UK report.
14. Davey, T. J., et al. 1987. An assess-ment of flux cored wire welding of Type316L — Parts 1 and 2, Metal Construc-tion, Aug. and Sept.
15. Hewitt, P. J. 1994. Reducing FumeEmissions Through Process Parameter Se-lections, Occupational Hygiene, Vol. 1, pp.35–45.
16. Miyazaki, et al. Reduction of Solu-ble Hexavalent Chromium in WeldingFumes of Stainless Steel Flux-Cored Wires,IIW XII-1725-02.
17. Hewitt, P. J., et al. 1988. The influ-ence of gas composition and flow rate onfume formation in the macro environ-ments of welding arcs, school of environ-mental science. Ventilation Proceedings,University of Bradford.
AUGUST 201236
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AUGUST 201238
The quality of cutting and bevelingoperations can have a major im-pact on subsequent fabrication
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Larger shops perform these opera-tions accurately with CNC cutting equip-ment using oxyacetylene, plasma, laser,waterjet, or carbon arc gouging. Butsmaller shops, relying on variable-speedcarriages that are limited to straight-lineand circle cutting, or on a manualworker’s skills, are most at risk for en-countering fitup problems and poor qual-ity welds.
In the field, efforts to make precisecuts and bevels are complicated whenthey must be performed under adverseweather and working conditions. Increas-ingly, automated processes using pro-grammable variable-speed carriages arebeing employed to achieve high-qualitycutting and beveling at many work sitesworldwide.
Carriages Mounted onRigid or Flexible Tracks
Rigid-track, programmable, variable-speed carriages (Fig. 1) are normally mi-croprocessor-based or electronically con-trolled. The former technology along withthe tach feedback controls offers a steadyand accurate drive at very low speeds. Thecarriages are mounted on rigid aluminumtracks that are meshed with the pinion onthe carriages to make the drive positive inall positions. Similarly, the flexible,spring-steel tracks have accurately spacedhole to mesh with the pinion of the car-
riage, assurring a positive drive. The tracks, normally 8 ft long, can be
joined together with a simple fasteningmechanism to make longer sections.Then the tracks can be formed to followthe contours of the weldment. Powerfulmagnets, attached at regular intervals, se-cure the tracks to the workpiece and pro-vide the track stiffness necessary to pro-duce high-quality cuts — Fig. 2. Whenthe tracks must be secured to a nonfer-rous (nonmagnetic) surface, the magnetsare replaced with vacuum cups — Fig. 3.
The carriages can be fitted with brack-etry to facilitate clamping the torch ontoa swiveling device, which acts as a pivotpoint. This permits positioning the torchat the desired angle. Slides are providedfor the operator to manually adjust thevertical and horizontal settings to controlthe arc length and edge alignment duringthe cutting or beveling process.
Additional accessories available asadd-ons include a mechanical height sen-sor to maintain a consistent gap betweenthe torch tip and the work, remote con-trol pendant, variable-speed motorizedrack arms, different lengths of rack arms,and high- and low-speed gear trains.Where multiple parallel cuts are re-quired, two or more torches can bemounted on one carriage to make thecuts simultaneously.
Simple plate cutting and beveling op-erations, as well as mitered and saddlecuts can be carried out in situ on large-di-ameter vessels.
Friction Drive, TracklessCarriages
Friction-drive, trackless carriages aresimilar to the all-position carriages (Fig.4), but are used for downhill or slight in-clines and horizontal cutting. They arenot as robust as the all-position carriagesthat have the advantage of a rack-and-pinion positive drive. The friction-drivecarriages were developed for fillet weld-ing applications. This type of carriage isideal for successfully automating cuttingand beveling applications with increasedefficiency and reduced costs.
The friction-drive carriages track theedge of the workpiece using idler wheels,enabling the torch to run parallel to theedge, hence achieving a clean straight
Automating OnSite Beveling, Cutting, and Welding
Trackmounted programmable carriagesperform a number of metalprocessingfunctions for small shops and in the field
BY NICK DRAKE AND
BISH MALKANI
NICK DRAKE ([email protected]) andBISH MALKANI are with Gullco Interna-tional Ltd., Newmarket, Ont., Canada.
Fig. 1 — Cutting a 12-in.-thick slabusing a carriage with rigid tracks.
39WELDING JOURNAL
line or curved cut — Fig. 5. Two torchescan be used to make double bevels, or,one torch to make a severance cut, andthe second torch to make the bevels.
A microprocessor control, including atach feedback loop, ensures that the car-riage motion is maintained at the precisepreset speed regardless of the load it iscarrying (up to a 100-lb vertical load ca-pacity).
Typical ApplicationsTypical in-situ cutting and beveling
applications include the following:
Fig. 2 — Cutting application on a stor-age tank using a carriage with flexibletracks.
Fig. 3 — Vacuum mounting system forcutting or welding applications on non-ferrous materials.
AUGUST 201240
• Circumferential all-position cutting ofdefective circular shells, and replacementof new shells on blast furnaces (for re-pairs by welding).• Cutting of defective areas on trunions,ladles, converters, rotary kilns, etc.• Cutting of billets, wear plates.• Accurate orbital cutting and bevelingof defective cement kiln shells, tires, etc.• Cutting and mitering of pipes, piles,and so on at oil platform fabrication sites,bridge foundations, etc.• Accurate all-position cutting andbeveling of blocks on ships during theblock-joining stages.• Carbon arc gouging equipment can bemounted on the carriages to perform au-tomatic gouging at high speeds, minimiz-ing the monotonous and time-consuminggrinding and back chipping operations.• The carriages can be used for cuttingand dismantling storage tanks and dis-carded heavy vessels and structures.• Accurate cutting and beveling theedges of petals for spheres, heavy pres-sure vessels, etc.• Variable-speed, motorized rack armsare used for cutting of H-beams, rectan-gular slots in piles can be performed.• Simple and low-cost multitorch gascutting gantries can be fabricated usingvariable-speed carriages.• Aluminum formed rings are availablewith legs on magnets for cutting/welding.A typical 28-in.-diameter system cancut/weld from 25- to 550-mm diameterinside the ring, and 900- to 1400-mm diameter outside the ring.
Case Study: Beveling Kiln Cement Shells
The specifications for the kiln cementshells and cutting parameters were as follows.• Diameter: 4 and 4.5 m• Thickness: 50 to 60 mm• Edge preparation: V and double-Vgroove• Travel speed: 20 to 50 cm/min• Acetylene gas pressure: 8 lb/in.2
• Oxygen pressure: 90 lb/in.2The equipment included all-position,
variable-speed, programmable carriagesrunning on flexible tracks attached to thecircumference of the shell with magnets.The tracks were placed parallel to theedge to be welded. A mechanical heightsensor was used to ensure consistent dis-tance between the torch and the shellplate as the shell was not perfectly round.
A defective portion of the shell was ac-curately cut and removed. The sameequipment used for the cutting was usedto bevel the edges of the kiln by reposi-tioning the torch and the carriage to thedesired bevel angle then repeating theprocess for the bevel cut.
The new shell with the tire was also ac-curately cut and beveled with the sameequipment, so that when it replaced theold shell, it fit properly. After replacing
the gas cutting torch with a gas metal arcwelding torch, the same equipment wasused to orbitally weld the shell.
Using this technique, the welds wereproduced at 70% arc-on time, greatly im-proving on the previous procedure, boththrough increased efficiency and higherweld quality, and highly skilled trades-men were not required to operate thecarriages. The versatility of the equip-ment combined with the high accuracy ofthe cuts and excellent weld quality savedthe client time and expense.
Case Study: Fabricating aStainless Steel Structure
A manufacturer was requested to fab-ricate a complex stainless pipe/shell fab-rication in a very short timeframe. The
Fig. 4 — Bevel cut produced using atrackless automation carriage.
Fig. 5 — Bevel cut on a cement kilnsection during repair.
biggest concern was making the criticalmitre cutting. The pipe/shell had an in-side diameter of 1900 mm with varyingwall thicknesses of 16, 27, 43, and 50 mm.
The shells required accurate cuts of 90deg, and mitres of 135 deg. The mitre-cutissue was solved by fabricating a clampingring, which was clamped onto the pipe incombination with another ring that heldthe track for the carriage. This ring wasplaced at 135 deg to the horizontal, andheld by the clamped ring by means of ad-justable brackets.
The wire feeder, torch, welding brack-etry, etc., on the standard Gullco PipeKAT® carriage were stripped off, and the
carriage was retrofitted with simplebracketry, slides, and a clamp for secur-ing the plasma torch.
The stripped version of the carriage or-bited at a preset speed around the pipe onthe ring placed at 135 deg to produce theplasma-cut mitres that were required.After the cuts were completed, the samecarriage was refitted with a wire feeder,bracketry, and a gas metal arc weldinggun. The multipass welding was carriedout using oscillation. This project illus-trates how one automated carriage wasadapted to perform accurate beveling andwelding operations as required with a min-imum of equipment, labor, and expense.
Portable, HighSpeedPlate Beveling Machines
Portable plate edge bevelers havebeen available on the market for wellover a decade. While these units are notvariable-speed carriages that can orbitaround a vessel, they can be very usefuldue to their portability and maneuver-ability, and the high speeds at which theycan produce clean machined bevels. Theycan bevel up to 10 ft/min, depending onthe capacity of the unit. An example is theGullco KBM® 18 portable plate bevelingmachine pictured in Fig. 6.
These plate beveling machines oper-ate on the mechanical shear principle,where clamp rollers grip the plate to bebeveled, and the cutting devices operateat high speeds. There is no heat input, sothese units are ideal for producing accu-rate bevels on long seams with no thermaldistortion nor need for grinding the plateafter the beveling process — Fig. 7. Thesemachines can bevel carbon steels, stain-less steels, and aluminum plates from 6 to50 mm thick.
Advantages of Using Automated Carriages
In summary, the advantages of usingprogrammable automated carriages forcutting and beveling operations includethe following:• The carriages are versatile and re-quire little maintenance.• They can be used for various cuttingprocesses including oxyacetylene, plasmaarc, waterjet, and carbon arc gouging, aswell as for welding applications.• They are simple to use and userfriendly. Skilled workers are not usuallyrequired to operate them.• They are lightweight and portable.• Accessories are available to provideflexibility to the cutting and beveling op-erations using optional height sensors,multiple torches, remote controls, mo-torized rack boxes, etc.• The cuts and bevels are accurate andclean, and root faces can be maintained.♦
41WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 6 — A portable beveling machineis shown making a continuous bevel onsuperduplex steel plate.
Fig. 7 — Long bevel produced on steel.
AUGUST 201242
In a number of recent tests, shipyardwelding operations were found to bein compliance with both the occupa-
tional exposure limits of manganese(Mn) fume in workers’ personal breath-ing zone (PBZ) and the way thoseamounts are measured (Refs. 1–3). Butin 2009, the American Council of Gov-ernment Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)issued a Notice of Intended Change(NIC) that would reduce the allowablelevels by a factor of 10 and would for thefirst time require measurement of Total,Respirable, and Inhalable fume using
three separate testing procedures for thissingle metallic element. Furthermore, inearly 2012, the proposed limit for Inhal-able Mn fume was cut in half yet again(Ref. 4).
To evaluate the impact of these pro-posed changes, the National Shipbuild-ing Research Program authorized a proj-ect to measure the amounts of Mn fumein the PBZ, using the proposed rules asa guide. Testing was conducted duringvarious welding and industrial opera-tions. Test sites included two commercialshipyards, one naval shipyard, and one
fabricating facility. A total of 96 sampleswere collected and analyzed in accor-dance with U.S. standards.
This article relates the results of thosetests.
BackgroundControlling welding fume emission
has long been the subject of strict regu-lations, and the U.S. regulatory and ad-visory organizations [Environmental Pro-tection Agency (EPA), OccupationalSafety & Health Administration
PAUL BLOMQUIST ([email protected]) is princi-pal technologist, Laser Applications, Ap-plied Thermal Sciences, Inc., Sanford,Maine. DANIEL O. CHUTE, CIH, CSP, ispresident, Atrium Environmental Health& Safety Services, Reston, Va.
BY PAUL BLOMQUIST AND DAN CHUTE
How Would Lower Limits forManganese Affect Welding?
A shipyard worker wears the three fil-ters that may soon become required tosample the amount of manganese fumein his breathing zone while welding.
Proposed changes could havefar-reaching consequences formost welding operations
43WELDING JOURNAL
(OSHA), ACGIH, and others] keep in-creasing their scrutiny of more and moreweld fume components while simultane-ously lowering the recommended and en-forceable exposure limits. The 2009 NICfrom the ACGIH would enact a tenfoldreduction in the Threshold Limit Value(TLV) for Mn, down to 0.02 mg/m3 of airover an 8-h period expressed as “res-pirable” Mn. The 2009 NIC for Mn alsoincluded a proposed limit of 0.2 mg/m3
time-weighted average (TWA) for “in-halable” Mn. If adopted, not only wouldthe allowable amount of Mn in weld fumebe lowered, but the proposed limit wouldalso require new air monitoring methods.Whereas the established OSHA Permis-sible Exposure Limit (PEL) and previ-ous TLVs have always required the sameair monitoring process for the measure-ment of “total” Mn, the newly proposedTLV would require new methods for themeasurement of “inhalable” and “res-pirable” particulate size fractions of Mnin breathing zone air.
Following the new TLV would requireemployers to collect and evaluate threedifferent types of breathing zone air sam-ples (total, inhalable, and respirable) forMn fume. This triplicate air monitoringburden for a single substance is unparal-leled in previous occupational exposurelimits. Current exposure monitoring for“total” Mn has always been in conjunc-tion with other metals of interest; thus asingle pump/filter cassette unit is suffi-cient to validate compliance with thesestandards. An extensive literature searchrevealed no prior published experiencewith this type of three-way particle-sizetesting for Mn in welding fume (Refs.5–9). This proposed TLV for Mn remainson the Notice of Intended Changes for2012, with a further reduction of “inhal-able” Mn to 0.1 mg/m3 TWA.
The changes proposed in the new TLVfor Mn require totally different air sam-pling methods from the historical OSHAcompliance methods followed for severaldecades. At this time, there is no validmeans of comparison to determinewhether any correlation may be drawnbetween previous air-sampling data forMn and compliance with the new anddrastically lowered occupational expo-sure limit. In addition, no body of datahas been identified that has previouslystudied this relationship. Thus, employ-ers have no way to determine whethertheir previously “compliant” welding op-erations are operating above or below thenew limits. This data gap required a fieldevaluation to determine whether any his-torical air-sampling data may correlate
with the new air-sampling requirementsfor inhalable and respirable Mn.
For this reason, the National Ship-building Research Program (NSRP) au-thorized a project to determine the im-pact of these proposed rules on U.S. ship-building operations. The goal of this proj-ect was to determine whether air moni-toring of representative tasks could beused to establish estimated or predictableranges of exposure. These data would bebeneficial to the industry to reduce boththe labor and expense burden on individ-ual shipyards and to provide a moretimely impact analysis of the effects ofthese proposed changes.
In the literature, several sources wereexamined to determine whether any datawere available that might be applied tobetter define what, if any, predictable re-lationship may exist between the total,inhalable, and respirable particulatecomponents of the Mn found in weldingfume as measured in the PBZ of the weld-ing operator using exposure monitoringcollection and analysis methods acceptedin American industry. No particle-sizedata for Mn in welding were found. Fur-ther, the whole question of whetherhealth effects may be attributable toworker exposure to Mn in weld fume re-mains murky at best. Some comparativestudies point out that Mn in weld fumeis not pure Mn, and the claims of healtheffects are based on much higher expo-sures to relatively pure Mn in other in-dustries (Refs. 10–16).
On-Site Air Monitoring during RepresentativeShipyard WeldingOperations
All project work was performed underthe technical direction of an AmericanBoard of Industrial Hygiene (ABIH)Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) anda CIH collected all air samples. Testingconducted in each location followed anidentical process to ensure a valid com-
parison of results between each weldingmethod and each respective location andoperating condition. Personal breathingzone and ambient area air samples werecollected in accordance with establishedprotocol for exposure monitoring for in-halable and respirable Mn, using Insti-tute of Medicine (IOM) samplers andSKC™cyclone inlets, respectively, asneeded for the particle size separation.During each sampled event, a consistentsample collection and analysis processwas followed to ensure the most validcomparison of results between total, res-pirable, and inhalable Mn. The field test-ing plan included collecting samples dur-ing seven welding and metalworkingprocesses. Processes tested included thefollowing:• Flux cored arc welding• Gas tungsten arc welding• Shielded metal arc welding• Pulsed gas metal arc welding• Carbon arc gouging• Grinding• Hybrid laser arc welding.
Air samples for Mn were collected inaccordance with three sampling methods(see lead photo):
1. Total Mn — Collection with 37-mm,MCE 0.8-um filters in a closed-facemode, calibrated at approximately 2.0L/min.
2. Respirable Mn — SKC aluminumcyclone sample inlet, with unweighed 37-mm, MCE 0.8-um filters in open-facemode, calibrated at approximately 2.5L/min.
3. Inhalable Mn — IOM samplinginlet with 25-mm, 0.8-um MCE filter, cal-ibrated at approximately 2.0 L/min.
The sampling plan included two daysof full-shift on-site testing in each loca-tion. Each day, samples were collectedfrom the following four locations:• L1, welding operator breathing zone;• L2, operator’s helper (or nearby
observer);• L3, area sample at nearest accessible
point to arc and fume generation; and • L4, area sample at point accessible to
observers or passersby. Each sampling location was tested for
inhalable (I), respirable ( R), and total(T) Mn. As proposed, each day gener-ated 12 air samples (L1-I, L1-R, L1-T,etc.) with a total of 24 air samples being
Fig. 1 — Welder equipped for testing,with three filter cassettes. Not shownare the three pump units.
AUGUST 201244
collected at the completion of the two-day event. In addition, as required bysampling methods, laboratory and fieldblanks were submitted for quality assur-ance. During air sampling operations, de-tailed field notes and process informa-tion were recorded to document perti-nent technical information on weldingprocess performance such as run times,weld speeds, filler and base metals used,power use, root openings, and other datanecessary to effectively describe and baseconclusions on from this evaluation. Thethree sets of filter cassettes are shown inFig. 1, and the pump units can be seen inFig. 2.
After being collected, the air sampleswere submitted to a laboratory that suc-cessfully participates in the American In-dustrial Hygiene Association’s IndustrialHygiene Laboratory Accreditation Pro-gram. Lab analysis complied with OSHAMethod 125G, with ICP/MS (Ref. 17).Air sampling results have been comparedto applicable OSHA PELs and the cur-rent and proposed ACGIH TLVs formanganese.
Results and DiscussionAll results for total Mn were well
below the OSHA PEL for Mn of 5 mg/m3
(ceiling). Analysis of the data generatedrevealed that the comparative relation-ship between total, inhalable, and res-pirable particulate sizes, however, didnot follow any consistent or predictablepattern, raising serious questions regard-ing the validity of the proposed test meth-ods and equipment. In a significant num-ber of samples, the values reported forinhalable and/or respirable fume contentwere greater than those of total Mn fume,clearly an impossible result. The wildvariations seen in the relative compar-isons of total, inhalable, and respirableMn in this study make any predictivevalue assigned to these size-fractionaltest methods unsupportable at this time.
A bar chart comparing the averagevalues recorded for each of the processestested is shown in Fig. 3. Clearly, GTAWexhibited the lowest Mn fume values inPBZ. Hybrid laser arc welding andGMAW-P were lower than otherprocesses, but not quite at the level re-quired if the proposed new TLV isadopted. The red and yellow dashed linesshown in Fig. 3 are the limits proposedin the 2009 and 2012 NIC. Not shown,due to scale, is the current OSHA PELof 5.0 mg/m3.
Table 1 summarizes the results. Notethat for Sample T4, the value recorded
for total Mn was 0.58mg/m3 — Table 1A.The value for res-pirable fume wasequal to that, at 0.58mg/m3 — Table 1C.
While it is credible that all of the fumecould be comprised entirely of the small-est size of particles, the correspondingvalue for inhalable was recorded at 0.87,which is clearly impossible — Table 1B.In point of fact, examining the entiretable shows that there are 15 cases forwhich the inhalable values exceed thetotal, and 9 cases in which the respirablevalues exceed the total. This suggests thatthe equipment, processing methodology,or both, cannot be used to accurately,faithfully, or credibly support any testingto ensure compliance with the proposednew TLVs.
The Navy and Marine Corps PublicHealth Center Industrial Hygiene De-partment performed a detailed statisticalanalysis of the results. Following are threekey points from that analysis (Ref. 3):
1. “It was difficult to calculate confi-dence limits for the air sample resultssince no previous work had determinedvalidated coefficients of variation for theanalysis of inhalable or respirable parti-cle-size fractions of manganese.
2. “Detailed statistical analysis forthree data sets of FCAW results (T3, T4,T16) found three different rankings oftotal, inhalable, and respirable particu-late. These data sets were selected fordetailed analysis because they demon-strated the best match of sample dura-tion times across all three air-samplingmethods combined with the highest Mnconcentrations with significantly meas-urable variability. Data set T3 demon-strates greater respirable mass than total
Fig. 2 — Fume measurement: A —During air carbon arc gouging, two ofthe three pump units can be seen onthe worker’s back; B — during gastungsten arc welding on stainlesssteel, shown in the foreground are thethree filter cassettes for area monitor-ing of total, inhalable, and respirableMn fumes.
A
B
45WELDING JOURNAL
or inhalable. Data set T4 demonstratesgreater inhalable mass than total. Onlydata set T16 demonstrated the expectedranking of total, inhalable, and respirableMn in air.
3. “It is not physically possible for res-pirable or inhalable Mn to exceed totalMn in a side-by-side sample set. The find-ings of this study raise questions, whichremain unanswered, about the validity ofparticle-size sampling as an accuratemeasure of exposure for Mn in weldingfume.”
Conclusions From the foregoing, the following
conclusions can be made: • There is a wide variation in airborne
Fig. 3 — Averages of results of tests,by process. Dashed lines represent theACGIH NIC values. Not shown, due toscale, is the current OSHA PEL at 5.0mg/m3.
Table 1A — Air Monitoring Results for Total Mn in Welder PBZ
Total
Total Total Process Sample Type Min Result (Mn, mg/m3) 8-h TWAPersonal (P)
Area (A)T1 Total(2) FCAW P 439 0.60 0.549T2 Total(10) FCAW P X — —T3 Total(4) FCAW A 399 0.41 0.341T4 Total(5) FCAW A 390 0.58 0.471T5 Total(19) Grinding P 374 0.23 0.179T6 Total(11) FCAW P 368 0.47 0.360T7 Total(7) Grinding A 304 0.32 0.203T8 Total(16) FCAW A 320 0.50 0.333T9 Total(15) GMA Pulse Arc P 466 0.39 0.379T10 Total(11) GMA/CAG A 398 0.55 0.456T11 Total(4) Carbon Arc Gouging P 415 0.22 0.190T12 Total(3) GMA/CAG A 448 0.044 0.041T13 Total(10) GMA Pulse Arc P 459 0.013 0.012T14 Total(TW-1) GMA Pulse Arc A 446 0.0056 0.005T15 Total(12) FCAW P 173 2.50 *T16 Total(5) FCAW A 169 0.098 *T17 Total(6) SMAW P 189 0.86 *T18 Total(3) SMAW A 399 0.033 0.027T19 Total(14) GTA Stainless P 275 0.027 *T20 Total(25) GTA Stainless A 345 0.0022 0.002T21 Total(17) SMAW P 286 0.13 0.077T22 Total(18) SMAW A 390 0.046 *T23 Total(7) GTA Stainless P 295 0.0060 *T24 Total(22) GTA Stainless A 360 0.0015 0.001T25 Total(13) HLAW P 477 0.010T26 Total(4) HLAW A 477 0.0075T27 Total(5) HLAW P 58 0.19T28 Total(8) GTA P 460 0.010T29 Total(25) Grinding P 360 0.0020T30 Total(22) Grinding A 345 0.00084T31 Total(21) Grinding P 355 0.0025T32 Total(26) HLAW P 110 0.091
*Specific task-related sample. Does not represent an 8-h TWA.
Mean Result, Mn in Air, mg/m3 By Process
1
0
0.9
FCAW SMAW GTAW HLAW
Total Mn
Respirable Mn
Inhalable Mn
Grinding GMAW-Pulse
Carbon Arc
Gouging
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
09 NIC Inh.0.2 mg/m3
2012 NIC Inh.0.01 mg/m3
09 NIC Resp.0.02 mg/m3
Mn concentrations found in shipyardwelding and metalworking processes.Results ranged from 3.0 to 0.00044mg/m3 of air, for a greater than 6800-fold difference.
• All results were well below the OSHAPEL for Mn of 5.0 mg/m3 of air, ex-pressed as a ceiling value.
• Only GTAW was observed to be con-sistently below the ACGIH Notice ofIntended Changes TLV for Mn of 0.02mg/m3 as respirable particulate. Allother processes tested provided resultsthat exceeded this limit.
• Flux cored arc welding showed thehighest values recorded. AlthoughFCAW results were fully compliantwith the present OSHA PELs, if theproposed TLV is adopted, this processis at greatest risk. This is not goodnews, since it is the process of choicefor many welding operations.
• The relationship between total, inhal-able, and respirable Mn does not fol-
low any regular or predictable pattern.Side-by-side air samples often yield re-sults with smaller size fractions exceed-ing total Mn concentration or res-pirable Mn greater than inhalable Mn.These findings raise questions aboutthe technical merits of the proposedtesting process, especially when evalu-ation requires a threefold increase in labor, equipment, and laboratory resources.
• Clearly, more work will be required inthe area of test equipment design andmethods validation in order to providemeaningful and relevant data on whichto base future standards and compli-ance activities.
Summary The results of this study demonstrate
that the air-sampling methods currentlyavailable for evaluation of the inhalableand respirable particulate sizes of Mn
found in welding fume do not correlatewith the established and accepted histor-ical air-sampling method for total Mn. Inthe absence of a demonstrated and re-producible validation study to demon-strate a credible means of measurement,a new TLV for Mn based upon inhalableand respirable particle sizes lacks suffi-cient scientific methodology to deter-mine compliance. The wildly unpre-dictable variations seen here and nowknown to exist in the measurements forMn welding fume particle sizes inwelders’ work zones make any predictivevalue assigned to these test methods to-tally unsupportable at this time. ◆
References
1. Chute, Daniel O. 1999. NationalShipbuilding Research Program; Weld-ing Fume Study; Report No. 7-96-9,SNAME Production Committee, SP-7Welding.
AUGUST 201246
Table 1B — Air Monitoring Results for Inhalable Mn in Welder PBZ
Inhalable
Total Total Process Sample Type Min Result (Mn, mg/m3) 8-h TWAPersonal (P)
Area (A)T1 Total(2) FCAW P Inhal(IM459) 376 0.52 0.407T2 Total(10) FCAW P Inhal(IM408) X — —T3 Total(4) FCAW A Inhal(IM401) 399 0.31 0.258T4 Total(5) FCAW A Inhal(IM475) 391 0.87 0.709T5 Total(19) Grinding P Inhal(IM504) 374 0.24 0.187T6 Total(11) FCAW P Inhal(IM405) 153 0.52 *T7 Total(7) Grinding A Inhal(IM385) 303 0.11 0.069T8 Total(16) FCAW A Inhal(IM076) 320 0.62 0.413T9 Total(15) GMA Pulse Arc P Inhal(IM357) 390 0.37 0.301T10 Total(11) GMA/CAG A Inhal(IM332) 303 0.21 0.133T11 Total(4) Carbon Arc Gouging P Inhal(IM478) X — —T12 Total(3) GMA/CAG A Inhal(IM435) 448 0.028 0.026T13 Total(10) GMA Pulse Arc P Inhal(IM319) 459 0.012 0.011T14 Total(TW-1) GMA Pulse Arc A Inhal(IM041) 446 0.0063 0.006T15 Total(12) FCAW P Inhal(IM422) 90 2.2 *T16 Total(5) FCAW A Inhal(IM353) 169 0.090 *T17 Total(6) SMAW P Inhal(IM497) 113 0.41 *T18 Total(3) SMAW A Inhal(IM458) 399 0.027 0.022T19 Total(14) GTA Stainless P Inhal(IM329) 174 0.022 *T20 Total(25) GTA Stainless A Inhal(IM482) 345 0.0026 0.002T21 Total(17) SMAW P Inhal(IM512) 286 0.14 *T22 Total(18) SMAW A Inhal(IM372) 390 0.051 0.041T23 Total(7) GTA Stainless P Inhal(IM320) 295 0.0078 *T24 Total(22) GTA Stainless A Inhal(IM385) 360 0.0015 0.001T25 Total(13) HLAW P Inhal(IM392) 477 0.0091T26 Total(4) HLAW A Inhal(IM315) 477 0.0083T27 Total(5) HLAW P Inhal(IM060) 58 0.20T28 Total(8) GTA P Inhal(IM161) 460 0.010T29 Total(25) Grinding P Inhal(IM507) 149 0.0061T30 Total(22) Grinding A Inhal(IM041) 345 0.00089T31 Total(21) Grinding P Inhal(IM510) 355 0.0066T32 Total(26) HLAW P Inhal(IM489) 110 0.095
*Specific task-related sample. Does not represent an 8-h TWA.
2. National Shipbuilding ResearchProgram Report, Reduction of Worker Ex-posure and Environmental Release ofWelding Emissions. 2003.
3. Chute, D., and Blomquist, P. 2011.Reduction of weld fume risk in naval andcommercial shipyards final report.www.nsrp.org/3-RA-Panel_Final_Re-ports/2011_Reduction_of_Weld_Fume_Risk_Final_Report.pdf
4. American Conference of Govern-mental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Sub-stances and Physical Agents, current andprior editions, www.acgih.org.
5. The Navy Occupational ExposureDatabase (NOED), Exposure Monitor-ing for Mn.
6. Formisano, J. A., Still, K., Alexan-der, W., and Lippman, M. 2001. Applica-tion of statistical models for secondarydata usage of the U.S. Navy’s Occupa-tional Exposure Database (NOED). Ap-plied Occupational and Environmental
data for occupational exposure to man-ganese, Integrated Management Infor-mation System (IMIS). 1984–2009.
8. NIOSH, Nomination of WeldingFumes for Toxicity Studies. Feb. 20, 2002.
9. NIOSH, Criteria for a Recom-mended Standard, Welding. 1988.
10. Antonini, J. M. 2003. Health ef-fects of welding. Critical Review in Toxi-cology 33(1): 61–103.
11. Antonini, J. M., et al. 2005. Fateof manganese associated with the inhala-tion of welding fumes. NeuroToxicology.
12. Ellingsen, D. E., et al. 2003. Man-ganese Air Exposure Assessment and Bio-logical Monitoring in the Manganese Alloyand Production Industry. Royal Society ofChemistry.
13. Sowards, J. W., Ramirez, A. J.,Dickinson, D. W., and Lippold, J. C. 2008.Characterization procedure for theanalysis of arc welding fume. Welding
Journal 87(3): 76-s to 83-s. 14. Sowards, J. W., Lippold, J. C.,
Dickinson, D. W., and Ramirez, A. J.2008. Characterization of welding fumefrom SMAW electrodes, Part I. WeldingJournal 87(4): 106-s to 112-s.
15. Sowards, J. W., Lippold, J. C.,Dickinson, D. W., and Ramirez, A. J.2010. Characterization of welding fumefrom SMAW electrodes — Part 2. Weld-ing Journal 89(4): 82-s to 90-s.
16. Gonser, M. J., Lippold, J. C.,Dickinson, D. W., Sowards, J. W., andRamirez, A. J. 2010. Characterization ofwelding fume generated by high-Mn con-sumables. Welding Journal 89(2): 25-s to33-s.
17. OSHA Method 125G, Metal andMetalloid Particulates in Workplace At-mospheres (ICP Analysis).
47WELDING JOURNAL
Table 1C — Air Monitoring Results for Respirable Mn in Welder PBZ
Respirable
Total Total Process Sample Type Min Result (Mn, mg/m3) 8-h TWAPersonal (P)
Area (A)T1 Total(2) FCAW P Resp(21) — —T2 Total(10) FCAW P Resp(26) X —T3 Total(4) FCAW A Resp(24) 398 0.46 0.381T4 Total(5) FCAW A Resp(13) 391 0.58 0.472T5 Total(19) Grinding P Resp(17) 272 0.13 *T6 Total(11) FCAW P Resp(30) 359 0.49 0.366T7 Total(7) Grinding A Resp(20) 304 0.30 0.190T8 Total(16) FCAW A Resp(23) 185 0.40 *T9 Total(15) GMA Pulse Arc P Resp(14) 243 0.17 *T10 Total(11) GMA/CAG A Resp(7) 461 0.68 0.653T11 Total(4) Carbon Arc Gouging P Resp(13) 94 0.18 *T12 Total(3) GMA/CAG A Resp(9) 448 0.037 0.035T13 Total(10) GMA Pulse Arc P Resp(L21209-1) 459 0.0082 0.008T14 Total(TW-1) GMA Pulse Arc A Resp(L21209-13) 446 0.0049 0.005T15 Total(12) FCAW P Resp(L21209-7) 137 3.0 *T16 Total(5) FCAW A Resp(L21209-9) 169 0.083 *T17 Total(6) SMAW P Resp(11) 275 0.53 *T18 Total(3) SMAW A Resp(23) 399 0.029 0.024T19 Total(14) GTA Stainless P Resp(4) 275 0.011 *T20 Total(25) GTA Stainless A Resp(20) 345 0.0020 0.001T21 Total(17) SMAW P Resp(21) 286 0.12 *T22 Total(18) SMAW A Resp(24) 390 0.043 0.035T23 Total(7) GTA Stainless P Resp(8) 295 0.0058 *T24 Total(22) GTA Stainless A Resp(15) 300 0.0013 0.001T25 Total(13) HLAW P Resp(12) 322 0.011T26 Total(4) HLAW A Resp(2) 477 0.0076T27 Total(5) HLAW P Resp(3) 58 0.22T28 Total(8) GTA P Resp(1) 460 0.0091T29 Total(25) Grinding P Resp(20) 360 0.00048T30 Total(22) Grinding A Resp(16) 345 0.00044T31 Total(21) Grinding P Resp(23) 355 0.0020T32 Total(26) HLAW P Resp(24) 110 0.091
*Specific task-related sample. Does not represent an 8-h TWA.
AUGUST 201248
Oxyfuel processes such as heating,cutting, brazing, and weldingcreate a potential danger from
flames, sparks, and intense heat. Despitethese hazards, millions of people workaccident free.
By design, manufacturers build safeequipment. This decreases the likelihoodof a potential incident. However, goodoxyfuel operators know that their own
safety, as well as the safety of thosearound them, depends on proper and re-sponsible use of oxyfuel equipment.
Fire Triangle
The foundation for all oxyfuelprocesses is the triangle of combustionor fire triangle. Combustion requiresthree elements: fuel, oxygen, and heat.
Operators must control each of these el-ements, which is why safety starts with aclean work area free from oily rags,paper, volatile liquids, trash cans, andother combustibles. It should go withoutsaying that there’s no smoking, but itneeds to be reinforced.
Oxyfuel processes produce flames,sparks, and a small amount of infraredrays. Eye protection options include a
Oxyfuel Safety: It’s Everyone’s Responsibility
face shield, goggles, or safety glasses, allwith the appropriate shade lens. If oper-ators use a face shield, they must alsowear safety glasses underneath.
For operators who work in streetclothes, choose tightly woven fabricsmade from natural fibers. Wool is natu-rally flame retardant, and blue jeans,denim, and cotton duck are also goodchoices. Wearing a lab coat or welding
jacket (or at least sleeves) is a good idea;heavy-duty applications often requireleather chaps and spats. Button shirt col-lars and sleeves, and don’t cuff pant legs,as they provide a perfect area to catchsparks and slag. Never wear polyesterfleece or clothes made from similar syn-thetics, as they are flammable and/or willmelt. When it comes to footwear, it’shard to beat a good pair of leather boots.
BY JOHN HENDERSON
JOHN HENDERSON is a senior brandmanager, Victor Technologies (www.vic-tortechnologies.com), St. Louis, Mo.
Guidelines for proper setup and shutdown procedures,
as well as technical and safety principles, are provided
As shown below, a piece of metal gets cutafter the oxyfuel equipment’s tip wascleaned to remove obstructions.
For an acetylene heating or cuttingattachment, hold the torch in onehand and a spark lighter — the onlyapproved tool for lighting a torch —in the other.
AUGUST 201250
Cylinder Identification andHandling
Operators commonly assume thecylinder color indicates a specific gas.Unfortunately, distributors and gas sup-pliers can paint their cylinders any colorthey want. To identify a cylinder’s con-tents, read the label. If a cylinder does-n’t have a label, don’t use it. Contact thesupplier and ask them to take it back.
All cylinders have a United Nations(UN) gas identification marking on theirlabel — Fig. 1. Common ID numbers in-clude UN 1072 for oxygen, UN 1001 foracetylene, UN 1978 for propane, and UN1077 for propylene.
Careless handling can turn a gas cylin-der into a projectile. Whenever opera-tors handle a cylinder, they should keepthe five fundamentals listed below inmind — Fig. 2.
1. Before moving a cylinder, install the
cylinder cap, if there is one.2. Use a cart designed to transport
cylinders.3. Place cylinders in a safe location
where they’re protected from sparks,flames, and heat sources. Don’t blockequipment or people.
4. Once in place, secure the cylindersin an upright position to prevent falling.
5. Lastly, inspect the valve. Look forsigns of damage, and always ensure thevalve is free from oil and grease.
Gases in the Work Area
Many shops have multiple gases onsite, and each gas requires its own safetyprecautions. To start, recall that oxygenis one of the components for the triangleof combustion. In fact, oxygen is thesource for many gas-related accidents,and a primary culprit is using oxygen inplace of compressed air. Some of the
areas oxygen gets misused include usingit to blow dust off clothing or work areas,with pneumatic tools, or as ventilation inthe place of air.
The most widely used fuel gas is acety-lene. Other fuels are commonly referredto as “alternate fuels.” These include LPgases (propane, propylene, and butane)and compressed gases such as natural gasand methane.
The basic structure of an acetylenecylinder is different from other cylinders(which are shells only) because it con-tains a porous mass saturated with liquidacetone. The acetylene gas is thenpumped into the cylinder, absorbed intothe acetone, and released as it is used.Because of its nature, always use andstore the acetylene cylinder in an uprightposition, and never use acetylene above15 lb pressure. Acetylene has a tendencyto disassociate above 15 lb/in.2, which cancause a chemical reaction.
Fig. 1 — Never use a cylinder’s color toidentify its content. Read the label andlook for the United Nations identificationnumber, in this case UN 1001 for acety-lene.
Fig. 2 — Good safety practices shownhere include securing cylinders to thehand cart with the black strap, installingcylinder caps, storing oxygen and fuelgases separately, and wearing propereye protection.
Fig. 3 — Ensure regulator threads arefree from damage, dust, oil, and grease.Note that in the presence of pure oxy-gen, petroleum products can sponta-neously combust.
Acetylene withdraw rate is critical:Never withdraw more than 1⁄7 th of thecylinder volume per hour. For example,if a particular cylinder held 280 ft3, di-viding that by 7 yields 40 usable cubic feetper hour of gas.
Equipment Setup:Regulators
Because different gases have differ-ent volume and pressure requirements,manufacturers engineer regulators forspecific gases. Victor EDGE regulatorsare color-coded and labeled for easyidentification: green for oxygen, red foracetylene, orange for L.P. gases such aspropane and propylene, gray for carbondioxide, black for inert gases such asargon and nitrogen, and yellow for air.
Pure oxygen can reduce the kindlingtemperature of petroleum-based lubri-cants to room temperature, leading to vi-olent combustion. As such, the first safetycheck is to inspect regulator valves,threads, and seats and ensure they arefree of oil — Fig. 3. Needless to say, neverlubricate any component of an oxyfuelsystem. Parts contaminated with oil orgrease should be inspected and cleanedby qualified service personnel.
Next, inspect regulator and cylinderfittings, making sure they’re free of dam-age and dirt. Note: If the nut on the reg-ulator does not match the fitting on thecylinder, it means the wrong regulatorhas been selected. Find the correct one;never change the fittings on a regulator.
51WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 4 — Only open acetylene cylinders¾ to 1 turn. Also, notice how the oper-ator stands behind and to the side of thecylinder when opening the valve, usingthe cylinder to shield him if necessary.
Fig. 5 — A check valve stops gas fromgetting on the wrong side of the torch,while a flashback arrestor stops firefrom advancing farther up the systemby quenching the temperature to belowthe ignition point.
Fig. 6 — On a two-piece torch, ensurethat the attachment’s two O-rings arepresent and damage free. Only handtighten this connection, as using awrench can damage the O-rings.
Before attaching a regulator, stand tothe side of the cylinder, point the valvetoward a clear area, crack the valve, andclose it again. This clears the valve as-sembly of combustibles and contami-nants. After doing this for both cylinders,the operator is ready to attach the regu-lators.
Equipment Setup: Hoses
There are three grades of hose: UseR and RM grade for acetylene. T gradehose may be used with any fuel gas andis the only grade allowable for alternatefuels. The acetylene hose, which is typi-cally red, has a groove across the nut,which indicates a left-hand thread. Theoxygen hose, which is typically green, willnot have a groove, indicating that it’s aright-hand thread. Before attaching thehose, inspect it for oil, grease, and cracks.
After attaching, remove potentialcontaminants by purging the hose. Con-tamination, if not removed, could beforced into the equipment and poten-tially cause clogging, failure, or providea source of combustion. To purge a hose,adjust the regulator knob to about 5lb/in.2 and allow gas to flow for a few sec-onds. Depending on the length of hose,that time may vary. Back out the adjust-ing knob after allowing adequate flowand repeat the process for the other hose.
Note: Only open the acetylene cylin-der valve 3⁄4 to one full turn; this facili-tates faster shut-off in the event of anemergency — Fig. 4. Open oxygen cylin-ders all the way, as their valves seal in thefully open and fully closed positions.
Understanding Hazards
To fully understand torch safety, op-erators must understand some of theterms for the hazards associated with oxy-fuel equipment. The terms are as follows:reverse flow, flashback, backfire, and sus-tained backfire.
Reverse flow is when either the oxy-gen enters the fuel gas side of a systemor the fuel gas enters the oxygen side ofthe system — Fig. 5. This occurs when
there is a restriction of one of the gasesor an imbalance of pressure. This can becaused by a clogged or blocked tip or al-lowing one of the cylinders to run out ofgas. If a reverse flow condition exists, aflashback can occur.
Flashback is the return of a flamethrough the torch, into the hose, and eveninto the regulator. It could potentiallyreach the cylinder. This condition couldcause an explosion anywhere within thesystem. Flashback arrestors are designedto prevent the flame from traveling be-yond the point of the arrestor. Flashbackarrestors contain a sintered filter thatprevents a flame from passing throughthe filter element.
Backfire is the return of a flame backinto the torch, which produces a poppingsound. The flame will either extinguishor reignite at the tip. This is normally theresult of accidentally bumping the tipagainst the workpiece, operating the tiptoo close to the workpiece, or allowingthe tip to become overheated. A sus-tained backfire is when a backfire occursand continues burning in the torch. Thiscondition may be accompanied by a pop-ping sound followed by a continuouswhistling or hissing sound. Some of thecauses for this are improperly maintainedequipment, overheating of the equip-ment, or improper pressure settings forthe equipment being used.
Torch Inspection andGas Flow
Most torches come in two sections,the torch handle and various attachmentsfor heating, cutting, and welding.
Before using an attachment, check its
cone end and be sure the two O-rings areneither missing nor damaged — Fig. 6.Repair them or replace them if neces-sary. On a cutting attachment, check theseating end for the tip. Dents or scratcheshere could lead to a leak and promote anaccident.
Before connecting any attachment tothe torch, inspect the seating area of thetorch handle and thread assembly. Whenattaching them, hand tighten only. Usinga wrench will damage the O-rings.
Next, inspect the cutting or heatingtip to ensure the holes are free of debris.On a cutting tip, check the seating endfor scratches or dents. To properly securea cutting tip, which is a metal-to-metalseal, tighten it with a wrench. Before cut-ting, make sure the cutting oxygen levermoves freely.
When setting gas pressures (measuredin lb/in.2), operators work backward. Thethickness of plate being heated or cut de-termines what consumable to use, andthat, in turn, determines pressure set-tings. This information is normally foundin the manufacturer’s operating proce-dures or in tip charts. Note that alternatefuels use different tips and require dif-ferent pressure settings. Also, rememberthe 1⁄7 th rule, making sure the acetylenecylinder has adequate capacity to sup-port the acetylene consumption of the tipbeing used.
Leak Test
After connecting the attachments andtips, operators need to check the entiresystem for leaks. The steps to perform aleak test are as follows:
• Completely back out the regulator
AUGUST 201252
Fig. 7 — To light a torch using alternatefuel on a windy day or if a shop fan isblowing on the work area, place the tipon the workpiece at a 45-deg angleafter lighting the torch. Open the oxy-gen valve ¼ to ½ turn until the flame“snaps” into place.
adjusting mechanism.• Open the cylinder gas valve slowly
until the high-pressure gauge reading sta-bilizes, then shut off the cylinder valve.Monitor the gauge for any pressure drop,which would indicate a leak of the high-pressure side of the system. If no leak isevident, open the cylinder valve and ad-just the oxygen regulator to deliver 20lb/in.2
• Repeat the process with the fuel gasvalve and regulator, but be sure to adjustthe fuel gas regulator to deliver about 10lb/in.2
• Close both the oxygen and fuel cylin-der valves.
• Turn the adjusting screw or knobcounterclockwise one-half turn.
• Observe the gauges on both regula-tors for a few minutes. If the gauge read-ings do not change, then the system isleak tight.
• Open the cylinder valves again. Anymovement of the needles indicates a pos-sible leak.
• If a leak is observed, stop. Do notuse leaking equipment. Check all theconnections. If the leak can’t be found,have the equipment inspected by a qual-ified technician.
Purging the Torch
Torches also need to be purged toeliminate the possibility of gases mixingprematurely, which could lead to a flash-back, or worse. To start, open the oxygenvalve on the torch handle all the way.With a cutting attachment, also open thepreheat oxygen valve. Depress the cut-ting lever for 3 to 5 s. Shut the oxygenvalves and repeat the process for the fuelside. This is also a good time to recheckthe regulators to make sure they main-tained set pressure.
Lighting the Torch andAdjusting the Flame
For an acetylene heating or cutting at-tachment, hold the torch in one hand anda spark lighter in the other (never usematches or a lighter to light the torch).
Do not aim the torch in a direction ofpeople, equipment, or flammable mate-rials. Open the fuel valve about 1⁄8 th of aturn and ignite the gas. Continue open-ing the fuel valve until all the smoke andsoot disappear. Transfer over to the oxy-gen valve and slowly open it until a brightneutral flame is established.
Alternate fuels have a specific grav-ity, either much heavier (propane andpropylene) or much lighter (natural gas)than air. As a result, operators shouldlearn three methods of lighting a torch— one will definitely work. In all cases,when using a standard combinationtorch, first open the oxygen valve on thehandle all the way to prevent restrictionof oxygen to the cutting lever.
Technique 1. Turn the fuel valve ¼turn and light. Then, turn the oxygen pre-heat valve ¼ to ½ turn and “walk up” theflame — more on this technique shortly.
Technique 2. Turn the fuel valve ¼ to½ turn and light. Place the tip on theworkpiece at a 45-deg angle, open theoxygen valve ¼ to ½ turn until the flame“snaps” into place, then walk up theflame as normal — Fig. 7. Use this if theflame goes out when using technique 1.
Technique 3. Turn both the fuel andoxygen valves ¼ to ½ turn, light the flameas soon as possible, and walk up theflame.
Walk Up the Flame
With alternative fuels, the flameneeds to be “walked up” or “forced” toprevent starving or extinguishing theflame. After lighting the torch and addingthe initial preheat oxygen, alternatelyadd more fuel and more oxygen by turn-ing the respective valves ¼ to ½ turn ata time until the fuel gas valve is com-pletely (or almost completely) open.Then, add oxygen until the flame createsa loud whistling sound and the primarycones reach their shortest point. Depress
the cutting oxygen lever; readjust the pre-heat oxygen if necessary.
Note that with propylene, adding asmall additional amount of preheat oxygen will produce a more concentratedflame with a heat pattern similar to acetylene.
Shut Down
Regardless of fuel gas used, alwaysshut down the oxygen first and the fuellast. This technique leak checks bothvalves every time the torch is shut down.A snap or a pop indicates a leaking oxy-gen valve, while a small flame at the endof the tip indicates a fuel gas leak.
To shut down the entire system, startby closing both cylinder valves. Next, re-lease the pressure inside the system byopening the oxygen valve on the torchuntil pressure decays; do the same withthe fuel gas valve. Next, release the ten-sion on the regulator by turning the knobor screws counterclockwise until theymove freely. Check the regulators to besure that they indicate zero pressure inthe system.
Always follow the proper shutdownprocedures when finished cutting, evenif it’s just for a lunch break. Never leaveoxyfuel systems pressurized while unat-tended. A leaking torch or hose couldcause a pool of gas to build up (such asinside a barrel), creating a serious hazard.
Leader, Participant Guidelines
By following these guidelines, opera-tors minimize the possibility of an acci-dent and make the environment safe forthose around them.
To support training efforts, Victor of-fers a DVD featuring a 36-min oxyfuelsafety video in English or Spanish andextensive supplemental documents —Fig. 8. These documents include check-lists for many of the best practices dis-cussed in this article, a 65-page leader’sguide on how to conduct a successfulseminar, and a participant’s guide withtraining materials and quizzes to assessknowledge retention.◆
53WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 8 — The Victor oxyfuel safety DVD includes a 36-min video and extensive train-ing materials for leaders and participants. To request a free copy, contact a VictorTechnologies district manager.
AUGUST 201254
Each day, welders rely on numer-ous types of protective gear tohelp keep them safe while per-
forming various tasks. Forming a foun-dation literally from the ground up, start-ing with the importance of footwear,must not be forgotten.
A proper pair of work boots is essen-tial not only to protect your feet and toesbut also to improve traction and stabilityon a variety of surfaces and environ-ments, plus provide comfort and durabil-ity while standing for long periods — seelead photo.
The human foot contains 26 relativelysmall bones, more than 150 ligaments,and an intricate network of muscles,nerves, and blood vessels. One small mis-
step or accident can result in varying lev-els of injury, causing time lost and com-promised well-being.
According to the most recent reportfrom the National Occupational Re-search Agenda in conjunction with theCenters for Disease Control and Preven-tion, there were 689,700 nonfatal occu-pational injuries and illnesses in the man-ufacturing sector in 2008. The leadingcauses resulting in days away from workdue to injury were contact with objectsor equipment and falls (Ref. 1).
The market is full of manufacturersintroducing new boots, proprietary tech-nologies, and the latest and greatest ad-ditions to the art of safety footwear. Un-derstanding what you need and knowing
the terminologies will help you to betterfind what is hoped will be your favoritepair of boots. After all, comfortable feetmake the work day easier and let youfocus on the real job at hand.
Know Your Needs
Understanding the various safety fea-tures in work boots is paramount to find-ing the right one for your needs. Alwaysstart with your safety manager or fore-man to determine if there are specificsafety-gear requirements for your partic-ular job or project.
The Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration enforces guidelines foroccupational foot protection based on re-
Welders should consider the manyoptions for protective toes, soles,and construction types availablewhen deciding what boots to buy
BY MARK REILLY
PuttingYour Best
FootForward
on the Job
For skilled craft trades across theboard, finding the right boots towear during your workday, espe-cially if most of that time is spentstanding, is like finding the right toolfor your job. First, evaluate yourneeds and requirements, then pro-ceed with selecting the ideal stylefor your working environment.
55WELDING JOURNAL
quirements established by the AmericanNational Standards Institute (ANSI).These guidelines help to ensure thatskilled craftsmen and laborers wear theright protection when exposed to job sitehazards including electrical, falling, slip-pery surfaces, and much more.
It is important to review requirementswith your employer and be sure to selectfootwear that meets these needs.Footwear manufacturers do a good jobof creating footwear that are ANSI com-pliant, but knowing what you need aheadof time will save time and effort.
Presented below are terminologiesand types of safety and performance fea-tures that help to keep feet safe and comfortable.
Exploring Steel,Aluminum, and Composite Safety Toes
Finding the right protective toe is, inpart, preference. There are three typesof protective toes — steel, composite,and aluminum. All three toes can beASTM rated similarly for protection. Of-tentimes, workers will select a specificsafety toe based on their working envi-ronment and needs.
Steel Toes. Steel toes are the tradi-tional choice for protective toe caps andare the heaviest and most compact. Whileyour feet are not exposed to the steel in-sert, steel toes can conduct heat morethan alternative safety options. Footwearmanufacturers today have begun devis-ing ways to improve the fit and comfortof steel toes by using protective toe-capsdesigned for the fit and size of the boot.For example, Keen Utility uses asymmet-rical safety toes in industrial footwearthat are contoured to the shape of thetoes and feet, reducing bulk and weightwithout sacrificing safety.
Aluminum Toes. Aluminum toes offeranother choice for lightweight protectionwhile still meeting ANSI/ASTM safetystandards. They are thicker than steeltoes and provide a good option for work-ers looking for the most lightweightchoice in footwear.
Composite Toes. Composite toes aretypically comprised of carbon fiber, plas-tic, or Kevlar®. They comply withANSI/ASTM safety requirements andare lighter than steel toes but are thethickest option for a safety toe and there-fore have a bulkier silhouette than theirsteel or aluminum counterparts. Com-posite toes do not transfer cold or heatand because they are nonmetallic, offer
Tips for BuyingIndustrial Work Boots
Just as you prepare for a long day on the job, shopping the right way foryour work boots takes preparation as well. Below are simple tips to remem-ber when shopping for your next pair of work boots.
• Do Your Research First. Find out what requirements you might havein your work environment and what personal needs you may have.
• Shop for Boots in the Afternoon or Early Evening. Feet tend to swellthroughout the day, especially for those on their feet. By selecting footwearwhen your feet are at their largest, your work boots will feel comfortable,even on the longest days.
• Come Prepared. Bring a typical pair of socks that you might wear tobetter understand how your boots might fit.
• Do Not Forget about Comfort. While protection is paramount, com-fort, as they say, is king. Brands today incorporate so many comfort fea-tures to partner with their performance and protection enhancements. An-timicrobial insoles, lighter, more asymmetrical steel toes, additionalpadding, and other modern comfort features all go into making a pair ofboots comfortable.
• Do Not Forget Your Homework. Yes, the job does not end when youpunch out. Aftercare for your footwear provides a longer life for your boots.Treat leather with mink oil or leather treatments to keep materials suppleand resistant to water. Also, store your boots in a clean, dry place to re-duce odors and preserve the leather.
While deciding what kind of industrial boots to wear in the workplace, keep an eyeout for key features that will help protect as well as provide comfort for your feetduring long days. As an example, pointed out here is the construction of KeenUtility’s Pittsburgh model.
a good safety option for workers passingthrough metal detectors or working in anenvironment that needs to stay metalfree.
Details on MetatarsalGuards
Work boots with metatarsal guardshelp to protect the upper foot and toeareas from heavy falling objects; how-ever, a side benefit of an external guardfor welders is added protection to theupper foot and laces that might beburned by falling hot materials.
Protection Taken tothe Next Level
There are a few products on the mar-ket today that take protection to the nextlevel in footwear.
Tough-Tec leather provides increasedabrasion resistance and is often added tothe boot’s upper to provide further pro-tection in that area as well as to the foot.
For those craftsmen working nearopen flames, Kevlar® fibers offer fire re-sistance. A few manufacturers utilizeKevlar® laces for firefighting and weld-ing wear that do not melt when heat isapplied, like nylon laces.
All About Soles
There are a number of durable mate-rials on the market creating outsoles thatare long wearing, slip resistant, and pro-tective. While certain industries may re-quire a specific material, having an un-derstanding of the options will help youmake a more informed decision.
Rubber Outsole. This catchall termrefers to the bottom of the boot; how-ever, understanding its materials andtheir functions is paramount. Rubber isa common outsole component and is typ-ically abrasion, oil, and slip resistant —important features for work in construc-tion or manufacturing settings. Vibram®is a high-performance rubber, a goodchoice for work sites with rugged ter-rains, and provides maximum traction onboth wet and dry surfaces. Manufactur-ers often have their own proprietary rub-bers, allowing their outsoles to have ad-ditional performance or safety attributes.
Thermo Polyurethane Outsole. Out-soles made from thermo polyurethaneare long-wearing and abrasion, oil, andchemical resistant. Designed to be tough,they typically resist splitting, and aremore lightweight than their rubber counterparts.
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate Midsole. Aboot’s midsole is designed to disperseweight or provide stability for the foot.An ethylene vinyl acetate midsole is afoam-like material that is lightweight,flexible, and cushions the foot with eachstep.
Reviewing VariousBoot Configurations
How a boot is constructed can be di-rectly related to weight, flexibility, andperformance. Footwear brands are con-tinually innovating construction methodsto improve durability and comfort for thewearer. Various constructions include thefollowing:
Cement Construction. Cement con-struction means the boot’s sole is ce-mented directly to the upper. This con-struction is lightweight and flexible butmay result in delamination over time. Ce-ment constructed boots cannot beresoled.
Goodyear® Welt Construction.Goodyear® welt construction providesdurability for footwear as the upper andinner sole are stitched together with aleather strip or ‘welt.’ The sole is thenstitched through the welt. This processallows boots to be resoled or repaired,extending the longevity of the footwear.
Industry Innovations. Footwear man-ufacturers are always challenging them-selves to find the next best way to createsafety footwear. You see brands innovat-ing welt construction to improve flexibil-ity, durability, and even appearance.Keen Utility recently unveiled a newwelted construction that combinesGoodyear® welt with a cemented toecap, protecting the stitching and reduc-ing delamination from repeated flexes,which is a good feature for welders andother workers constantly bending andflexing their feet on the job site.
Final Thoughts
From choosing what toe type suitsyour work needs to determining the rightconstruction model, there are many fac-tors to consider when selecting which industrial boot is best for your job requirements.◆
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AUGUST 201258
Eye safety on the job isn’t justsomething that’s good to practice.It’s necessary and important, es-
pecially when you consider this stagger-ing statistic from the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention: Each day, ap-proximately 2000 U.S. workers receivemedical treatment after suffering an eye-related injury on the job.
Such work-related injuries result inblindness for thousands every year, ac-cording to the U.S. Occupational Safetyand Health Administration (OSHA).The majority of these injuries occur be-cause the victim used improper eye pro-tection or, even worse, there was a com-plete lack of correct protective equip-ment. Case in point: According to the Bu-reau of Labor Statistics, three out of fiveworkers who do not wear eye and face
protection wind up with injuries.It’s no surprise OSHA requires em-
ployers to provide proper eye protectionto all workers who might encounter haz-ards in the workplace environment.Welders and metal fabricators are no ex-ception. It is critical that everyone work-ing in these industries wear proper per-sonal protective equipment (PPE) to en-sure his or her eyes stay safe and healthywhile on the job.
Although eye protection designed foruse in the welding industry includeseverything from welding helmets to faceshields, perhaps the simplest, but stillvital, eye protection is safety glasses. In-expensive, easy-to-use, and effective,safety glasses are the first level of pro-tection for your eyes in a welding or fab-ricating situation.
JAMY BULAN, EMILY CULL, andFRANK STUPCZY are with TheLincoln Electric Co., Cleveland,Ohio, www.lincolnelectric.com.
Safeguarding Your VisionHere’s why safety glasses are a must on the fab shop floor
BY JAMY BULAN, EMILY CULL, AND FRANK STUPCZY
Although flying particles such asmetal, slag from chipping, dirt,sparks, and debris from grindingcause nearly 70% of job-relatedeye injuries, those injuries canbe easily prevented by a goodpair of safety glasses.
59WELDING JOURNAL
No Safety Glasses? Danger Ahead!
Failing to wear safety glasses poses nu-merous risks for welders and fabricators.Flying particles — metal, slag from chip-ping, dirt, sparks, and debris from grind-ing — cause nearly 70% of job-relatedeye injuries. These small particles can flyinto an unprotected eye, causingscratches or other damage. While theseparticles are a hazard that might not al-ways be seen, they can easily be pre-vented by a good pair of safety glasses(see lead photo).
Other potential dangers in a weldingor fabricating environment include fly-ing sparks, as well as chemical splashes.Safety glasses can help to protect eyesfrom both of these dangers, though a faceshield is recommended in addition tosafety glasses if you’re working withchemicals. There is no such thing as beingtoo cautious when it comes to eye safety.
While you should always wear safetyglasses in the shop, whether you are weld-ing or doing other fabricating work, re-member one important thing: Never weldwith safety glasses alone. Always wear awelding helmet, preferably an autodark-ening one that automatically adjusts itsshade level depending on the brightnessof the welding arc. Helmets are requiredto protect your eyes from “welder’s flash”or “arc eye,” which occurs when the arcor heat rays inflame the eyeball’s cornea.
Though these dangers can be pre-vented by wearing safety glasses, it’s alsoimportant to remember that PPE, whilenecessary, should always be considered
the last line of defense while on the job-site. As a first line of defense, you shouldtry to eliminate or control the hazard asmuch as you reasonably can, through safewelding and fabricating procedures, aswell as use of the correct, up-to-dateequipment. Personal protection equip-ment should never be considered an al-ternative to correct procedure and equip-ment on the jobsite. Instead, view it asan extension of those elements — some-thing that provides added assurance andsafety.
Regulations and Testing
OSHA regulations, specifically stan-dards 1910.133 covering General Indus-try and 1926.102 covering Construction,require employers to protect their em-ployees from known eye and face hazardsthrough the provision of proper PPE.Such equipment must comply with therequirements set out in ANSI Z87.1,Practice for Occupational and Educa-tional Eye and Face Protection. This stan-dard from the American National Stan-dards Institute (ANSI) is used to certifysafety glasses for workplace applications.The most recent version of the standardwas released in 2010.
ANSI Z87.1 describes a variety of re-quired tests safety glasses must pass be-fore they are certified for use in the work-place. This includes tests for impact andcoverage, as well as protection againstsplash, dust, and optical radiation. Onesuch test is the high velocity test, whichdetermines the impact a pair of safetyglasses can withstand by shooting a metal
ball at the glasses. If the glasses shatter,they do not meet the requirements out-lined in the standard.
Safety glasses will always be markedto indicate their compliance with ANSIZ87.1, as well as their impact rating. Forinstance, glasses that can withstand ahigher level of impact will be markedZ87.1+. Such ratings can help you selectthe proper pair of glasses for your weld-ing and fabricating applications.
ANSI/AWS Z49.1:2012, Safety inWelding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, isalso an important standard for weldersand fabricators to understand, as it out-lines the operations and usage standardsfor safety in welding, cutting, and alliedprocesses, including the importance ofproper PPE and use of ANSI Z87.1 ratedPPE.
Choosing a Pair of SafetyGlasses
There are a variety of factors to con-sider when selecting a pair of safetyglasses. The first element is sizing and fit.Safety glasses should always have sideprotection (side shields or wraparoundframes), fully covering the front and sidesof the eye area. To find the best fit, tryon different styles of glasses to determinethe best size and shape for your needs. Ifyou wear prescription eyeglasses, safetyglasses are available that are made to fitover prescription lenses, such as LincolnElectric’s Cover2® safety glasses.
Comfort and weight are also impor-tant. Most wearers prefer lighter safetyglasses for a long day on the job. Suchfeatures as padding located at pressurepoints can also make a big difference inthe comfort of a pair of safety glasses.Some safety glasses have padding madeof soft rubber or elastomers on the touchpoints (nose area and the temple tips) toprovide a more comfortable and securefit than uncovered hard plastic.
If you’re working in areas where con-densation occurs, consider purchasing apair of glasses with an antifog coating.And, if you need extra help reading orviewing close work, bifocal safety glassesare available.
Fig. 1 — If you are cutting and grinding,you may need a pair of shaded safetyglasses. These glasses usually provideshade 5 infrared protection.
Shade is another important aspect ofchoosing safety glasses. Clear safetyglasses should be worn underneath awelding helmet when welding — thesafety glasses will protect the eyes fromsparks or other debris, while the shadedhelmet prevents eye damage that couldbe caused by the ultrabright arc.
In grinding and cutting situations,shaded safety glasses may be required.Typically, these safety glasses provideshade 5 infrared protection — Fig. 1.
For outdoor work, such as on a con-struction site, safety glasses are impor-
tant as well and are available in a varietyof tints. Glasses such as Lincoln Electric’sFinish Line™ outdoor safety glasses keepeyes safe from debris and other jobsitehazards while incorporating a mirroredlens that protects eyes against the bright-ness of the sun.
Goggles or safety glasses with a 360-deg foam liner often are recommendedin cutting and grinding environments, aswell as on construction sites, to com-pletely shield the eyes because these op-erations tend to create a great deal ofdust — Fig. 2. Choice of goggles or safety
glasses with a liner depends on industryregulations, as well as the individual com-pany’s jobsite safety standards.
Finally, don’t forget about style whenselecting a pair of safety glasses. Manymanufacturers now offer safety glassesthat are as fashionable as a pair of sun-glasses, making it easy to be stylish andsafe.
Caring for Your SafetyGlasses
For the best eye protection — andprotection of your investment — keepyour safety glasses in good condition. Ex-amine them regularly and purchase a newpair of safety glasses when needed.
Follow the manufacturer’s mainte-nance instructions and make sure toclean and disinfect your glasses regularly,especially if another worker has usedthem. Never wear excessively scratched,dirty, or otherwise damaged safetyglasses, as they may cause impaired vi-sion and also provide a reduced level ofprotection. Store glasses in a clean, dust-fee container to protect them from dam-age in-between uses.
Essentially, care for your safetyglasses in the same manner that youwould care for your own prescriptionlenses or sunglasses. OSHA requires eyeprotection be worn in most worksites. Be-cause safety glasses are an inexpensivepiece of PPE, it is always better to re-place them than to weld or fabricate witha damaged pair.
Safety glasses are a simple way to pro-tect the eyes, and they should be wornunder a welding helmet in every weldingand fabricating situation. While someworkers may initially dislike the feelingof wearing safety glasses, donning a pairwill eventually become second nature,just another integral part of proper PPEpractices.◆
AUGUST 201260
Fig. 2 — Safety glasses that featurea 360-deg foam liner completelyshield the eyes, which makes themuseful for operations that create a lotof dust such as cutting and grinding.
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COMINGEVENTS
GAWDA Annual Convention. Sept. 9–12. The Broadmoor, Col-orado Springs, Colo. Gases and Welding Distributors Assn.www.gawda.org.
IMTS 2012, Int’l Manufacturing Technology Show. Sept. 10–15.McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Association for ManufacturingTechnology. www.IMTS.com.
6th Int’l Quenching and Control of Distortion Conf. Sept. 10–13.Radisson Blu Aqua Hotel, Chicago, Ill. ASM International HeatTreating Society. www.asminternational.org/content/Events/qcd/.
♦15th Annual Aluminum Welding Conf. Sept. 18, 19, Seattle,Wash. Industry experts will survey the state of the art in aluminumwelding technology and practice. American Welding Society.www.aws.org/conferences.
ICALEO, 31st Int’l Congress on Applications of Lasers andElectro-Optics. Sept. 23–27. Anaheim Marriott Hotel, Anaheim,Calif. Laser Institute of America. www.icaleo.org.
8th Annual Northeast Shingo Prize Conf.: Learning to Share.Sept. 25, 26. DCU Center, Worcester, Mass. (617) 287-7630;www.neshingoprize.org.
2012 Int’l Conf. on Advances in Materials Science and Engineer-ing. Sept. 27, 28. Bangkok, Thailand. Singapore Society of Me-chanical Engineers. www.smss-sg.org/amse2012/ index.htm.
♦Sheet Metal Welding Conf. XV. Oct. 2–5, VisTaTech Center,Livonia, Mich. This is the premier conference dedicated to ad-vancing the science and technology of sheet metal welding. Spon-sored by the AWS Detroit Section. www.awsdetroit.org.
2nd Int’l Welding and Joint Technologies Congress and 19thTechnical Welding Sessions. Oct. 3–5. Civil Engineering School,Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain. Sponsored by the Span-ish Welding Assoication. www.cesol.es/jornadas2012.htm.
2nd Int’l Conf. on Mechanical Materials and Mfg. Engineering.Oct. 5, 6. Dalian, China. www.icmmme-conf.org.
TITANIUM 2012, 28th Annual Conf. and Expo. Oct. 7–10. HiltonAtlanta Hotel, Atlanta, Ga. International Titanium Association.www.titanium.org.
METALCON Int’l 2012. Oct. 9–11. Donald E. Stephens Conven-tion Center, Chicago, Ill. www.metalcon.com.
Aluminum Week 2012. Oct. 15–18. Renaissance Chicago Down-town Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Co-locating events for The AluminumAssn., Aluminum Extruders Council, and Aluminum AnodizersCouncil. www.aluminum.org.
♦AWS/GSI Conf. on U.S. and European Welding Standards:Structural, Pressure Piping, Pipelines, Railroad, NDT. Oct. 22,23, Munich, Germany. www.aws.org/conferences.
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ♦) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
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EuroBLECH 2012, 22nd Int’l Sheet Metal Working TechnologyExhibition. Oct. 23–27. Hanover Exhibition Grounds, Hanover,Germany. www.euroblech.com.
LME 2012, Lasers for Manufacturing Event. Oct. 23, 24, Renais-sance Schaumburg Convention Center Hotel, Schaumburg, Ill.Laser Institute of America. www.lia.org/lmesd.
Manufacturing with Composites. Oct. 23, 24, Charleston Con-vention Center, North Charleston, S.C. Society of ManufacturingEngineers. www.sme.org/mfgcomposites.
National FFA Convention and Expo. Oct. 24–27. Indianapolis,Ind. Future Farmers of America. www.ffa.org.
ASNT Fall Conf. Oct. 29–Nov. 2. Rosen Shingle Creek Resort, Or-lando, Fla. American Society for Nondestructive Testing.www.asnt.org/events/conferences/fc12.htm.
EXPO IAS 2012, 6th Conf. on Uses of Steel, 19th Rolling Conf.Nov. 6–8. City Center, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina. www.siderur-gia.org.ar/conf12/Home.html.
20th National Quality Education Conf. Nov. 11, 12. Hyatt Re-gency Louisville, Louisville, Ky. American Society for Quality.(800) 248-1946; www.asq.org.
♦Advanced Visual Inspection Workshop. Nov. 12. Las Vegas Con-vention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦ASME Section IX Code Clinic. Nov. 12, 13. Las Vegas Conven-tion Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.
♦Brazing Symposium. Nov. 12. Las Vegas Convention Center,Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society. www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦FABTECH. Nov. 12–14. Las Vegas Convention Center, LasVegas, Nev. This exhibition is the largest event in North Americadedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fab-ricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufac-turing technologies. American Welding Society. www.fabtech-expo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦Thermal Spray Basics Conf. Nov. 12. Las Vegas ConventionCenter, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society. www.fabtech-expo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦Underwater Welding and Cutting Conf. Nov. 12. Las Vegas Con-vention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦D1.1 Code Clinic (Spanish). Nov. 13. Las Vegas ConventionCenter, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society. www.fabtech-expo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦Friction Stir Welding and Solid-State Processes. Nov. 13. LasVegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding So-ciety. www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305)443-9353, ext. 264.
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♦Underwater Welding and Cutting Conf. Nov. 13. Las Vegas Con-vention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦RWMA Resistance Welding School. Nov. 13, 14. Las Vegas Con-vention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦D1.5 Bridge Code Clinic. Nov. 14. Las Vegas Convention Cen-ter, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society. www.fabtech-expo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦Trends in Nondestructive Testing Conf. Nov. 14. Las Vegas Con-vention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding Society.www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264.
♦Welding Stainless Steel (Avoiding Weld Defects). Nov. 14. LasVegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. American Welding So-ciety. www.fabtechexpo.com; www.aws.org/conferences; (800/305)443-9353, ext. 264.
Indian Industrial Trade Fairs. Nov. 21–24. India Expo Centre,Delhi, India. Hannover Messe/CeMAT. www.cemat-india.com.
Int’l Conf. on Advanced Material and Manufacturing Science(ICAMMS 2012). Dec. 20, 21. High-Tech Mansion BUPT, Beijing,China. www.icamms-conf.org.
♦LAM — 5th Annual Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop.Feb. 12, 13, 2013. Hilton Houston North Hotel, Houston, Tex.American Welding Society is a cooperating society in this event.AWS members receive discounted registration. www.lia.org/con-ferences/lam.
ILSC® Int’l Laser Safety Conf. March 18–21, 2013. Doubletreeby Hilton, Orlando, Fla. Laser Institute of America.www.lia.org/ilsc.
AeroDef Manufacturing Expo and Conf. March 19–21, 2013.Long Beach Convention Center, Long Beach, Calif. Society ofManufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org; (800) 733-4763.
♦ JOM-17, Int’l Conf. on Joining Materials. May 5–8, 2013. Kon-ventum Lo Skolen, Helsingør, Denmark. Institute for the Joiningof Materials (JOM) in association with the IIW. Cosponsored byAWS, TWI, Danish Welding Society, Welding Technology Insti-tute of Australia, University of Liverpool, Cranfield University,Force Technology, and ABS (Brazilian Welding Assn.). E-mailOsama Al-Erhayem at [email protected]; www.jominsti-tute.com/side6.html.
Educational OpportunitiesFirst Wall Colmonoy India-based Brazing School. Sept. 11, 12.Pune Marriott Hotel and Convention Centre, Pune, India.Contact Lucy Williams, Wall Colmonoy, Marketing Manager,Europe, [email protected],+44 (0) 1792 860251.
Hotel San Jose, San Jose, Calif. Lucas Milhaupt®, a Handy &Harman Co. (800) 558-3856. www.lucasmilhaupt.com.
Best Practices for High-Strength Steel Repairs. I-CAR coursesfor vehicle repair and steel structural technicians. www.i-car.com.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection coursesand preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Boardand Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. TheCWB Group, www.cwbgroup.org.
ASM Int’l Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, fail-ure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented inMaterials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, andDVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for “courses.”
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades andEngineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety proceduresfor automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. TheLincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, sixhours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by TheSociety for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses andSeminars. Columbus, Ohio; www.nationalboard.org; (614) 888-8320.
CWI/CWE Course and Exam. Troy, Ohio. A two-week prepara-tion and exam program. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
CWI/CWE Prep Course and Exam and NDT Inspector TrainingCourses. An AWS Accredited Testing Facility. Courses held year-round in Allentown, Pa., and at customers’ facilities. WelderTraining & Testing Institute; (800) 223-9884; [email protected];www.wtti.edu.
CWI Preparatory and Visual Weld Inspection Courses. Classespresented in Pascagoula, Miss., Houston, Tex., and Houma andSulphur, La. Real Educational Services, Inc. (800) 489-2890;[email protected].
Consumables: Care and Optimization. Free online e-courses onthe basics of plasma consumables for plasma operators, sales,and service personnel; www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
Crane and Hoist Training for Operators. Konecranes TrainingInstitute, Springfield, Ohio; www.konecranesamericas.com; (262)821-4001.
Dust Collection Seminars. Free, full-day training on industrialventilation basics and OSHA, EPA, and NFPA regulations.Presented throughout the year at numerous locations nation-wide. Camfil Farr APC, (800) 479-6801.
EPRI NDE Training Seminars. Training in visual and ultrasonicexamination and ASME Section XI. Sherryl Stogner (704) 547-6174; [email protected].
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Environmental Online Webinars. Free, online, real-time semi-nars conducted by industry experts. For topics and schedule, visitwww.augustmack.com.
Essentials of Safety Seminars. Two- and four-day courses held atlocations nationwide to address federal and California OSHAsafety regulations. American Safety Training, Inc.; (800) 896-8867; www.trainosha.com.
Fabricators and Manufacturers Assn. and Tube and Pipe Assn.Courses. (815) 399-8775; visit www.fmanet.org.
Gas Detection Made Easy Courses. Online and classroom cours-es for managing a gas monitoring program from gas detection toconfined-space safety. Industrial Scientific Corp.; (800) 338-3287; www.indsci.com.
Inspection Courses on ultrasonic, eddy current, radiography, dyepenetrant, magnetic particle, and visual at Levels 1–3. Meet SNT-TC-1A and NAS-410 requirements. TEST NDT, LLC, (714) 255-1500; www.testndt.com.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials,interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, and blogs. Visitwww.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-tions to Canadian General Standards Board or CanadianNuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical LaserSafety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, IndustrialLaser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. LaserInstitute of America; (800) 345-3737; www.laserinstitute.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI Z136.1,Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customer’s site. LaserInstitute of America; (800) 345-3737; www.laserinstitute.org.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly and onrequest, include tutorials and practical training. Presented atServo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For schedule, cost,and availability, send your request to [email protected].
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
NACE Int’l Training and Certification Courses. National Assoc.of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223; www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., andcustomers’ locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute, (800)223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers’ locations.Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiationsafety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; www.testndt.com;(714) 255-1500.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to DieCasting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), ProductDesign ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training ($19),Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North AmericanDie Casting Assn., www.diecasting.org/education/online; or call(847) 808-3161.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification toEuropean plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air Systems;www.plasticweldingtools.com.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At vari-ous locations and online. The Society for Protective Coatings;(877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org.
Robotics Operator Training. Presented by ABB University at 13locations nationwide. For course titles and locations:www.abb.us/abbuniversity; (800) 435-7365, opt. 2, opt. 4.
Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad industrialsafety course titles for $45/employee/year. Visit Web site for com-plete information and previews of several courses;www.safety99.com.
Servo-Robot Training Seminars. Two-day laser-vision seminarsheld throughout the year at Servo-Robot, Inc., near Montreal,Canada. Seminars include tutorials and hands-on practical train-ing. For seminar schedule and costs, e-mail request to [email protected].
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2-in. Pipe in the 6G Position —Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protectivecoatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coatingsinspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and manyothers. The Society for Protective Coatings; www.sspc.org.
Thermadyne® Distributor Training. Year-around training atDenton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; andChino, Calif.; (940) 381-1387; [email protected].
TIP TIG Manual and Automated Plate and Pipe WeldingWorkshops. Held the third Thursday of every month. 1901 KittyHawk Ave., Bldg. 68, Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Philadelphia,Pa.; (215) 389-7700; www.tiptigusa.com.
Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute ofWelding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized trainingservices on resistance and laser beam welding and laser marking;(626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
Vibration Training Short Courses. Presented at locations nation-wide, customer’s site, and by correspondence. VibrationInstitute; www.vibinst.org.
Welding Courses. A wide range of specialized courses presentedthroughout the year. The Lincoln Electric Co.; (216) 486-1751;www.lincolnelectric.com.
Welding Introduction for Robot Operators and Programmers.This one-week course is presented in Troy, Ohio, or at customers’locations. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology. www.weld-ing.org; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5603.
Welding Skills Training Courses. Courses include weldability offerrous and nonferrous metals, arc welding inspection, qualitycontrol, and preparation for recertification of CWIs. HobartInstitute of Welding Technology. www.welding.org; (800) 332-9448.◆
AUGUST 201268
One Whale ofa Conference
THIS ISGOING TO BE
API Storage Tank Conference & ExpoOctober 24-25, 2012 | San Diego, California | USAIn conjunction with theSafe Tank Entry Workshop | October 22-23, 2012
Scan me for more info or go to www.api.org/storagetank
Copyright 2012 – American Petroleum Institute, all rights reserved. API and the API logo are either trademarks or registeredtrademarks of API in the United States and/or other countries.
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CERTIFICATIONSCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATEBakersfield, CA Aug. 12–17 Aug. 18Charlotte, NC Aug. 12–17 Aug. 18Rochester, NY Exam only Aug. 18San Antonio, TX Aug. 12–17 Aug. 18Miami, FL Exam only Aug. 18Portland, ME Aug. 19–24 Aug. 25Minneapolis, MN Aug. 19–24 Aug. 25Salt Lake City, UT Aug. 19–24 Aug. 25Pittsburgh, PA Aug. 19–24 Aug. 25Seattle, WA Aug. 19–24 Aug. 25Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Sept. 8Houston, TX Sept. 9–14 Sept. 15St. Louis, MO Sept. 9–14 Sept. 15New Orleans, LA Sept. 9–14 Sept. 15Miami, FL Sept. 9–14 Sept. 15Anchorage, AK Exam only Sept. 22Miami, FL Exam only Oct. 18Tulsa, OK Oct. 14–19 Oct. 20Long Beach, CA Oct. 14–19 Oct. 20Newark, NJ Oct. 14–19 Oct. 20Nashville, TN Oct. 14–19 Oct. 20Portland, OR Oct. 21–26 Oct. 27Roanoke, VA Oct. 21–26 Oct. 27Detroit, MI Oct. 21–26 Oct. 27Cleveland, OH Oct. 21–26 Oct. 27Atlanta, GA Oct. 28–Nov. 2 Nov. 3Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Nov. 3Dallas, TX Oct. 28–Nov. 2 Nov. 3Sacramento, CA Oct. 28–Nov. 2 Nov. 3Spokane, WA Oct. 28–Nov. 2 Nov. 3Shreveport, LA Nov. 4–9 Nov. 10Las Vegas, NV Exam only Nov. 14Syracuse, NY Dec. 2–7 Dec. 8Houston, TX Dec. 2–7 Dec. 8Reno, NV Dec. 2–7 Dec. 8Los Angeles, CA Dec. 2–7 Dec. 8Miami, FL Dec. 2–7 Dec. 8
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATEMiami, FL Sept. 10–14 Sept. 15Norfolk, VA Oct. 15–19 Oct. 20CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9–Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWIFor current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet educationrequirements without taking the exam. The exam can be takenat any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATEOrlando, FL Aug. 20–25 No examDenver, CO Sept. 10–15 No examDallas, TX Oct. 15–20 No examNew Orleans, LA Oct. 29–Nov. 3 No examMiami, FL Nov. 26–Dec. 1 No exam
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATEChicago, IL Sept. 10–14 Sept. 15Pittsburgh, PA Oct. 15–19 Oct. 20The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or canexempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under CertifiedWelding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the CodeClinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)WEEKS OF, FOLLOWED BY LOCATION AND PHONE NUMBER
Aug. 10, Nov. 9 atABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421
Aug. 20, Dec. 3 atGenesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 22, Oct. 26 at Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Oct. 15 atOTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
On request at: MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng) and Senior CertifiedWelding Inspector (SCWI)Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified WeldingInspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.
International CWI Courses and Exams SchedulesPlease visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.
AUGUST 201270
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadlinedates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. toconfirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to registeronline, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early toavoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
AWS Certification ScheduleCertification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
WELDINGWORKBOOK
The American Welding Society formed the A2 Committee onDefinitions and Symbols to establish standard terms and defini-tions to aid in the communication of welding information. AWSA3.0M/A3.0:2010, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions In-cluding Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, ThermalCutting, and Thermal Spraying is the major product of work doneby the Subcommittee on Definitions in support of that purpose.
Table 1 shows some examples of the most commonly misusedterms and the corresponding correct terms.♦
AUGUST 201272
Datasheet 334
Excerpted from A3.0M/A3.0:2010, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering,Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying.
Do You Speak AWS?
Table 1 — Examples of Correct and Incorrect Welding Terminology
Incorrect Correct
backup (except in flash or upset welding) backingblowhole, gas pocket porositybonding brazing, soldering, weldingburn-through melt-throughburner* oxyfuel gas cutter*burning oxyfuel gas cuttingbutt weld (see Fig. 1) butt jointcoated electrode, stick electrode covered electrodedefect (unless indicating rejectability) discontinuitydiffusion bonding diffusion brazing,
diffusion weldingelectrode gap arc lengthfiller wire welding wireflame cutting oxygen cuttingfull penetration complete joint penetrationfusion line weld interfacegas cutter* oxygen cutter*hard solder brazing filler metaljoint opening root openinglack of fusion incomplete fusionlack of penetration incomplete joint penetra-tionland root facelocked-up stress residual stressmetal inert gas (MIG), CO2 welding gas metal arc welding
(GMAW)narrow gap welding narrow groove weldingoverlaying surfacingparent metal, base plate base metalpuddle weld poolroot gap root openingroot radius bevel radiusstick electrode welding shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW)soft solder soldering filler metaltungsten inert gas (TIG) gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW)welder welding machineweldor welder*
* Refers to the individual, not to equipment or machines.
(A) Butt Joint
(B) Corner Joint
(C) T-Joint
(D) Lap Joint
(E) Edge Joint
Fig. 1 — Joint types.
The AWS Board has approved a matching program for all new Named Scholarships and all donations to existing Named Scholarships. This is an excellent program to establish a scholarship in your name, your company’s name, or your District or Section’s name. Any funds donated will be matched dollar for dollar!
Since 1991, we have awarded more than $5.3 million in scholarships, and this year will award 400 students with more than $390,000. Our applicant numbers grow annually as the cost of tuition continues to climb. We have to turn away many qualified students due to the limited numbers of scholarships we have available. Help us do more. Establish your own National, District or Section Named Scholarship and we will match it dollar for dollar!
A Matching Gift Programfor EndowedScholarships
FOR A LIMITED TIME
Contact Sam Gentry in theAWS Foundation office at 305-443-9353 x331 or email to [email protected].
A
fice atWS Foundation offfAAWContact
or email to 305-443-9353 x331 in theSam GentryContact
Exceptional AWS Student Members Set Their Career Goals High
AWS Student Members Brittani Mask-ley and T. J. Duke, graduating seniors atWilliam T. McFatter Technical Center,Davie, Fla., distinguished themselves dur-ing the center’s May 22 Welding ProjectExhibition.
The judges on the assessment panelwere local business and industry profes-sionals, including Gilly Burrion, SouthFlorida Section chair; Cassie Burrell, AWSsenior associate executive director; AndrewDavis, managing director, Technical Serv-ices; and welding instructor and CWIJames Scott. The students were evaluatedon three components: oral, written, andmultimedia, important elements of McFat-ter’s graduation requirements
Rating high for originality and qualityof welding skills, Duke used his designingand shop expertise to create a rugged cageenclosure for his Jeep — Fig. 1.
Maskley employed innovative weldingand joining methods and artistic talent tocreate an ornamental tree — Fig. 2. Ear-
lier, Maskley received honorable mentionin the Vocational Technical division for theprestigious Silver Knight Awards spon-sored by The Miami Herald to recognizeher contributions of significant service toher school and the community and for herconsistently high grades.
Maskley, who has been accepted intothe engineering school at the University ofFlorida, said, “My understanding of mathand science combined with my dexterityhas led me to the conclusion that the rightmajor for me is Materials Science and En-gineering. I will feel fulfilled when I earnmy doctorate’s degree. I picture myselfworking in aerospace as a welding engineerwho can brainstorm, design, and constructany project given to me.”
Duke, who already has considerable ex-perience as a racecar driver, said his objec-tive is to pursue a professional career withNASCAR. He also plans, after college, toopen his own custom fabrication shop tocapitalize on his welding, designing, and
Fig. 2 — Brittani Maskley and welding in-structor and CWI James Scott are shown atthe William T. McFatter Technical Center.
Fig. 1 — T. J. Duke displays the Jeep cage enclosure he designed and built.
fabrication interests.The McFatter Technical Center is a
renowned institution in Broward County.This public, postsecondary, magnet highschool has achieved a National Blue Rib-bon School of Excellence award for its suc-cessful training of high school and adultstudents. It offers educational opportuni-ties in 15 occupational areas, and encour-ages its graduates to further their educa-tions and seek rewarding and profitablecareers in industry.
AWS members who wish to nominate can-didates for President, Vice President, and Di-rector-at-Large on the AWS Board of Direc-tors for the term starting Jan. 1, 2014, mayeither:
1. Send their nominations electronically byOct. 1, 2012, to Gricelda Manalich [email protected], c/o John L. Mendoza, Chair-
man, National Nominating Committee; or 2. Present their nominations in person at
the open session of the National NominatingCommittee meeting scheduled for 2:00 to3:00 P.M., Tuesday, Nov. 13, 2012, at the LasVegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev.,during FABTECH.
Nominations must be accompanied by biog-
raphical material on each candidate, includinga written statement by the candidate as to hisor her willingness and ability to serve if nomi-nated and elected, letters of support, plus a 5-× 7-in. head-and-shoulders color photograph.Note: Persons who present their nominationsat the Show must provide 20 copies of the bi-ographical materials and written statement.
Inquiry: In AWS D17.1:2010 Clause7.1.2, the requirements on visual weld in-spector have been changed from the pre-vious 2001 version and has not been de-fined clearly. What needs engineering au-thority approval, the inspection person-nel, test requirements, or training pro-gram? Also AWS B5.2 becomes manda-tory in this paragraph while it is optionalin the previous 2001 version. This willhave a huge impact on Honeywell and itssuppliers, especially if engineering au-thority approval is required, which meansHoneywell has to force its suppliers to becompliant and reapprove the visual in-spector training program for all the weld-ing suppliers.
Response: AWS D17.1/D17.1M:2010requires certified personnel to performvisual weld inspections. There are two ap-proaches available. One approach usesAWS QC1 certification. The other ap-proach employs an Engineering Author-ity-approved certification program basedupon three criteria: experience, training,and testing. AWS B5.2 is to be used to de-velop these criteria, as approved by theEngineering Authority.
As specified in Clause 1.1 Scope ofAWS D17.1/D17.1M:2010, the Engineer-ing Authority has the option to take ex-ception or make additions to any require-ment within this specification.
Ammendment NoticeAWS D17.1/D17.1M
Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace Applications
The following Amendment has beenidentified and will be incorporated intothe next reprinting of this document.AWS Standard: D17.1/D17.1M:2010Amendment #: 1Subject: Table 7.1, Acceptance Criteriain [mm], Face or Root Underfill (GrooveWelds), Individual defect-maximumdepth.
ErrataAWS D1.4/1.4M:2011
Structural Welding Code — Reinforcing Steel
The following errata have been iden-tified and will be incorporated into thenext reprinting of this document.
Page 11, Figure 3.2, Correct all in-stances of “TO” with “to.”
Page 27, Clause 6.1.2.2, Correct “AWSD12.1” reference to “AWS D1.1.”
Page 27, Clause 6.2.1.1, Correct “Table6.1” reference to “Table 6.2”.
Page 32, Table 6.1, Correct “MaximumElectrode Diametery” to “MaximumElectrode Diameter”.
Page 34, Table 6.3, Correct row threeby adding “or 6.5(D)]” and row four bydeleting “(D)” and replacing it with “(E)”as shown below.
Page 35, Table 6.4, Correct row threefor Direct Butt Joint under the Fillet Jointcolumn to “F, H, V” as shown below:
Page 35, Table 6.4, Replace “V” in rowfour of Direct Butt Joint under the FilletJoint column to “OH” as shown below:
Pages 40, 41, Table 6.5, Replace all in-stances of “L1” with “L1”.
Pages 40–42, Tables 6.5 and 6.6, Re-place all instances of “LMIN” with“Lmin”.
Page 59, Annex B, Correct cross-sectional area of bar size number 18from “258” to “2581”.
New Standard ProjectDevelopment work has begun on the
following revised standards. Affected in-dividuals are invited to contribute to thedevelopment of these standards. For in-formation, contact the staff engineerlisted with the document. Participationon AWS Technical Committees and Sub-committees is open to all persons.
A5.8M-A5.8:2011-AMD1, Specifica-tion for Filler Metals for Brazing and BrazeWelding. This specification prescribes therequirements for the classification ofbrazing filler metals for brazing and brazewelding. The chemical composition, phys-ical form, and packaging of more than 120brazing filler metals are specified. Thegroups described include Al, Co, Cu, Au,Mg, Ni, Ag, Ti, and brazing filler metalsfor vacuum service. Also provided are liq-uidus, solidus, and brazing temperatureranges, and general areas of applicationrecommended for each brazing fillermetal. Additional requirements are in-cluded for manufacture, sizes, lengths,and packaging. Stakeholders: Manufac-turers and consumers. Amendment stan-dard. Call S. Borrero, ext. 334.
Revised Standard Approved byANSI
C4.5M:2012, Uniform Designation Sys-tem for Oxyfuel Nozzles. Approved 6/5/12.
Standards for Public ReviewAWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by theAmerican National Standards Institute(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approvedby ANSI, require that all standards beopen to public review for comment dur-ing the approval process. The followingstandards are submitted for public reviewwith the expiration dates shown. A draftcopy may be obtained from R. O’Neill,[email protected], ext. 451.
B2.1-1-003:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Galvanized Steel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-WeldedCondition, with or without Backing. Reaf-firmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1-004:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel (M-1,Group 1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Back-ing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-8-005:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification(SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (ShortCircuiting Transfer Mode) of Austenitic
77WELDING JOURNAL
Stainless Steel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, withor without Backing. Reaffirmed. $25.8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-006:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Metal Arc Welding (Short Circuit-ing Transfer Mode) of Carbon Steel toAustenitic Stainless Steel (M-1 to M-8, P-8,or S-8), 18 through 10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with or without Back-ing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1-007:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of GalvanizedSteel (M-1), 18 through 10 Gauge, in theAs-Welded Condition, with or without Back-ing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1-008:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-8-009:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through10 Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, withor without Backing. Reaffirmed. $25.8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-010:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1, P-1or S-1 to M-8, P-8, or S-8), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1-011:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Galva-nized Steel (M-1), 10 through 18 Gauge, inthe As-Welded Condition, with or withoutBacking. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1-012:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1, P-1, or S-1), 18 through 10Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-8-013:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8, P-8, S-8, Group 1), 10through 18 Gauge, in the As-Welded Con-dition, with or without Backing. Reaf-
firmed. $25. 8/6/12.B2.1-1/8-014:2002 (R20XX), Standard
Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel to Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-1 toM-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 10 through 18Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition, with orwithout Backing. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-227:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄16
through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-tions. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-228:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of CarbonSteel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) toAustenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8,Group 1), 1⁄8 through 11⁄2 Inch Thick,E309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con-dition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaf-firmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-229:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding followed byShielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel(M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to AusteniticStainless Steel (M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄8through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, ER309(L) andE309(L) -15, -16, or -17, As-Welded Con-dition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaf-firmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-230:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Con-sumable Insert Root of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stain-less Steel ( M-8/P-8, Group 1), 1⁄16 through11⁄2 Inch Thick, IN309 and ER309(L), As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applica-tions. Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.1-1/8-231:2002 (R20XX), StandardWelding Procedure Specification (SWPS)for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Con-sumable Insert Root followed by ShieldedMetal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Groups 1 or 2) to Austenitic Stain-less Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 1⁄8through 11⁄2 Inch Thick, IN309, ER309, andE309-15, -16, or -17, or IN309, ER309(L),and ER309(L)-15, -16, or -17, As-WeldedCondition, Primarily Pipe Applications.Reaffirmed. $25. 8/6/12.
B2.3/B2.3M:20XX, Specification forSoldering Procedure and PerformanceQualification. Revised. $39.50. 8/6/12.
B5.2:20XX, Specification for the Train-ing, Qualification, and Company Certifica-tion of Welding Inspector Specialists andWelding Inspector Assistants. New. $25.8/6/12.
D14.9/D14.9M:20XX, Specification forthe Welding of Hydraulic Cylinders. New.$34.50. 8/13/12.
G2.3M/G2.3:20XX, Guide for the Join-ing of Solid Austenitic Stainless Steels. Re-vised. $70. 8/6/12.
ISO Draft Standard for Public ReviewISO/DIS 5826 — Resistance welding
equipment — Transformers — Generalspecifications applicable to all transformers
Copies of the above draft InternationalStandards are available for review andcomment through your national standardsbody, which in the United States is ANSI,25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl., New York, NY10036, (212) 642-4900. In the UnitedStates, if you want to participate in the de-velopment of International Standards forwelding, contact Andrew Davis, [email protected], ext. 466. Otherwise contactyour national standards body.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-ings are open to the public. To attend ameeting, contact the committee secretaryas listed below. Call (800/305) 443-9353at the extention shown. Visitwww.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.htmlto learn more about what technical com-mittees do, membership requirements,and to apply for membership online.
Aug. 1. International Standards Activ-ities Committee, Burr Ridge, Ill. ContactA. Davis, ext. 466.
Aug. 1, 2. Technical Activities Commit-tee, Burr Ridge, Ill. Contact A. Alonso,ext. 299.
Aug. 13, 14. D16 Committee on Ro-botic and Automatic Welding. Dayton,Ohio. Contact B. McGrath, ext. 311.
Sept. 19, 20. B4 Committee on Me-chanical Testing of Welds. Charleston,S.C. Contact B. McGrath, ext. 311.
American Welding Society memberswill receive a discounted fee to attend theLaser Institute of America (LIA) 5th An-nual Laser Additive Manufacturing Work-
shop to be held Feb. 12, 13, 2013, at HiltonHouston North Hotel in Houston, Tex. Thetwo societies have signed a cooperating so-ciety agreement wherein AWS is listed as
a Cooperating Society for the event andAWS members receive the LIA memberdiscount. For complete information, visitwww.lia.org/conferences/lam.
AWS Members Offered Discounted Fee for Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop
ifornia Science Center in Los Angeles.They then visited the main transfer aisleof the Vehicle Assembly Building to learnhow the twin solid-rocket boosters arestacked and mated to the external fueltank and to the orbiter prior to beingrolled out to the launch pad. Finally, thegroup toured Launch Complex 39A, oneof the two space shuttle launch pads. TheLaunch 39A complex served all of theApollo moon mission launches.
Participating were Bob Cohen, WeldComputer Corp.; Brent Williams, MillerElectric Mfg. Co.; Bryan Worley, GE Avi-ation, Elano Div.; Chad Carl, D17K chair,NASA Kennedy Space Center; Dag Lind-land, Pratt & Whitney; Dale Senatore,Wulco Inc.; Dean Sheldon, Roll FormingCorp.; Gary Coleman, The Boeing Co.;George Rolla, Advanced Weldtec, Inc.;Gregory Trepus, Boeing Commercial Air-
planes; J. T. Amin, Lockheed-MartinAeronautics Corp.; Jeff Bernath, RTI Int’lMaterials, Inc.; Jeffrey Ding, NASA; JohnPearson and John Pearson Jr., LTK En-gineering Services; Jon Carruth, Lock-heed Martin Missile & Fire Control; JoseSaenz, Ace Clearwater Enterprises; LucieJohannes, NASA Johnson Space Center;Lyle Morris; Raytheon Integrated De-fense Systems; Nathan Rindal, ExoticMetals Forming Corp.; Peter Daum, Rolls-Royce Corp.; Ralph Maust, Raytheon In-tegrated; Randal Easterwood, HoneywellInt’l; Richard Carver, ATK Launch Sys-tems; Richard Freeman, TWI; Ron Jones,Jacobs Engineering; Scott Murray, D17chair, NASA Kennedy Space Center; WenGuo, Honeywell; William Schell, D17Dchair, Boeing Research & Technology; andAlex Diaz, AWS staff secretary to the D17,D17D, D17J, and D17K committees.
AUGUST 201278
Four AWS technical committee mem-bers were cited for their years of servicecontributing to the preparation of AWSstandards and codes. Bill Brafford, BillQualls, and Jim Dolfi received 20-year
service pins, and Menachem Kimchi re-ceived his ten-year advisor member serv-ice pin. Qualls and Kimchi serve on the C1Committee on Resistance Welding. Dolfiand Brafford are members of the D8 Com-
mittee on Automotive Welding. The presentations took place during
the C1 and D8 committee meetings heldMay 15 at the offices of RoMan Engineer-ing Services in Livonia, Mich.
D17 Committees Make Memorable Visit to Space Center
Veteran C1 and D8 Committee Members Recognized for Their Service
In May, the AWS D17 committees heldtheir business meetings at NASA KennedySpace Center, Fla. Event organizer andhost Chad Carl, chair, D17K Subcommit-tee on Fusion Welding, said the commit-tee members were invited to tour the Or-biter Processing Facility #2, home of thespace shuttle Endeavour, where it is beingprepared for permanent display at the Cal-
Nominate Your Candidate for the M.I.T. Prof. Masubuchi AwardNovember 5, 2012, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2013 Prof.Koichi Masubuchi Award.
This award is presented each year toone person, 40 years old or younger, whohas made significant contributions to theadvancement of materials joining through
research and development. Nominations should include a descrip-
tion of the candidate’s experience, list ofpublications, honors, and awards, and atleast three letters of recommendationfrom fellow researchers.
This award is sponsored by the Dept.
of Ocean Engineering at MassachusettsInstitute of Technology (M.I.T.), thisaward includes a $5000 honorarium.
E-mail your nomination package toTodd A. Palmer, assistant professor, ThePennsylvania State University,[email protected].
Shown June 28 at The Lincoln Electric Co. headquarters in Cleveland, Ohio, are (from left) AWS Executive Director Ray Shook; John Stropki,chairman, president, and CEO, Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc.; George Blankenship, senior vice president and president, Lincoln Electric NorthAmerica; Christopher Mapes, COO, Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc.; and Sam Gentry, executive director, AWS Foundation, Inc. The AWSofficials recognized Lincoln’s contributions to the success of the Careers in Welding trailer exhibit.
AWS Recognizes Lincolnʼs Contributions to the Careers in Welding Mobile Exhibit
79WELDING JOURNAL
New AWS Supporters
Sustaining MembersCameron Manufacturing & Design
727 Blostein Blvd.Horseheads, NY 14845
Representative: David Bartonwww.camfab.com
Cameron Manufacturing & Design, anESOP company, is based in a 100,000-sq-ftfacility with more than 200 employees. Es-tablished in 1983 by Frank Laviola Sr., it isa leading supplier of sheet metal goods,ASME code vessels, and engineering turn-key projects.
Chouteau Fabricating13620 Old Hwy. 40
Boonville, MO 65203Representative: Chris Martin
www.chouteaufab.comChouteau Fabricating specializes in
structural steel fabrication and steel erec-tion projects. The company, a licensed con-tractor in about ten states, builds a wide va-riety of steel structures.
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc.5580 Kalar Rd.
Niagara Falls, ON L2H3L1, CanadaRepresentative: Sam Biglari
www.hcrsteel.comHodgson Custom Rolling performs a
wide variety of operations, including weld-ing, plate rolling, brake forming, stress re-lieving, saw cutting, cambering, flattening,and warehousing.
Mac Process LLC810 S. U.S. Old Hwy. 75
Sabetha, KS 66534Representative: Jeremy Kearney
www.macprocessinc.comMac Process is a primary equipment
manufacturer of pneumatic conveying andair-filtration systems. The company per-forms all engineering, designing, and build-ing as well as providing customer trainingand 24/7 support and Baghouse Services.
Supporting CompaniesAmetek
1085 Rte. 519, Eighty Four, PA 15330
Ardleigh Minerals, Inc.24100 Chagrin Blvd.
Beachwood, OH 44122
Camfil Farr-Air Pollution Control3505 S. Airport Rd.
Jonesboro, AR 72401
Caterpillar Work Tools - Waco Facility2000 Texas Central Pkwy.
Waco, TX 76712
Electron Beam Welding, LLC6940 Hermosa Cir., Buena Park, CA 90620
FECON3460 Grant Dr., Lebanon, OH 45036
Heiden, Inc.4624 Expo Dr., PO.Box 1477
Manitowoc, WI 54221
Kennametal Stellite1201 Eisenhower Dr. N.
Goshen, IN 46526
Patti Marine Enterprises, Inc.306 S. Pinewood Ln.Pensacola, FL 32507
Spraymetal, Inc.600 Hughes St., Houston, TX 77023
Technetics Group10633 W. Little York, Bldg. 3, Ste. 300
Houston, TX 77041
Affiliate CompaniesCaguas Mechanical Contractor, Inc.
Nebraska U-4, Caguas NorteCaguas, PR 00725
Gemini Mfg. & Engineering, Inc.1020 E. Vermont Ave.Anaheim, CA 92805
means for District directors to recognize in-dividuals and corporations who have con-tributed their time and effort to the affairsof their local Section and/or District.
Student Member AwardedEric Ockerhausen, advisor to the Illinois
Central College Student Chapter, District13, has selected Isira Udara Abeyagunawar-dana to receive the Student Chapter Mem-ber Award.
Abeyagunawardana currently serves as ateaching assistant. He has achieved theDean’s List the past two years and has beenawarded an AWS District scholarship. Heworked with the International Brotherhoodof Electrical Workers students to build anartistic (black-cat theme) metal park benchwith a trellis that was donated to a local char-ity, then assisted the students in building arc-proof electrical boxes as part of their classassignment.
Ordering AWS DocumentsTo order custom reprints of Welding
Journal articles in quantities of 100 ormore, or electronic posting of articles,contact Rhonda Brown, Foster PrintingServices, [email protected];(866) 879-9144, ext. 194; www.market-ingreprints.com.
Order AWS publications from WorldEngineering Xchange, www.awspubs.com;call toll-free in the United States (888)935-3464; elsewhere call (305) 826-6192;or FAX (305) 826-6195.
AUGUST 201280
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign — Final Tally 2011–2012
Shown is the final tally for the 2011–2012 Member Get a Member Campaignending May 31, 2012.
Congratulations to Eleanor Ezell for re-cruiting the most new Individual Membersand Michael Pelegrino for recruiting themost Student Members.
See page 81 of this Welding Journal fora complete list of rules and a prize list, orvisit www.aws.org/mgm. Call the AWSMembership Dept. at (800) 443-9353, ext.480, with any questions about your mem-ber-proposer status.
Winnersʼ CircleListed below are the sponsors of 20 or
more Individual Members per year sinceJune 1, 1999. The superscript denotes thenumber of years the member has earnedWinners’ Circle status if more than once.
E. Ezell, Mobile9
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7
J. Merzthal, Peru2
G. Taylor, Pascagoula2
L. Taylor, Pascagoula2
B. Chin, AuburnS. Esders, DetroitM. Haggard, Inland EmpireM. Karagoulis, DetroitS. McGill, NE TennesseeB. Mikeska, HoustonM. Pelegrino, ChicagoW. Shreve, Fox ValleyT. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona G. Woomer, Johnstown/AltoonaR. Wray, Nebraska
Presidentʼs GuildSponsored 20 or more new members
E. Ezell, Mobile — 29M. Pelegrino, Chicago — 25
Presidentʼs RoundtableSponsored 9–19 new members
R. Holdren, Columbus — 9A. Tous, Costa Rica — 9
Presidentʼs ClubSponsored 3–8 new members
J. Walker, Blackhawk — 6D. Biddle, Milwaukee — 5T. Palmer, Atlanta — 5J. Vincent, Kansas City — 4D. Wright, Kansas City — 4G. Bish, Atlanta — 3J. Blubaugh, Detroit — 3B. Flynn, Indiana — 3B. Goerg, Fox Valley — 3D. Hale, East Texas — 3J. Mehta, San Francisco — 3J. Miller, Oklahoma City — 3G. Mulee, South Carolina — 3P. Phelps, Western Carolina — 3
Presidentʼs Honor RollSponsored 2 new members
T. Baber, San Fernando ValleyT. Baldwin, AtlantaM. Boggs, Stark CentralO. Burrion, S. FloridaP. Carney, PhiladelphiaE. Carrion, PeruJ. Compton, San Fernando ValleyG. Fehrman, PhiladelphiaJ. Gordy, HoustonC. Hendzel, Fox ValleyG. Holl, LexingtonG. Jacobson, Cumberland ValleyG. Lawson, L.A./Inland EmpireJ. Lopez-Padilla, Cuautitlan IzcalliJ. Mueller, OzarkE. Panelli, Kern G. Sanford, HoustonH. Suthar, CharlotteM. Wheeler, Cleveland T. White, PittsburghC. Whitesell, Tulsa
Student Member SponsorsM. Pelegrino, Chicago — 90D. Berger, New Orleans — 55G. Bish, Atlanta — 50D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 43N. Baughman, Stark Central — 37A. Alvarez, Houston — 35T. Palmer, Atlanta — 35R. Belluzzi, New York — 34M. Box, Mobile — 34R. Hammond, Birmingham — 33D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley — 30H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 28R. Richwine, Indiana — 28A. Stute, Madison-Beloit — 25M. Anderson, Indiana — 24J. Ciaramitaro, N. Central Florida — 24S. Siviski, Maine — 24W. England, W. Michigan — 23V. Facchiano, Lehigh Valley — 23M. Boggs, Stark Central — 22G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 21B. Scherer, Cincinnati — 21D. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 21R. Huston, Olympic — 20J. Lopez-Padilla, Cuautitlan Izcalli — 20J. Theberge, Boston — 20T. Green, Central Arkansas — 19C. Daily, Puget Sound — 19J. Fox, NW Ohio — 19R. Hutchinson, Long Bch/Or. Cty. — 19S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 18R. Wahrman, Triangle — 18A. Baughman, Stark Central — 17J. Bruskotter, New Orleans — 17W. Davis, Syracuse — 17J. Dawson, Pittsburgh — 17C. Donnell, NW Ohio — 17R. Evans, Siouxland — 17R. Jones, Houston — 16S. Miner, San Francisco — 16
E. Norman, Ozark — 16J. Gable, El Paso — 15B. Wenzel, Sacramento — 15H. Browne, New Jersey — 14J. Daugherty, Louisville — 14D. Pickering, Central Arkansas — 14J. Falgout, L.A./Inland Empire — 12M. Haggard, Inland Empire — 12G. Rolla, New Jersey — 12J. Johnson, Madison-Beloit — 11T. Geisler, Pittsburgh — 10E. Ramsey, Johnstown-Altoona — 10R. Simpson, Charlotte — 10C. Kipp, Lehigh Valley — 9J. Kline, Northern New York — 9R. Ledford Jr., Birmingham — 9R. Rummel, Central Texas — 9A. Webel, Central Michigan — 9G. Smith, Lehigh Valley — 8C. Bills, Mid-Ohio Valley — 7C. Hobson, Olympic Section — 7J. McCarty, St. Louis — 7T. Moore, New Orleans — 7C. Taylor, Charlotte — 7J. Boyer, Lancaster — 6M. D’Andrea, Kern — 6S. Poe, Central Michigan — 6T. Shirk, Tidewater — 6W. Wilson, New Orleans — 6S. Colton, Arizona — 5J. Ginther, Pittsburgh — 5J. Satterland, Spokane — 5C. Schiner, Wyoming — 5J. Schmidt, Central Michigan – 5B. Amos, Mobile — 4A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. — 4J. Crocker, N. Texas — 4G. Lawson, L.A./Inland Empire — 4A. Reis, Pittsburgh — 4H. Rendon, Rio Grande Valley — 4G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona — 4J. Smith, Greater Huntsville — 4M. Spangler, J.A.K. — 4S. Delmore, Olympic — 3P. Deslatte, New Orleans — 3K. Gratton, Columbia — 3A. Holt, St. Louis — 3J. Meyer, San Francisco — 3D. Millan, Reading — 3B. Suarez, Houston — 3
Shown at the Maine Section meeting are (from left) Bob Bernier, Scott Lee, Russ Norris, Dale Gray, Chair Mike Gendron, Paul McClay,Mark Legel, incoming Chair Jim Kein, Pat Kein, John Gallagher, and Mark Merry.
Shown at the District 2 conference are from left (front row) Mike Chomin, Ken Temme, Brian Cassidy, Terry Perez, and Ken Stockton;(standing) Herb Browne, Tom Colasanto III, District 2 Director Harland Thompson,Tom Colasanto, Jesse Provler, Gus Manz, DominickColasanto, Bill Naccash, Bob Waite, Tom Gartland, and Al Fleury.
Montreal Section Chair Michel Marier (left)and Treasurer Gill Trigo are shown at theDistrict 1 conference with their appreciationplaques.
Ray Henderson (left), Green & White Moun-tains Section chair, is shown with Tom Ferri,District 1 director, at the District conference.
District 1 ConferenceMAY 5Activity: Appreciation plaques were pre-sented to Michel Marier and Gill Trigo,Montreal Section chair and treasurer, re-spectively; and to Ray Henderson for hisservices as Green & White Mountain Sec-tion chairman. The event was held at Fire-side Inn and Suites in West Lebanon, N.H.
MAINEMAY 17Activity: Outgoing Chair Mike Gendronconducted this Section business meetingheld at Run of the Mill Public House inSaco, Maine. Participating were BobBernier, Scott Lee, Russ Norris, DaleGray, Paul McClay, Mark Legel, Pat Kein,John Gallagher, Mark Merry, and incom-
District 2 ConferenceJUNE 2Activity: The conference was held atSnuffy’s Clambar, chaired by HarlandThompson, District 2 director.
LANCASTERJUNE 5Activity: The Section held an executiveboard meeting, hosted by Chair MichaelSebergandio, to review the past year’s ac-
tivities and plan for the upcoming season.John Ganoe was selected to attend the In-structors Institute, the first to be held atthe new AWS headquarters building inDoral, Fla. Also participating in this Lan-caster Section meeting were David Wat-son, Tim Siegrist, John Boyer, Mark Mal-one, and Justin Heistand.
DAYTONMARCH 13Activity: The Section hosted its annual stu-dents’ night program at Hobart Instituteof Welding Technology in Troy, Ohio.Welding consultant Jim Hannahs dis-cussed welding in NASCAR.
APRIL 17Activity: Bryan Worley, welding engineer,led the Dayton Section members on a tourof the GE Aviation Dayton-Elano facilityin Dayton, Ohio.
Central Piedmont C. C.Student ChapterMAY 17Activity: The Student Chapter memberswent on a service-learning trip to VirginiaBeach, Va. They toured Nucor Steel,Colonna’s Shipyard, and spent a day work-ing for Habitat for Humanity where theyparticipated in renovating a home for Mrs.Shirley. Participating in the day’s workwere Advisor Ray Sosko and StudentChapter members President Justin Eudy,Secretary Michelle Green, TreasurerMatthew Peacock, Larry Hoke, Mike Fel-ton, Travis Lambert, and Morgan Howell,and faculty members John McPherson andGreg Bellamy.
Shown at the Lancaster Section meeting are (from left) David Watson,Tim Siegrist, John Boyer, John Ganoe, Mark Malone, Justin Heis-tand, and Chair Michael Sebergandio.
Shown at the Central Piedmont C. C. Student Chapter activity are from left (kneeling) LarryHoke, Michelle Green, and Mike Felton; (second row) Travis Lambert, Morgan Howell,Matthew Peacock, Mrs. Shirley, and Advisor Ray Sosko; (third row) John McPherson, ColinSeverns, Greg Bellamy, and President Justin Eudy.
AWS President William Rice (right) receivesa speaker gift from Carl Smith at the Tri-State Section meeting.
Bill Jones discussed unique welding tech-niques for the Dayton Section members.
May 8Speaker: Bill Jones, welding engineer(ret.)Topic: Unique welding techniques used atthe Mound Nuclear Defense Facility in Mi-amisburg, OhioActivity: The Dayton Section held its an-nual past chairmen’s night event at AsianBuffet in Dayton, Ohio.
TRI-STATEJUNESpeaker: William Rice, AWS presidentAffiliation: OKI Bering Supply, CEOTopic: Update on national AWS eventsActivity: Chair Carl Smith presented Ricea speaker appreciation gift.
Central Alabama C.C.Student ChapterMAY 11Activity: The Student Chapter membersmet at the Sportplex in Alexander City,Ala., to man a booth and participate in theRelay for Life fund-raising event spon-sored by the American Cancer Society.
MAY 19Activity: The Central Alabama C.C. Stu-dent Chapter participated in training BoyScouts in the skills and knowledge requiredto earn the welding merit badge. The in-structors included Chapter Advisor JosephD. James and Chris Stiver from Lincoln
Electric Co. Others participating includedThomas Lovett, Robin Holt, RussellFields Jr., Jackson Graham, DakotaBlythe, Walter Whatley, Spenser Morris,Chris Harvell, Eric McDaniel, Ryan Ben-ton, Connor Hall, and Danny Whatley.
Lawson State C.C.Student ChapterJUNE 11Speaker: Ron Martucci
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.Topic: GMAW-pulse welding techniquesActivity: Following the presentation, thegroup moved to the lab where Martuccidemonstrated how to set up and operatethe Invertec 350, GMAW-P powersource. The attendees then had a chanceto make some welds using the pulse set-tings. The event was held at Plumbersand Pipe Fitters Union Local 372 inTuscaloosa, Ala.
Central Alabama C.C. Student Chapter members shown at the May 11 Relay for Life event are (from left) William Butt, Daniel Dalton,Michael Martin, Andrew Hall, Katelyn Hawkins, Winfred Fleetion, Eric McDaniel, Chris Harvell, Crystal Harvell, Robin Holt, Walter Law-ton, and Brian Tate.
Boy Scouts and members of the Central Alabama C.C. Student Chapter are shown at theMay 19 event.
Lawson State C.C. Student Chapter members are shown at the June 11 event.
MOBILEMAY 17Activity: The Section held its businessmeeting at Saucy Q BBQ in Mobile, Ala.,Brenda Amos received a plaque of appre-ciation for her services as chair. JackieMorris and Jerry Betts received DistrictDirector Awards for their outstandingservices from George Fairbanks, District9 director. Among the 34 attendees wereTim DeVargas, a welding instructor at T.L. Faulkner Vocational School and weld-ing student Jake Terry who won a weldingmachine donated by Kevin Cuevas of Vic-tor Technologies.
MAY 22, 29Activity: The Mobile Section tutored sevenTroop 28 Boy Scouts to help them earntheir welding merit badges at T. L.Faulkner Career Technical Center inPrichard, Ala. Assisting were instructorTim DeVargas, welding student AmandaCallahan, and Section members JerryBetts and David Neely.
Shown at the Mobile Section Boy Scout training session are from left (front row) Tim De-Vargas, Sammy Kelley, Clay Spaulding, Will Vaughn, and Amanda Callahan; (back row)Jerry Betts, Kyle Odle, Zack Bray, Boone Reeves,Thomas Haring, and David Neely.
Shown at the Mobile Section May event are (from left) Tim DeVargas, Jake Terry, Jerry Betts,District 9 Director George Fairbanks, Chair Brenda Amos, and Jackie Morris.
Northern Michigan Section members are shown during their tour of National VacuumEquipment.
All dressed up to work on their welding merit badges at the Northern Michigan Section sem-inar are (from left) Hayden Northrup, George Townson, Cameron Nagy, David Werner,Riley Dowling, and Jeremiah Johnson.
Boy Scout Clay Spaulding demonstrated hiswelding skills at the Mobile Section event.
Outgoing Mobile Section Chair BrendaAmos receives her appreciation certificatefrom George Fairbanks, District 9 director.
NORTHERN MICHIGANMAY 24Speaker: Ken Hall, general managerAffiliation: National Vacuum EquipmentTopic: Industrial vacuum equipmentActivity: The Section members met at Na-tional Vacuum Equipment in TraverseCity, Mich., for the talk and tour of the fa-cilities.
JUNE 11, 12, 14Activity: The Section held a three-day sem-inar to train six Troop 30 Boy Scouts inorder to earn their welding merit badges.The event was held at Maxal Internationalin Traverse City, Mich. The participantswere Hayden Northrup, George Townson,Cameron Nagy, David Werner, Riley Dowl-ing, and Jeremiah Johnson.
District 12 ConferenceMAY 25Activity: The Racine-Kenosha Sectionhosted the event at Northeast TechnicalCollege in Marinette, Wis. Participatingwere District 12 Director Dan Roland, DanCrifase, Heidi Headman, Roger Warren,Karen Gilgenbach, Tony Stute, ToddChristian, Phil Simmons, Craig Wentzel,David Ramseur, Nick Freiberg, Ken Kar-wowski, and Dale Lange. The AWS staffrepresentative was Rhenda Kenny, direc-tor, membership services.
LAKESHOREMAY 11Activity: The Section worked withLakeshore Technical College to present awelding career day. Included were demon-strations of submerged arc welding, plasmacutting, gas metal arc welding, as well asoperating a virtual reality paint booth andlearning about machine tool operations.The event attracted 126 students. Schol-
arships were presented to Cullen Higgins,Glen Huley, and Jack Ploederl by SectionTreasurer Nick Freiberg and welding in-structor Brian Strebe.
MILWAUKEEMAY 15Speaker: Dr. Pradeep Rohatgi, professorAffiliation: University of Wisconsin at Mil-waukee, Composite CenterTopic: Welding advanced lightweight metalmatrix and nanocompositesActivity: The Section awarded scholar-ships to Preston Lipsey, Donnell McCarty,Wenford Brown, Dean Robaczek, PrestonHarris, Terrell Henderson, Kyle Humer,Demetri Jackson, Anthony Stalewski, Ben-jamin Patulski, Ulysses Jones, Ben Ma-jeske, and Christine Knops.
CHICAGOMAY 21Activity: The Section dedicated a plaquein memory of Hank Sima at the College ofDuPage in Glen Ellyn, Ill. The memorialis located on the entry wall outside thewelding lab office. Officiating were ChairCraig Tichelar, James Filipek, and Bar-bara Zahrieh.
Shown at the District 12 conference are (from left) Dan Crifase, Heidi Headman, Roger Warren, Karen Gilgenbach, Rhenda Kenny, TonyStute, Todd Christian, Phil Simmons, Craig Wentzel, David Ramseur, Nick Freiberg, Ken Karwowski, Dale Lange, and Dan Roland, Dis-trict 12 director.
The Milwaukee Section scholarship recipients are (from left) Preston Lipsey, Donnell Mc-Carty, Wenford Brown, Dean Robaczek, Preston Harris, Terrell Henderson, Kyle Humer,Demetri Jackson, Anthony Stalewski, Benjamin Patulski, Ulysses Jones, Ben Majeske, andChristine Knops.
Shown at the Lakeshore Section event are (from left) instructor Brian Strebe, student GlenHuley, Treasurer Nick Freiberg, and students Cullen Higgins and Jack Ploederl.
Shown at the St. Louis Section outing are (from left) Mike Kamp, Mark Anderson, Garner Kimbrell, Don Kimbrell, Bob Palovscik, KevinCorgan, Tully Parker, Rick Suria, and Steve Fults.
Kansas Section members are shown at the May program.
Shown at the June 19 Kansas Section baseball outing are from left (standing) Jenny Siepert, Mike Gfeller, Carl Gray, Gene Hammett, Court-ney Cauble, David Damasauskas, Royce Altendorf, Bob Simon, Sandy Altendorf, Ashley Darlymple, and Nick Altendorf; (seated) WyattSwaim, Duane Gish, and Chair Diane Steadham.
Shown at the dedication of the Hank Sima memorial plaque are (from left) James Filipek,Barbara Zahrieh, and Craig Tichelar, Chicago Section chair.
ST. LOUISMAY 12Activity: The Section held its past chair-men’s appreciation outing at FairmontPark race track. The event included anAWS-sponsored race and dinner. Attend-ing the event were Mike Kamp, Mark An-derson, Garner Kimbrell, Don Kimbrell,Bob Palovscik, Kevin Corgan, TullyParker, Rick Suria, and Steve Fults.
Shown at the District 17 conference are from left (front) Peter Wenninger, Jamie Pearson, Jim Birdwell, Dennis Pekering, and Paul Stanglin;(standing) Paul Wittenbach, Richard Hoffman, Bill Drake, Jerry Knapp, Martica Ventura, Cary Reeves, District 17 Director J. Jones, BillHall, Bryan Baker, Dwight Grayson, Donnie Williams, and Candace Ortega.
Lucky door prize winners at the District 17 conference are (from left) Donnie Williams, Dwight Grayson, District 17 Director J. Jones, Mar-tica Ventura, Ryan Rummel, Peter Wenninger, Bryan Baker, and Bill Drake and family.
Mike Gfeller (left) is shown with Duane Gishand son at the Kansas Section baseball event.
Jamie Pearson (left) chats with J. Jones, Dis-trict 17 director, at the Tulsa Section event.
District 17 ConferenceJUNE 8Activity: The North Texas Section hostedthe District 17 conference in Arlington,Tex., with J. Jones, District 17 director, pre-siding. The AWS representative was Mar-
tica Ventura, director, operations, Educa-tion Services. The door prizes were cre-ated and donated by metalworking artistCasey Cordell.
CENTRAL TEXASMAY 29Activity: The Section held its election ofofficers at Buzzard Billy’s Swamp Shackin Waco, Tex. The incoming officers areJoseph Francia, chair; Danny Rejda andBryan Parson, vice chairs; Veronica Covey,secretary; and Carr Dupuy, treasurer.
TULSAAPRIL 24Speaker: J. Jones, District 17 directorAffiliation: Victor TechnologiesTopic: AWS promotion of national weld-ing monthActivity: Todd Fradd and Jan Fradd eachreceived Section Meritorious Awards.Dale York received Section and Districtawards for his outstanding performance inwelding and inspection activities. Theevent was held at Leon’s Restaurant inBroken Arrow, Okla., for 42 attendees.
KANSASMAY 12Activity: The Kansas Section held its elec-tion of officers at Air Capital Grill in Wi-chita, Kan. Elected were Greg Siepert,chair; Royce Altendorf, vice chair; MarcChilds, treasurer; and Courtney Cauble,secretary. The program was conducted byoutgoing Chair Diane Steadham.
JUNE 19Activity: The Section combined a generalbusiness meeting and a picnic dinner whileattending a Wichita Wingnuts vs. Amar-illo Sox baseball game at Lawrence Du-mont Stadium in Wichita, Kan.
The big winners at the Houston Section’s Clay Busters event are (from left) Karl Eberhart,Chad Payne, Daniel Acosta, and Terry Wells.
Shown are some of the attendees at the organizational meeting for the Brigham Young University—Idaho Student Chapter, hosted by theIdaho/Montana Section.
Houston Section scholarship winners are (from left) Aaron Bibbs, Hugo Aquino, JustinGordy, Leslie Lambert, and Samantha Pollicove.
Creighton Moore (left) is shown with RodLondon, Alaska Section chairman.
HOUSTONMAY 16Activity: Vice Chair Derek Stelly pre-sented eight scholarships totaling $8500.Major award winners were Aaron Bibbs(Ron VanArsdale Scholarship), HugoAquino (Dennis Eck Scholarship), LeslieLambert and Samantha Pollicove (RonaldS. Theiss Scholarships), and Justin Gordy,(Houston Section scholarship).
GERMANYNotice: The Germany Section will hold itsannual meeting Sept. 18 during the DVSAnnual Conference in Saarbruecken, Ger-many. E-mail Chair Christian Arens,[email protected], to receive details.
MAY 19Activity: The Houston Section hosted itsannual Clay Busters tournament. Top scor-ers were Karl Eberhart, first place; ChadPayne, second place; and Terry Wells tookthird place. Daniel Acosta won the raffle.
ALASKAMAY 23Activity: Creighton Moore, Section treas-urer, received the District 19 Director Cer-tificate Award in recognition for his serv-ices to the Society.
IDAHO/MONTANAJUNE 11Activity: The Section hosted a StudentChapter organizational meeting atBrigham Young University—Idaho inRexburg, Idaho.
Director, Human Resources Dora A. Shade.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of WeldingSenior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(319)Liaison services with other national and internationalsocieties and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICESHugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . [email protected], Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-eral issues of importance to the industry.
Corporate Director, International SalesJeff P. [email protected] . . . . . . .(233)Oversees international business activities involving cer-tification, publication, and membership.
Director, Certification ProgramsLinda [email protected] . . . . . . .(298)Oversees the development of new certification pro-grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, andAWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
Managing DirectorAndrew R. Davis.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(466)International Standards Activities, American Coun-cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Manager, Safety and HealthStephen P. Hedrick.. [email protected] . . . . .(305)Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Weldingin Sanitary Applications, Personnel and FacilitiesQualification
Senior Staff EngineerRakesh Gupta.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(301)Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International FillerMetals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Welding andCutting Processes
Staff Engineers/Standards Program ManagersEfram Abrams.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(307)Thermal Spray, Automotive Resistance Welding, Oxy-fuel Gas Welding and Cutting
Stephen Borrero... [email protected] . . . . .(334)Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals andFluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols
Alex Diaz.... [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraftand Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Brian McGrath .... [email protected] . . . . .(311)Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds,Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing,Friction Welding, Robotics Welding, High-EnergyBeam Welding
Matthew [email protected] . . . . . . .(215)Structural Welding, Machinery and Equipment
Notes: Official interpretations of AWS standards maybe obtained only by sending a request in writing to An-drew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services,[email protected].
Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-dered, however, oral opinions do not constitute offi-cial or unofficial opinions or interpretations of AWS.In addition, oral opinions are informal and shouldnot be used as a substitute for an official interpreta-tion.
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation es-tablished to provide support for the educational and scien-tific endeavors of the American Welding Society.
Promote the Foundation’s work with your financial sup-port. Call (800) 443-9353 for information.
PERSONNEL
AUGUST 201292
Wall Colmonoy Fills FourKey Posts
Wall Colmonoy, Madison Heights,Wis., has named Ed Ridge COO for its
Aerobraze Engineered Technologies divi-sion; and Ed Kanters as CFO and CindyVario as corporate human resources man-ager at its world headquarters. KevinNolan was appointed European managingdirector, based at the company’s Euro-pean headquarters in Pontardawe,Whales, succeeding Norman Allnatt whohas retired. Previously, Ridge led an inter-national engineering company servicingthe aerospace, industrial gas turbine, andautomotive markets. Kanters previouslyserved at an aerospace tooling company,and Vario directed human resources atPeerless Steel Co. Nolan previously served13 years with the Doncasters Group in theTurbine Airfoils Div. in Worcestershire,UK.
Aluminum AssociationAppoints Standards VP
The Aluminum Association, Arling-ton, Va., has named John Weritz vice pres-ident of standards and technology. Since2007, Weritz was metallurgy manager atWise Alloys. Previously, he served 25 yearswith Reynolds Metals Co.
Beckwood Press HiresStructural Engineers
Beckwood Press Co., St. Louis, Mo., aprovider of hydraulic press and automatedsystems, has hired Adam Strein and DanStortz as structural engineers. Strein andStortz are graduates of Missouri Univer-sity of Science and Technology with de-grees in mechanical engineering with cer-tifications in SolidWorks computer-aideddesign software.
Carestream Hires WesternSales Manager
Carestream, Inc., Nondestructive Test-
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ing Group, Rochester, N.Y., a supplier ofX-ray products for the nondestructive test-ing market, has hired Chris Woodard salesmanager for digital products in the south-eastern region of the United States, basedin Houston, Tex. Woodard has severalyears of experience in nondestructive test-ing and engineering consulting in the area.
American Weldquip NamesDistrict Manager
American Weldquip, Inc., Sharon Cen-ter, Ohio, a supplier of semiautomatic and
robotic torches andperipherals, has ap-pointed CharlesQuillen district salesmanager — southernregion, servicing Ten-nessee, Kentucky,southern Missouri,Mississippi, and Ala-bama. He previouslyheld positions withBOC Gases, Airgas,
Tregaskiss, and Holston Gases.
Dynamic MaterialsAnnounces COO
Dynamic Materials Corp., Boulder,Colo., a provider of explosion-welded cladmetal plates, has appointed Kevin Longeexecutive vice president and COO, newlycreated positions on the company’s execu-tive management team. Longe previouslywas vice president and general manager ofSonoco’s protective packaging division.
TRUMPF Appoints LaserTech Center Manager
TRUMPF, Inc., Farmington, Conn., hasappointed ChristofLehner general man-ager of the LaserTechnology Center inPlymouth, Mich.Lehner most recentlyserved as director ofinternational sales,western Europe, atthe TRUMPF Groupheadquarters inDitzingen, Germany.
ThyssenKrupp Names CEO
ThyssenKrupp Stainless USA, LLC,has appointed Michael Wallis CEO of thecompany in Calvert, Ala. He will also be incharge of the coordination of Inoxum’soperations in the NAFTA region. Wallissucceeds Ulrich Albrecht-Frueh, who has
returned to Europe to serve as COO ofThyssenKrupp Nirosta GmbH, in Krefeld,Germany. Wallis has 30 years of experi-ence in the stainless steel and aluminumbusiness in Europe and North America.
Taylor-Wharton NamesCentral U.S. Sales Manager
Taylor-WhartonCryogenics, LLC,Theodore, Ala., hasappointed Jerry Reidcentral U.S. regionalsales manager. Previ-ously, Reid held posi-tions at Praxair andBOC Gases, amass-ing more than 20years of experience inthe field.
General Sales ManagerNamed at Kaman
Kaman Industrial Technologies Corp.,Bloomfield, Conn., has appointed MattSchatteman general sales manager of itsCatching Fluidpower division, succeedingRich Guminski who has retired. Prior tojoining the company, Schatteman was hy-draulic and connector territory managerfor Parker in Rockford, Ill.
RMT Robotics Appoints Group Director
RMT Robotics®, Grimsby, Ont.,Canada, has appointed Bill Torrens direc-tor of its ADAM Systems Group. Prior tothis promotion, Torrens served the group asdirector of sales and marketing for 14 years.
Executive DirectorAppointed at NIMS
The National Institute for Metalwork-ing Skills (NIMS), Fairfax,Va., has ap-
pointed James A.Wall executive direc-tor. He succeedsStephen C. Mandeswho served in this po-sition since 1999.Wall, who served asdeputy director ofNIMS since 2002,previously directedthe statewide metal-working program at
The Pennsylvania State University.
CYL-TEC Adds CustomerService Engineer
CYL-TEC, Inc., Aurora, Ill., a providerof high-pressure steel, aluminum, acety-
lene, and cryogeniccylinders, has addedElliot Levine to itsExpert CustomerService Dept. Levine,with a background asa field engineer, pre-viously served as cus-tomer service man-ager at Digital WaveCorp., a supplier ofultrasonic cylinder
testing equipment.
Obituaries
John F. Hinrichs
John F. Hinrichs, 78, an AWS Fellow,died June 5 following a long illness nearMilwaukee, Wis. He received his bache-
lor’s degree in me-chanical engineeringfrom Marquette Uni-versity and master’sin metallurgical engi-neering from theUniversity of Wis-consin. He was a reg-istered ProfessionalEngineer in the stateof Wisconsin, and aCertified Manufac-turing Engineer. He
was the owner and principal consultant forThe Welding Link since 1995, offeringcounseling on the use of welding processesincluding gas metal arc welding, energybeam processes, and solid-phase joining,as well as robotics using welding and cut-ting processes in flexible manufacturing.He was the founder of the Friction StirLink, Inc., which specializes in FSW robotsoftware and friction stir spot weldingequipment for use with aluminum. He wasaffiliated with A. O. Smith for more than40 years where he served as director ofmanufacturing engineering at its Automo-tive Products Co. Earlier, he served asmanager of manufacturing technology. Inthe late 1970s, he was manager of engi-neering for the Programmed Manufactur-ing Systems division and served as an En-gineering Fellow in the A. O. Smith Cor-porate Technology Center in the early1990s. Hinrichs was granted 15 U.S. andthree foreign patents related to weldingprocesses, and received the Golden RobotAward at the Tokyo Symposium of Indus-trial Robots. He served as an AWS direc-tor-at-large (1979 to 1982), chaired theAWS Safety and Health and Technical Pa-pers Committees, and served on numer-ous AWS technical committees. He wasthe founder of the National Robotic ArcWelding Conference, and active withASME, ASM International, RIA-SME,
AUGUST 201294
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James Wall
Elliot Levine
Charles Quillen
Jerry Reid
Christof Lehner
John Hinrichs
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September 18th - 19th / Seattle, W
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For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at www.aws.org/conference or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264.
Earn PDHs toward your AWS recertification when you attend the conference.
September 18
/ Seattle, Wth - 19thSeptember 18
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aws org/confewwwwFor the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
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For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
Earn PDHs toward your
WS recertification when you attend the conference.AEarn PDHs toward your
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WS recertification when you attend the conference.
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WS recertification when you attend the conference.
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WS recertification when you attend the conference.
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Introduction
Ferritic stainless steels are gainingmore interest because they exhibit goodcorrosion resistance and lower cost com-pared to austenitic stainless steels. Low-chromium grades have fair corrosionresistance and low cost fabricability, andthey have been widely used in automotive
exhaust systems. The fact that a fully fer-ritic structure has poor low-temperaturetoughness and poor high-temperaturestrength compared to austenite led thesesteels to be considered as low-weldablesteels, and they have mostly been used forapplications that do not require welding.In recent years, there has been an in-creased use of fusion welding in such in-dustrial applications, hence the weldingmetallurgy of ferritic stainless steels hasdrawn more attention. However, in join-ing ferritic stainless steels, a grain-coars-
ening problem occurs at the weld zonesand, consequently, low toughness and duc-tility due to the absence of phase transfor-mation. The performance potential of leanalloyed chromium stainless steels has beenincreased with the tight control of compo-sition that can provide extremely low lev-els of carbon and nitrogen with theconsequent improvement in the as-weldedheat-affected zone (HAZ) properties, aswell as the reduction of chromium car-bides, which degrade corrosion perform-ance (Refs. 1–17).
In some predominantly ferritic steels, asmall amount of austenite forms at hightemperatures and may transform tomartensite on cooling. With this idea, 12%Cr transformable stainless steels, poten-tially with better weldability than eitherferritic or martensitic steels, were devel-oped with tight control of the carbon con-tent and martensite/ferrite balance toavoid the extremes of completely ferriticor martensitic structures. These structuredstainless steels with low carbon and inter-stitials have been finding increasing engi-neering applications (i.e., vs. S355 steel),depending on the improvements in weld-ability. The first generation of these fer-ritic steels is 3Cr12 stainless steel, whichwas developed in the late 1970s with a car-bon level of 0.03%. It is produced by sev-eral steel suppliers and is named in ASTMA240 as UNS S41003 and in EuropeanStandards as Material Number 1.4003.This 3Cr12 is variously described as ferriticor ferritic-martensitic 12% Cr stainlesssteel with good corrosion resistance inmany environments and provides consid-erable economic advantage over austeniticstainless steels (Refs. 1, 4, 11, 12, 18–28).Although 3Cr12 has excellent corrosionresistance in many environments, its lim-ited weldability and relatively low impacttoughness at the HAZ have restricted itsuse where nonstatic loads are concerned.
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, AUGUST 2012Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Effect of the Consumable on the Propertiesof Gas Metal Arc Welded
EN 1.4003-Type Stainless Steel
The properties of a modified 12% Cr ferritic stainless steel were evaluated when welded with three different consumables
E. TABAN ([email protected],[email protected]) and E. KALUC are withDept. of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of En-gineering, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey,and Welding Research Center, Kocaeli University.E. TABAN was a PhD student at the ResearchCenter of the Belgian Welding Institute, Ghent,Belgium at the time this study was conducted. A.DHOOGE is with Dept. of Mechanical Con-struction and Production, Faculty of Engineeringand Architecture, University of Ghent, Ghent,Belgium. E. DELEU is with Research Center ofthe Belgian Welding Institute, Ghent, Belgium.
ABSTRACTIn this study, modified 12% Cr stainless steel with very low carbon level (0.01%) to
improve the weldability and mechanical properties, still conforming to EN 1.4003 andUNS S41003 grades, was joined by gas metal arc welding. Plates 12 mm thick werewelded with ER309LSi, ER308LSi, and ER316LSi austenitic stainless steel consum-ables. Several samples extracted from the joints were subjected to mechanical testing bymeans of tensile, bend, and Charpy impact toughness tests, while tensile fractographswere examined. Toughness after the postweld heat treatment (PWHT) for 30 min at720° and 750°C was also examined. Microstructural examinations, including macro- andmicrographs, grain size analysis, hardness, and ferrite measurements, were conducted.Salt spray and blister tests for corrosion testing were applied. Considering all data ob-tained, good strength and satisfactory ductility results were determined, while mi-crostructure-property relationship was explained. It can be recommended to use 309and 316 welding wires for better corrosion resistance compared to 308 welding wires.More encouraging impact toughness properties related with finer grained microstructurewere also obtained for the welds produced by 309 and 316 wires. Postweld heat treatmentof the GMA weld with ER308LSi showed good improvement for toughness due to thetempering of the martensite at the coarse-grained heat-affected zone. Increasing heattreatment temperature from 720° to 750°C made additional improvements in toughness.
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The correct balance between ferrite- andaustenite-forming elements is very impor-tant, and this can be controlled using cer-tain relationships based on the ferrite- oraustenite-forming tendencies of alloyingelements, depending on both alloying andheat treatment conditions (Refs. 6, 19,25–36). A modified 12%Cr stainless steelwas fabricated conforming in compositionto Grade EN 1.4003 with quite low
(<0.015%) carbon levels, improving weld-ability and mechanical properties withmodern production facilities. Initial appli-cations of this steel were limited to mate-rials handling equipment in corrosiveenvironments, but the 1.4003 steel is nowused commonly in the coal and gold min-ing industries, for sugar-processing equip-ment, road and rail transport, powergeneration, and in aerospace engineering.
This 1.4003 steel is considered a link be-tween carbon steels and corrosion-resis-tant alloys since it displays both theadvantages of stainless steels for corrosionresistance and the engineering propertiesof carbon steels. For the long-term main-tenance costs, this modified low-carbon12Cr stainless steel requires less coatingrenewals, offering substantial economicand considerable environmental advan-tages. For other applications, when com-pared with higher-alloyed stainless steels,the use of this steel with improved weld-ability would be more economical (Refs.12, 16–19, 23, 25, 35–49). Modified lower-carbon 12Cr stainless steel (0.01%) is in-tended to be used for structuralapplications, so welding and weldability ofthis alloy gains more importance.
This study aims to investigate the weld-ability properties of this steel. The prop-erties of gas metal arc welded modified12% Cr ferritic stainless steel joints withvarious types of consumables (ER309LSi,ER308LSi, and ER316LSi) were investi-gated. Microstructural, mechanical, im-pact toughness, and corrosion testing werecarried out to determine the gas metal arcweldability of this steel, and the resultswere compared to evaluate the effect ofconsumable type on the properties of thewelded joints.
Material and Experimental Procedure
Material
The chemical composition and trans-verse tensile properties of the 12-mm-thick modified base metal are given inTable 1. Chemical composition data wereobtained by glow discharge optical emis-sion spectrometry (GDOES), and nitro-gen was determined by melt extraction.
Welding
Three types of gas metal arc weldedjoints (B9, B8, and B6) of modified EN1.4003 steel with various types of consum-ables were produced. Matching weldingelectrodes and 17% Cr welding wires areavailable for welding of EN 1.4003 steel.However, in applications where impact, fa-tigue, or any other form of nonstatic load-
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Fig. 1 — Photo macrographs of welded joints. A — B9; B — B8; C — B6.
Table 1 — Chemical Composition and Tensile Properties of the Base Metal
Chemical Composition (wt-%) (data from chemical analysis)(a)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni
0.01 0.32 0.97 0.033 0.003 12.2 0.52[≤ 0.030] [≤ 1.00] [≤ 1.50] [≤ 0.04] [≤ 0.015] [10.5–12.5] [0.30–1.00]N (ppm) Cu Mo Ti V Al Nb
(a) Values between square brackets are as specified in EN10088.
A
A
B
B
D
C
C
Fig. 2 — Photomicrographs of GMA weld with 309 filler metal (B9). A — BM, 200×; B — WM+HAZ,50×; C — HAZ, 200×; D — WM, 200×.
ing is anticipated, mainly austenitic weld-ing wires are recommended. Reportedweldability studies have shown thataustenitic stainless steel consumables canbe used to produce arc welds to minimizethe risk of HAZ hydrogen cracking and toensure deposition of tough weld metal toyield adequate properties required forstructural purposes (Refs. 12, 15, 18, 19,23, 35, 41–49). Weld B9 was prepared witha solid ER309LSi wire of 1-mm diameterprotected by a slightly oxidizing EN 439-M12(2) gas and by using pulsed arc. Theplate preparation consisted of a V-groovewith an opening angle of 50 deg. Fourpasses were used to complete the weld,supported by a copper backing strip. Nopreheat was applied, while the maximuminterpass temperature was 100°C. Theheat input varied from 0.41 to 1.73 kJ/mm.The same conditions were applied forGMAW with ER308LSi and ER316LSisolid wires respectively for Welds B8 andB6. The heat input in these cases changedrespectively from 0.68 to 1.90 kJ/mm andfrom 0.53 to 1.73 kJ/mm. The maximuminterpass temperatures were 115° and118°C. Welding details of the joints aregiven in Table 2.
Microstructural, Mechanical, and Corrosion Testing of the Welded Joints
For the chemical analyses of the welddeposits, longitudinal sections were pre-pared perpendicular to the plate surfaceand entirely located at the weld metal. Atleast two measurements were done byGDOES, and nitrogen was again deter-
mined by melt extraction. Welded jointswere cross-sectioned perpendicular to thewelding direction for metallographicanalyses. Specimens were prepared, pol-ished and etched with Vilella’s reagent.Photomacro and photomicrographs of theweld zones were obtained by light opticalmicroscope (LOM) with magnifications of50 and 200×.
Notch impact test samples were ex-tracted transverse to the weld with notchespositioned at the weld metal (WM) cen-ter, at the weld interface (WI), at the HAZ2 mm away from the WI (WI+2 mm).Testing was carried out at –20°, 0°, and20°C. The impact test samples were alsotested at –20°C after PWHT for 30 min re-spectively at 720° and 750°C. The ASTM
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Table 2 — Welding Details Applied for Gas Metal Arc Joining the 12-mm-Thick Base Metals
Weld Welding Type of Protection Plate Backing Welding Welding Heat Preheat Interpass Joint Position Consumable Preparation Material Parameters Speed Input Temp. Temp.
Fig. 3 — Photomicrographs of GMA weld with 308 filler metal (B8). A — WM+HAZ, 50×; B — HTHAZ,200×; C — HAZ, 200×; D — WM, 200×.
grain size numbers were measured at po-sitions sampled by notches located at WIand WI+2 to investigate for a possiblecorrelation between toughness and mi-crostructure.
Ferrite content of the weld metal wascalculated and predicted by chemicalanalysis results, then was determined byFeritscope® measurements across theweld metal. Vickers hardness measure-ments under 5-kg load were carried outover the weld cross sections in accordancewith the EN 1043-1 standard. Transverse,full-thickness, rectangular tensile testspecimens were extracted from the weldsand testing was performed with a 600-kNcapacity servo-hydraulic test machine atroom temperature. The width at the pris-matic section was 25 mm, while the excessflush of the weld metal was removed inorder not to overestimate the weld metalstrength. Cylindrical test samples, com-pletely positioned at the weld metal wereprepared in the longitudinal direction.Moreover, transverse face and root bendtest specimens with a nominal specimenwidth of 30 mm were prepared. Bending
was executed to 180 deg unless severecracking was observed before.
To assess the resistance against atmos-pheric attack, salt spray and blister corro-sion tests were executed. Salt spray testswere done on the corrosion test samples,which were coated with a two-layer pro-tection system used in the industry. Test-ing was applied in a 5% NaCl aqueoussolution with a fog volume of 24 to 28 mLper 24 h, a pH of 6.5 to 7.2, and at a tem-perature of 35°C. The samples were pro-vided with a scratch in the shape of a crossover the entire test surface across the weldmetal surface to estimate the resistance ofthe welds when the coating is accidentallydamaged prior to or during operation andalso with paraffin at the sawed and ma-chined surfaces. Samples with a dimensionof 150 × 75 mm were positioned at 60 degwith the weld horizontal. Blister tests wereexecuted on coated samples prepared sim-ilarly as those for salt spray testing. Sam-ples were exposed to real atmosphericconditions at the center of Gent/Belgiumwith their test surface oriented to directsunlight.
Results and Discussion
Chemical Analysis
Chemical composition of the weld de-posits of gas metal arc welded joints aregiven in Table 3. Data were obtained bythe experimental analysis (GDOES andmelt extraction) from the top passes of theweld metal.
More chromium and nickel were meas-ured at the weld metal of Weld B9 com-pared to the welds produced with 308 and316 filler metals. On the other hand, moreMo was determined at the B6 weld due tothe increased alloying elements of the re-lated wire.
Microstructural Analysis
A microstructural investigation wascarried out on the metallographic speci-mens from the joints. Relevant macropho-tographs obtained from each joint aregiven in Fig. 1. All welds show a reason-able weld profile.
An investigation of the weld zones wasperformed from base metal (BM) acrossthe HAZ to weld metal (WM) (Figs. 2, 3,and 4, respectively, for B9, B8, and B6joints).
The base metal used in this study isoften described as a ferritic orferritic/martensitic stainless steel since itincludes both ferrite and martensite in thebase metal structure — Fig. 1A. Unlikethe HAZ for plain carbon steels, the HAZfor 12%Cr stainless steels has two visuallydistinct zones: the high-temperature HAZ(HTHAZ) and the low-temperature HAZ(LTHAZ) — Figs. 1B, 2A, 3A. The steelis heated close to the liquidus and trans-forms completely to δ ferrite and rapidgrain growth occurs. On cooling, theHTHAZ frequently consists of coarse-grained δ ferrite with islands of marten-site at the grain boundaries. On themicrographs, martensite islands can be ob-served, and adjacent to the weld interfacesome grain coarsening at the HAZ of thestainless steel was observed — Figs. 1C,2B, 3B. When the material temperaturereached 1050°C within 1–2 s, no reversionto γ occurred, and the δ ferrite structurewas maintained at room temperature.However, material that was heated be-tween Ac1 and Ac5, and contained signif-icant fractions of γ, transformed tomartensite, resulting in a tough fine-grained structure (Refs. 19, 28). The basemetal had the tendency for grain coarsen-ing at the HAZ close to the weld interfacewhere temperature cycles occur with peaktemperatures above 1200°C if the heatinput during welding is not properly con-trolled. This is due to the transformationto ferrite in the HTHAZ of fusion welds.
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Fig. 4 — Photomicrographs of GMA weld with 316 filler metal (B6). A — WM+HAZ, 50×; B — HAZ,200×; C — LTHAZ, 200×; D — WM, 200×.
A B
C D
Table 4 — Full-Thickness Transverse Tensile Properties of the 12-mm-Thick GMA Welds
Welding Process Type of Consumable Specimen Code Rm(MPa)
ER309LSi B9TT1 484B9TT2 504
GMAW ER308LSi B8TT1 491B8TT2 492
ER316LSi B6TT1 490B6TT2 499
Impact Toughness Test Results
Curves of Charpy impact energies vs.test temperature for the 12-mm-thickGMA welded joints (B9, B8, and B6) with309, 308, and 316 consumables are givenin Fig. 5. Considering 27 J as the requiredmean toughness, it could be concludedthat all welds proved adequate for low-temperature impact toughness (achievabledown to –20°C, which is very encourag-ing). Each point in the figure representsan average value of three samples. How-ever, only the samples with weld interface(WI) notch position of B8 weld tested atlow temperatures failed. The PWHT ofthe B8 weld for 30 min at 720° and 750°Cshowed good improvement for HAZtoughness. With increasing the heat treat-ment temperature from 720° to 750°C, re-sults improved — Fig. 5. Similar Charpyimpact toughness test results were ob-tained for WM notched samples, whilesamples removed from welds notched atthe WI and WI+2 positions possessed lessimpact energy results compared to WMpositions. In general, better impact tough-ness results were obtained at the weld pro-duced with 316 welding wires for all testtemperatures. As the alloying elements in-crease in 309 and 316 filler metals, the al-loying of the weld metal improved, andmore encouraging results were obtained inB9 and B6 welds.
Grain Size Analysis
Grain coarsening in the fusion welds ofthis steel results in deterioration of me-chanical properties, in particular of tough-ness, as also observed in earlier research(Refs. 12, 41–50). Considering this, ASTM
grain size numberswere measured onthe existing macro-sections at the HAZclose to the weld in-terface to investigatefor a correlation be-tween impact tough-ness and grain sizeof the welds. It isemphasized thatfine-grained mi-crostructures havehigh ASTM grainsize numbers (i.e.,6–10), while coarse-grain microstruc-tures are identifiedby small ASTM grain size numbers (i.e.,1–3). In general, poor weld interfacetoughness corresponds with coarse grains(i.e., 1 or 2). Grain size analysis of theGMA welds of 12-mm-thick 12Cr stainlesssteel revealed there was considerable graincoarsening, in particular at the HTHAZ,with ASTM grain size numbers between 1and 3, resulting in lower toughness datacompared to those at the LTHAZ. Thegrain coarsening of the HAZ originatingfrom the B6 joint was determined to belower than the other welds (B9 and B8) —Fig. 3A. Less grain coarsening at B6 HAZprovided better toughness results at lowtemperatures compared to B9 and B8.Studies show that ferrite grain size has amarked effect on the impact properties ofthe HAZ, and ductile-to-brittle transitiontemperatures (DBTT) of 12% Cr steel in-crease with ferrite grain size (Refs. 12, 35,51). In accordance with the literature,fine-grained structures enhance toughnessproperties. Grain coarsening can be re-
stricted to microstructures with ASTMgrain size numbers of 6 or higher withmore proper control of the heat input.
Ferrite Content Results
When the chemical composition dataof the base metal obtained by GDOES(Table 1) is taken into account, approxi-mately 12.8 and 1.00 are calculated as Creqand Nieq . According to the Balmforth andLippold diagram (Ref. 3), the steel usedhere seems to consist of 80% ferrite and20% martensite. Creq of approximately24.0, 20.5, and 23.9, and Nieq of 14.7, 11.8,and 13.9 for B9, B8, and B6, respectively,are calculated from the Balmforth andLippold diagram, using all-weld-metalchemical composition data from Table 3,and the representative points are situatedin austenite + martensite + ferrite region.Martensite islands as dark areas within theferrite grains and some grain coarsening atthe HAZs of the welds can be noticed —
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Fig. 5 — Notch impact toughness of the GMA welded joints (B9, B8, and B6).
Table 5 — Cylindrical All-Weld-Metal Tensile Properties of the Welds
Welding Process Type of Consumable Specimen Code Rp Rm Elongation Reduction of Area(MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
Figs. 1C, 2B, 3B. Again using data fromTable 3 and the Schaeffler diagram (Ref.1), Creq of approximately 24.82, 21.24, and22.20, and Nieq of 14.4, 11.1, and 13.48 forB9, B8, and B6, respectively, were calcu-lated. With this diagram, between 5 and10% ferrite is expected for the weld metalsof B9, B8, and B6 joints, respectively. De-pending on the ferrite content investiga-tion by Feritscope®, weld metal ferritecontent was measured at approximatelybetween 9.5 and 12.7% for B9, while theresults changed between 8.2 and 9.9% forB8, and between 7.9 and 11.8% for B6(Fig. 7) due to the 309, 308, and 316austenitic-type stainless steel filler metalsused. The measured ferrite-% data are ingeneral compatible, but a little higher thanthose predicted using the diagram.
Hardness Test Results
Relavant hardness measurements under5-kg load over the weld cross sections of 12-mm-thick GMA welds made withER309LSi, ER308LSi, and ER316LSi weld-
ing wires were taken. A representative hard-ness distribution is given for Weld B9 in Fig.7. For each sample, HAZ measurements in-cluded two indentations 0.7 mm above andbelow the line of indentations for the leftHAZ and for locations 0.7 mm below andabove the line of indentations for the rightHAZ. Weld metal hardness of the weldsvaried between 170 and 235 HV5. Maxi-mum hardness values 275, 290, and 278HV5 were measured at the HAZs of B9,B8, and B6 joints, respectively.
Transverse Tensile Test
Transverse tensile test results are givenin Table 4. Test specimens prepared fromeach joint showed an overmatch with Rmvalues between 484 and 504 MPa. Fractureof the welds occurred at the base metal.Splitting of the base metal was observedclose to the fracture surfaces parallel withthe plate surface in accordance with theliterature and is attributed to intergranulardecohesion along ferrite-martensite grainboundaries (Refs. 13, 23).
All-Weld-Metal Tensile Test Results ofCylindrical Test Samples
Cylindrical test samples completely po-sitioned at the weld metal and extractedfrom the respective welds in longitudinaldirection were tested. The room-temper-ature tensile test results for the 12-mm-thick GMA welds made in modified 12%Cr stainless steel are given in Table 5.
Bend Test Results
None of the face and root bend sam-ples failed during 180-deg bending. Harm-less undercuts were observed.
Corrosion Properties
Uncoated and coated salt spray sam-ples, respectively, after an exposure of 350h and 1000 h are illustrated in Figs. 8 and9. As a rule of thumb, damage caused in asalt spray test after 1000 h of exposuretime may be extrapolated to about fiveyears of atmospheric attack.
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Fig. 6 — Ferrite content measurements of B9, B8, and B6 welds obtained byFeritscope®.
Fig. 8 — Uncoated salt spray test samples after 350 h. A — B9; B — B8; C — B6.
Fig. 7 — Hardness measurements on the cross sections of B9 joint.
A B C
After an exposure of 24 h, uncoatedsalt spray test samples revealed red andbrown attacks with drains from the weldmetal. Drains increased when the expo-sure time increased. After an exposuretime of 167 h, an increase of drains fromwelds was observed, with black-browndrains seen. A maximum increase was ob-served after 350 h. The test was ended forthe related duration, since increasing theexposure time did not lead to an increasein corrosion. In the uncoated conditionand after 350 h of exposure, Weld B6 re-vealed less deterioration than Welds B9and B8. Weld B8 had the highest attack atthe weld metal due to the least alloying el-ement context compared to B9 and B6weld metals. Thus, it was concluded thatWeld B6 showed improved resistance withregard to B8 and B9.
Photographs after 1000 h of salt spraycorrosion testing of coated samples are il-lustrated in Fig. 9. Short-term behavior(24 h) of coated samples heavily scratchedacross the welds, revealed small spots of
corrosion at the scratched part of thewelds. Damage systematically worsened inthe course of testing till about 140 h of ex-posure. Long-term behavior of coatedsamples revealed some corrosion at thescratch in case of all welds. The appliedcoating provided a good protection, as ingeneral only scratched regions deterio-rated. The influence of the type of con-sumable is very detectable and confirmedon the samples after the test, as Weld B6proved to be the most resistant and WeldB8 the least resistant — Fig. 8A–C andFig. 9A and B. After 1000 h, the GMAwelds on modified 12% Cr stainless steelwere found resistant enough for mild environments.
Some ranking between welds has beengiven, but this should be treated with greatcare as interpretation of such type of obser-vations is often distorted by personal bias.The purpose, therefore, is not to distinguishbetween good and bad combinations butrather between resistant and less-resistantwelds. Each data describes the changes in
observations, i.e., any worsening or new ob-servations, with regard to the former period.Taking this into account, Fig. 10A summa-rizes the damage factor due to the weldcombinations after 24 and 350 h of salt spraytesting of uncoated samples. Figure 10Brepresents the mean damage factor of shortand long time exposure after 24 and 1000 hof salt spray testing of coated samples. Mostdamage was observed at Weld B8 as ob-served in Fig. 10.
Coated samples after 3120 h of blistertesting are illustrated in Fig. 11. At eachobservation for the blister sample, air tem-peratures were noted, ranging from mini-mum about 0° to maximum 42°C, as thisparameter can have a great effect on cor-rosion response. Only Weld B8 showedsome small spots at the scratch alreadyafter 360 h, then the sample succeededpractically in preventing further damageto occur. Weld B6 was totally resistantagainst atmospheric attack over a periodof 2500 h even when damaged by a severescratch across the entire welded joint.
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Fig. 9 — Coated salt spray corrosion test samples after 1000 h. A — B9; B — B8; C — B6.
Fig. 10 — Damage factor during salt spray corrosion test. A — After 24 and 350 h for uncoated samples; B — after 24 and 1000 h for coated samples.
A
A
B
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From the blister test samples, it is con-cluded that Weld B6 made with 316LSiconsumable was again the most resistantagainst atmospheric attack over periodsthat cover both winter and summer sea-sons. In general, corrosion behavior is af-fected by the type of consumablescertainly in protected condition and artifi-cially damaged across the entire weld. Inthese cases, 316LSi filler metal improvesthe corrosion resistance of the whole sys-tem with regard to 309 or 308 filler metalsthat, due to its lower alloying, demonstratean inferior corrosion behavior.
Conclusions
The following conclusions of this re-search work concerning the GMAW of 12-mm-thick modified 12% Cr stainless steelconforming to EN 1.4003 and UNSS41003 were drawn:
Modified X2CrNi12 ferritic stainlesssteel complying with EN10088 can be fab-ricated with a low level of carbon and im-purities. In general, defect-free joining of12-mm-thick X2CrNi12 stainless steel isfeasible by GMAW. The weld metal in thepresent welds without exception was over-matched in tensile strength. The 180-degbending of the face and root bend samplesrevealed no defects except harmless smallundercuts.
Welds B6 and B9 produced with316LSi and 309LSi austenitic weldingwires, respectively, have proven that ade-quate low-temperature impact toughnessis achievable down to –20°C, which is veryencouraging. Only Weld B8 produced with
308LSi consumable failed at low tempera-tures because of insufficient mean tough-ness at the weld interface notch position.However, HTHAZ toughness at subzerotemperatures has been improved byPWHT for 30 min at 720° and 750°C,which is promising.
The major challenge of the stainlesssteel is the tendency for grain coarseningat the HTHAZ. Grain coarsening had nonegative effect on tensile and bend prop-erties, but the HTHAZ impact toughnessmay be disappointing, which depends onthe amount of grain-coarsened mi-crostructures. Microscopic investigationshave shown that if the grain coarseningcould be restricted to microstructures withASTM grain size numbers of 6 or higherwith a more controlled heat input range,welds would be much tougher. The corre-lation between microstructure and impacttoughness was defined as less substantialgrain coarsening and was determined forWeld B6, which exhibited higher tough-ness values. Considerable grain coarsen-ing was found for B8, which failed intoughness at low temperature. Hardnessat the HAZs of this steel can easily be lim-ited to 300 HV5.
Atmospheric corrosion resistance of thewelds is also very promising even when eval-uated under severe circumstances, such asartificial damage. Under pure atmosphericconditions, all welds demonstrated the pos-sibility to prevent further development ofcorrosion once initiated. Weld B8 was clas-sified as less corrosion resistant than thewelds B9 and B6 with 309 and 316 consum-ables. In particular, 316 filler metal providesthe best corrosion resistance.
Interpreting all data gathered withinthis work, the effects of the consumableare mostly observed for the toughness andcorrosion properties. Taking this into ac-count, it can be recommended to use 309and 316 austenitic consumables for gasmetal arc welding of 12-mm-thick modi-fied 12Cr stainless steel conforming to EN1.4003 grade in the areas where impact orshock is anticipated and adequate atmos-pheric corrosion is required.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledgethe help of all colleagues at the BelgianWelding Institute. In addition, the supportof IWT, ArcelorMittal Belgium, Universityof Ghent, WTCM, and Bombardier Euro-rail are very much appreciated and ac-knowledged for their contribution andtechnical support.
References
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2. Shanmugam, K., Lakshminarayanan, A.K., and Balasubramanian, V. 2009. InternationalJournal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86: 517–52.
3. Balmforth, M. C., and Lippold, J. C. 2000.Welding Journal 79(12): 339-s.
4. J. R. Davis, ed. 1994. ASM SpecialtyHandbook — Stainless Steels, ASM Interna-tional, Materials Park, Ohio.
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Gelistirilen, Yeni Turleri ve Kaynak, Edilebilir-likleri. 2007. MMO 2007/461, ISBN: 978-9944-89-438-8.
8. Akita, M., Nakajima, M., Tokaji, K., andShimizu, T. 2006. Materials and Design 27: 92–99.
9. Meadows, C., and Fritz, J. D. 2005. Weld-ing Journal 84: 25–30.
10. Gordon, W., and Van Bennekom, A.1996. Materials Science and Technology 12:126–131.
11. Woollin, P. 1994. Welding and Metal Fab-rication 62: 18–26.
12. Gooch, T. G., and Ginn, B. J. 1988. TheWelding Institute Members Report 373/ 1988 (7):30.
13. Thomas, C. R. 1983. Structure and prop-erties of a duplex ferritic-martensitic stainlesssteel. Lula, R. A., ed., Duplex Stainless Steels,Conference Proc., ASM, 649–664.
14. Cavazos, J. L. 2006. Mater Charact. 56:96.
15. Marshall, A. W., and Farrar, J. C. M. IIWDoc: IX-1975-00, IXH-494-2000.
16. Dhooge, A., and Deleu, E. 2005. 12% Crroestvast staal voor primaire constructies.BIL/NIL Lassyposium, Het Pand, Ghent, Bel-gium, Session 7.
17. Dhooge, A., and Deleu, E. 2005. Ferriticstainless steel X2CrNi12 with improved weld-ability for structural applications. Stainless SteelWorld 2005 Conference & Expo, Netherlands, p. 160.
18. Greef, M. L., and du Toit, M. 2006. Weld-ing Journal 85: 243-s to 251-s.
19. du Toit, M., van Rooyen, G. T., andSmith, D. An overview of the heat affected zonesensitization and stress corrosion cracking be-haviour of 12% chromium type 1.4003 ferriticstainless steel. IIW Doc IX-2213-06, IIW Doc.IX-H-640-06.
20. Karjalainen, P., Kyrölainen, A., Kauppi,T., and Orava, U. 1992. Mechanical propertiesand weldability of new 12Cr type stainless steelsheets. Applications of Stainless Steels, pp.225–234, Stockholm, Sweden.
21. Castner, H. R. 1977. Welding Journal 56:193-s to 199-s.
22. Irvine, K. J., Crowe, D.J., and Cantab,M. A. 1960. AIM, Pickering FB. Journal of theIron and Steel Institute, pp. 386–405.
23. Taban, E. 2007. Weldability and proper-ties of modified 12Cr ferritic stainless steel forstructural applications. PhD thesis, KocaeliUniversity.
24. NN. 2004. CLC 4003. Product Cata-logue; Arcelor Group, France.
26. Kotecki, D. J. 2005. Stainless Q&A,Welding Journal 84: 14.
27. Topic, M., Allen, C., and Tait, R. 2007.Int. J. of Fatigue 29: 49–56.
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29. Ball, A., Chauhan, Y., and Schaffer G.B. 1987. Materials Science and Technology 3:189–196.
30. Thomas, C. R., and Hoffmann, J. P.1982. Metallurgy of a 12% chromium steel. N.R. Comins and J. B. Clark, eds. Speciality Steelsand Hard Materials Conference, Pretoria, SouthAfrica, pp. 299–306.
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32. Aghion, E., and Ferreira, J. 1993. Cana-dian Metal Quar. 32: 369.
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34. Bennett, P. 1991. Materials Australia (6):15.
35. Meyer, A. M., and du Toit, M. 2001.Welding Journal 80: 275-s.
36. Moore, P. 1997. Australasian Weld J. 42: 22.37. IAF Editor. 2000. Welding and Metal
Fabrication, p. 18.38. Marini, A., and Knight D. S. 1994. Corr
and Coat SA. (3): 4.39. Maxwell, D. K. 1997. Mater Australia
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1995. Stainless Steel (9/10): 16.41. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., and
Kaluc, E. 2007. Kovove Materialy-Metallic Mate-rials 45: 67–73.
42. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2008. Science and Technology of Weld-ing and Joining 13(4): 327–334.
43. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2006. Mechanical and microstructuralproperties of welded X2CrNi12 ferritic stainlesssteel. DVS GST. Schweissen und Schneiden.Germany, (9): 74–79.
44. Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., Taban, E., andKaluc, E. 2009. Welding in the World 53(9-10):R198-R208.
45. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2008. Welding Journal 87(12): 291-s to297-s.
46. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2009. Materials and Design 30(10):4236–4242.
47. Taban, E., Dhooge, A., and Kaluc, E.2009. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 24(6): 649–656.
48. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2009. Materials and Design, 30(4):1193–1200.
49. Taban, E., Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., andKaluc, E. 2008. Welding and Cutting 7: 354–359.
50. Lakshminarayanan, A. K., and Balasub-ramanian, V. 2010. Steel Research International81(11): 1023–1033.
51. Krauss, G. 1989. Steels: Heat Treatmentand Processing Principles. ASM International,Materials Park, Ohio.
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Robotic and Automatic WeldingThe D16 Committee on Robotic and
Automatic Welding seeks general interestand educators to help revise its documents.Contact B. McGrath, bmcgrath@ aws.org;ext. 311.
Soldering; Joining Nickel AlloysThe G2C Subcommittee on Nickel Al-
loys to review B2.3/B2.3M, Specificationfor Soldering Procedures and PerformanceQualification. Contact S. Hedrick, [email protected]; ext. 305.
Local Heat Treating of Pipe WorkThe D10P Subcommittee for Local
Heat Treating of Pipe seeks members.Contact B. McGrath, [email protected];ext. 311.
Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium
seeks educators, general interest, andusers to update its documents. Contact E.Abrams, [email protected]; ext. 307.
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and CuttingC4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding
and Cutting seeks general interest and ed-ucators to help review its documents. Con-tact E. Abrams, [email protected]; ext.307.
Surfacing Industrial Mill RollsD14H Subcommittee on Surfacing and
Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls torevise AWS D14.7, Recommended Prac-tices for Surfacing and Reconditioning of In-dustrial Mill Rolls. Contact M. Rubin, [email protected], ext. 215.
Automotive WeldingThe D8 Committee on Automotive
Welding seeks members to help preparestandards on all aspects of welding in theautomotive industry. Contact E. Abrams,[email protected]; ext. 307.
Resistance Welding EquipmentThe J1 Committee on Resistance Weld-
ing Equipment seeks educators, generalinterest, and users to help develop its doc-uments on controls, installation and main-tenance, calibration and resistance weld-ing fact sheets. Contact E. Abrams,[email protected]; ext. 307.
Welding HandbookVolunteers with experience in welding
copper, lead, zinc, and titanium aresought to help update the Welding Hand-book. Contact A. O’Brien, [email protected]; ext. 303.
Opportunities to Contribute to AWS Welding Standards and Codes
NOTE: LEARN MORE ABOUT TECHNICAL COMMITTEES AND APPLY FOR MEMBERSHIP ONLINE AT WWW.AWS.ORG/TECHNICAL/JOINTECHCOMM.HTML.
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Introduction
Recent technological advances havenecessitated the development of new ma-terials as well as new methods for joiningthem. An example of such a material is themetal matrix composite (MMC), which isessentially a structure consisting of a com-bination of two or more macro compo-nents that dissolve within one another.Metal matrix composites, which both havea high elastic modulus of ceramic and highmetal ductility, are used with conventionalmetallic materials in fields such as aircraftand aerospace engineering, as well as de-fense and automotive industries. Ratiossuch as strength/weight and strength/den-sity play an important role in metal matrixcomposites, and in so doing, they addsomething novel and innovative to thescope of structural materials (Refs. 1, 2).
As the demand for these new materialsgrows, studies related to the productionand mechanical properties of compositematerials have become a focus of re-
search. Additionally, many studies aboutthe production processes and estimationproperties for this kind of material arecontinuing. Furthermore, investigationson practical applications of secondary pro-cessing technologies (such as machining,joining, plastic forging, etc.) are also re-markable. Currently, research related tojoining science and technology for themetal matrix composites (in particular,aluminum alloy matrix composites) alsobecomes one of the key-point issues fortheir potentially successful engineeringapplications.
There are still many problems withjoining metal matrix composite materials(in particular, for the ceramic-reinforcedaluminum alloy matrix composites) used
in fusion welding processes (Ref. 3).In the welding stage, existence of the
difference between the chemical potentialof the matrix and reinforcement materialshows there is no thermodynamic balancebetween the two. Under the welding con-ditions, undesirable chemical reactionsoccur between the aluminum and SiC. Theresult is an inferior-quality welded joint.
Uncontrolled solidification is anotherproblem that one may encounter in fusionwelding. This process occurs in the weld-ing pool as cooled down; that is, the rein-forcement phases such as SiC particulateswere strongly rejected by the solidificationfront and normal solidification processesof the welding pool were broken down thatconsequently led to microsegregation orinhomogeneous distribution of reinforce-ment material. As a result, there would bemany micro and macro defects in thewelded joint (Refs. 3, 4). As there are anumber of problems that may occur in theprocess of fusion welding, the frictionwelding method (a solid form weldingprocess) proves to be more effective.
Friction welding is a method that doesnot cause melting in the welded zone, andit works through applying friction-inducedheat on the surfaces of materials. The fric-tion welding process is entirely mechani-cally powered, without any aid from elec-trical or other energy sources (Refs. 5, 6).In friction welding, the surfaces that cre-ate the friction during the welding processare maintained under axial pressure,known as the friction stage (Ref. 7). Whenthe appropriate temperature is reached,the rotation movement is stopped, and theupset pressure is applied. The weldingzone is thus subjected to a type of thermo-mechanical process that prevents grainstructure deterioration (Refs. 8, 9). Fric-tion welding is a method that can be usedin materials that have different thermaland mechanical properties.
Midling and Grong (1994) were con-
Continuous Drive Friction Welding ofAl/SiC Composite and AISI 1030
After examining the joining of a SiC particulate-reinforced A356 aluminum alloyand AISI 1030 steel, the outcome shows an aluminum matrix composite
and AISI 1030 steel can be joined by friction welding
S. ÇELIK ([email protected]) and D.GÜNEŞ are with Balikesir University, Faculty ofEngineering and Architecture, Dept. of Mechani-cal Eng., Cagis Campus, Balikesir, Turkey.
ABSTRACT
In conventional welding methods, such as those used in joining ceramic-reinforcedaluminum matrix composites, a variety of problems occur. For instance, the elementused for reinforcement, which increases the viscosity in the melting stage, makes themixing of matrix and reinforcement material difficult, and this causes inferior joiningquality and makes the establishment of welding difficult. Also, chemical reactions andundesirable phases are observed because there is a difference between the chemicalpotential of the matrix and reinforcement material. In this study, joining a SiC partic-ulate-reinforced A356 aluminum alloy and AISI 1030 steel by continuous drive frictionwelding was investigated. The integrity of the joints was also investigated by optical andscanning electron microscope (SEM), and the mechanical properties of the weldedjoints were assessed using microhardness and tensile tests. The results indicate that analuminum matrix composite and AISI 1030 steel can be joined by friction welding.
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cerned with the development of an overallprocess model for the microstructure andstrength evolution during continuous-drive friction welding of AI-Mg-Si alloysand AI-SiC metal matrix composites. InPart I, the different components of themodel are outlined and analytical solu-tions presented, which provide quantita-tive information about the heat-affectedzone (HAZ) temperature distribution fora wide range of operational conditions. InPart II, the heat and material flow modelspresented in Part I are utilized for the pre-diction of the HAZ subgrain structure andstrength evolution following welding andsubsequent natural aging. The models arevalidated by comparison with experimen-tal data and are illustrated by means ofnovel mechanism maps (Refs. 10, 11).
In their study, Pan et al. (1996) investi-gated the microstructure and mechanicalproperties of dissimilar friction joints be-tween aluminum-based MMC and AISI304 stainless steel base materials. The in-terlayer formed at the dissimilar joint in-terface was comprised of a mixture ofoxide (Fe(Al,Cr)2O4 or FeO(Al,Cr)2O3)and FeAl3 intermetallic phases. The notchtensile strength of dissimilar MMC/AISI304 stainless steel joints increased whenthe rotational speed increased from 500 to1000 rev/min, and at higher rotationspeeds there was no effect on notch tensile
strength properties (Ref. 12).Zhou et al. (1997) examined the opti-
mum joining parameters for the frictionjoining of aluminum-based, MMC materi-als. The notch tensile strengths ofMMC/Alloy 6061 joints are significantlylower than MMC/MMC and Alloy6061/Alloy 6061 joints for all joining pa-rameter settings. The fatigue strengths ofMMC/MMC joints and Alloy 6061/6061joints are also poorer than the as-receivedbase materials (Ref. 13).
Uenishi et al. (2000) investigated spiraldefect formation and the factors affecting
the mechanical properties of frictionwelded aluminum Alloy 6061 T6 and6061/AI203 composite base materials. Spi-ral defects are flow-induced defectsformed when material and reinforcing
Fig. 1 — Tensile strength values of welded samples. Fig. 2 — Hardness variations on horizontal distance.
Fig. 3 — Macro picture of the sample with frictionwelding.
Fig. 4 — Optical microstructures of weld zones withdifferent parameters (50×). A — Experiment 2; B —experiment 3; C — experiment 4; D — experiment 5;E — experiment 6.
A
C D
E
B
particles transfer to and are trapped in spi-ral arm regions located near the stationaryboundary of friction welded joints. Thetensile strengths of postweld heat treatedMMC/MMC joints produced using a fric-tion pressure of 280 MPa were signifi-cantly stronger than as-received MMCbase material (Ref. 14).
In their study, Lin et al. (2002) were ableto successfully conduct friction welding be-tween two composite materials with thesame matrix but a different reinforced ma-terial. Composite materials are SiC andAl2O3 reinforced A7005 aluminum alloy.For composite materials, the following wereused: size 6 and 15 μm, SiC particulate vol-ume percentage of 10%, and 15 μm Al2O3ceramic particulate of the same volume per-centage. Consequently, the use of a SiC par-ticulate led to a concentration of reinforce-ment particulate in the HAZ. This results inan increase in hardening values in the plas-tic region, weakening welding strength, andnarrowing HAZ (Ref. 15).
Lee et al. (2004) were able to achievefriction welding between a TiA1 alloy andAISI 4140 for a friction time of 30–50 s,
upset pressure varying in a range of 300–460MPa, and upset time of 5 s at a rotatingspeed of 2000 rev/min. On the AISI 4140side, they observed that the hardness valuesincreased to the range of 600–900 HV, andno change in the TiA1 hardness value. How-ever, the tensile strength value was deter-mined to be as low as 120 MPa (Ref. 16).
Reddy et al. (2008) were able to success-fully weld AA6061 and AISI 304 austeniticstainless steel by means of the continuousrotating friction welding method. Directwelding of this combination resulted in brit-tle joints due to the formation of Fe2Al5. Toalleviate this problem, welding was carriedout by incorporating Cu, Ni, and Ag as a dif-fusion barrier interlayer. The interlayer wasincorporated by electroplating. Welds witha Cu and Ni interlayer were also brittle dueto the presence of CuAl2 and NiAl3. Agacted as an effective diffusion barrier for Feavoiding the formation of Fe2Al5. There-fore, welds with an Ag interlayer werestronger and ductile (Ref. 17).
In the study by Fauzi et al. (2010), the ex-amination of the interface withceramic/metal alloy friction welded compo-
nents is essential for understanding thequality of bonding between two dissimilarmaterials. Optical and electron microscopyas well as four-point bending strength andmicrohardness measurements were takento evaluate the quality of bonding aluminaand 6061 aluminum alloy joints produced byfriction welding (Ref. 18).
In this study, the joining capability ofSiCp-reinforced A356 aluminum matrixcomposite and AISI 1030 steel was stud-ied by continuous-drive friction welding.Therefore, after welding of samples, ten-sile and hardness experiments were car-ried out. For metallographic investiga-tions, optical microscope and SEM havebeen used. Energy-dispersive spec-troscopy (EDS) analysis was carried outfor chemical composition investigationson welding and HAZs.
Experimental Procedure
In this study, SiCp-reinforced A356aluminum matrix composite and AISI1030 steel were used. A SiC particulate-re-inforced A316 aluminum matrix compos-ite was prepared using the vortex method.In the Al/SiC composite material, somereactions take place between the matrixand reinforcement material during cast-ing. The Al4C3, which formed as a resultof these reactions, renders the weldingvery brittle. Very high heat input makesAl4C3 even more pronounced. The com-pound takes form at a temperature be-tween 700° and 1400°C (Refs. 1, 19). Toprevent brittleness of the composite mate-rial caused by the Al4C3 compound, thevortex method that does not require veryhigh heat input is used. The casting wascarried out using the stir casting method at700°C.
The chemical composition of the A356aluminum alloy is presented in Table 1. Itshould be noted that the SiC particulate
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Table 1 — Chemical Composition of the A356 Material (wt-%)
Al Fe Si Ti Mn Zn Cu Mg Ni Cr92.28 0.12 7 0.2 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.28 0 0
Table 2 — Chemical Composition of the AISI 1030 Steel (wt-%)
C Ni Cr Si Mn P Cu Mo Nb Fe0.297 0.100 0.082 0.143 0.636 0.011 0.167 0.011 <0.002 98.511
Table 3 — Mechanical Properties of the Base Materials
Fig. 5 — Optical microstructures of the weld zone and HAZ of the experiment 3 (200×). A — HAZ (sideof MMC); B — weld zone; C — HAZ (side of AISI 1030).
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volume percentage of 6% in 44 μm di-mensions were used in the study. Lookingto the related literature (Ref. 20) and theresults of a number of preliminary cast-ings, it was assumed that 6% SiC would bethe appropriate particulate ratio to use.The chemical composition of AISI 1030steel is shown in Table 2. Mechanical prop-erties of this steel are presented in Table 3.The samples were processed at ∅20 × 80mm dimensions for friction welding.
The study was conducted using a con-tinuous-drive friction welding machine at3000 rev/min at the Engineering and Ar-chitecture Faculty of Balikesir University.Surfaces of the joining parts were ground,cleaned, and then fixed to the machine.The welding parameters, which were de-termined after consulting the relevant lit-erature (Refs. 15, 20, 21) and preliminaryexperiments, are shown in Table 4.
Tensile properties of the welded sam-ples were prepared according to the EN895 standard by leaving the welding zonein the center. When running tensile tests,4-mm/min tensile rates were used. Hard-ness tests were carried out in the cross-sec-
tion interface of the Al/SiC composite andAISI 1030 steel friction welded joints. Themicrohardness values were measured onboth sides of the welded specimens withthe Vickers method using a 50-g load.
The microstructural features of thefriction welded joints are investigated byusing optical and scanning electron micro-scopes. The samples were ground by usingSiC sandpapers and polished with a 0.3-μm Al2O3 powder, then AISI 1030 andMMC sides were etched by using differentsolutions. The AISI 1030 was etched for 4s by using 4% nital, while the %6 Al/SiCp
material was etched for 2 min using aKeller reagent (2.5 mL HNO3, 1.5 mLHCI, 1 mL HF, and 95 mL distilled water).
Results and Discussion
Tensile Test Results
Friction welding experiments were con-ducted using the aforementioned weldingparameters. In the tensile test samples,fractures occurred on the side of the MMCmaterial in the HAZ. The occurrence offractures in the MMC zone was apparently
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Table 4 — The Process Parameters Used in the Friction Welding Experiments
Experiment Friction Pressure Friction Time Upset Pressure Upset TimeNo. (Pf) (MPa) (tf) (s) (Pu) (MPa) (tu) (s)
Fig. 6 — The points where SEM images were taken. Fig. 7 — SEM image of point A.
Fig. 8 — SEM image of point B. Fig. 9 — SEM image of point C.
caused by a deficiency of connection, whichis a reduced microjoining interface be-tween SiCp and A356 aluminum. On theother hand, the reason that a fracture tookplace in the welding zone could be attrib-uted to the presence of intermetallic phasessuch as Fe2Al5 and FeAl3, which resultedfrom the diffusion of materials. This wascaused by mechanical locking of the MMCand AISI 1030 materials, but it could alsobe the impact of SiCp, which prevented dif-fusion of the materials, the fact that Al andFe promote the intermetallic phases (Refs.12, 17, 22, 23).
The tensile test results of the friction-welded joints are given in Fig. 1 in a barchart format. According to the results ofthe tensile tests, the tensile strength of thesample from experiment 3 (99.05 MPa) is33.7% less than the tensile strength ofMMC (1349.57 MPa), while the tensilestrength of the sample used in experiment4 (53.99 MPa) is 63.9% less than the ten-sile strength of MMC. In general, the ten-sile strength of materials used in frictionwelding must be close to that of the mate-rial with the lowest tensile strength. In thetests, the tensile strength of the weldedzone was determined even lower than thatof MMC material, which has the loweststrength. This can be explained that thelack of strong interface connectionstrength between the reinforcement mate-rial and matrix material, and acting of SiCpas a gap in the welding zone reduces thewelding strength.
It can be concluded that the frictionwelding parameters are effective on jointstrength. With a long friction time, zones ofdiffusion containing brittle intermetalliccomponents were formed. A connectioncould not be established with a short periodof friction time and low friction rate withupset pressure. To obtain high strength, thefriction time must be as short as possible,while friction and upset pressure levels re-main high. In short periods of friction time,a very small diffusion area forms, and this
zone is removed from thejoining interface bymeans of pressure duringthe welding process inwhich upset pressure isexerted. The resultsmatched the data in pre-
viously conducted studies (Refs. 21, 23).
Microhardness Test Results
When looking at the hardness graph inFig. 2, it is clear that hardness values changewhen moving away from the welding zoneand toward the main materials. This changecontinues until the hardness values of themain materials are reached. On the MMCside, where particle fracture occurred, theincrease in hardness values begins as a moreparticulate concentrate in the unit area, andit reaches its maximum level on the steelside of the weld zone. Five of the test sam-ples with high tensile strength were exam-ined for microhardness, and the results areprovided in Fig. 2.
In experiments 2, 3, and 5, high pres-sure and a long period of friction led to anincrease in intermetallic phases with re-sulting deformation. This created an ex-pansion of the weld zone. It is observedthat deformation hardening, intermetallicphases originating from iron, aluminum,and fracturing of SiC increased the hard-ness in the region that deformed and nearto the weld zone (Ref. 24). It is possiblethat there were particle transitions in theviscose structure of these samples due tothe upset and heat. It should also be notedthat a part of Fe passes to the side of MMCduring welding, while Al and Si pass to theside of AISI 1030 and accumulate in theweld zone, causing an increase in hard-ness. These transitions were determinedby an EDS analysis, which is explained ina subsequent section. Due to the fact thatthe friction time of test samples was lessthan 10 s, the occurrence of higher hard-ness values, which could cause weakerwelding strength, was prevented.
In experiments 4 and 6, it was ob-served that the friction and upset pres-sures were low while the weld zone be-tween MMC and AISI 1030 materials wasnarrower than it ought to be. Because ofthis, diffusion between the materials
could not be achieved. This was due tothe fact that the friction pressure andtime were not sufficient for the materialsto diffuse, and the joint between the twomaterials was very slight. The highesthardness values of the weld zone weremeasured at the sample of experiment 3,while the sample from experiment 4showed the lowest microhardness values.It was observed that friction time andpressure values have a direct effect onmicrohardness values.
Macro- and Microstructure Results
The structural changes taking placewhen welding two different materials can beclassified into three different areas. Thefirst of these shows the partially deformedsection of MMC, while the second showsthe fully deformed section in the weld cen-ter, and the third shows the partially de-formed zone of AISI 1030 — Fig. 3.
In examining the microstructure, it wasobserved that there were changes in theparticle structure of the MMC material,whereas not much change took place inthe AISI 1030 material. The reason nochange occurred on the AISI 1030 sidewas the low friction pressure and time.
In general, due to the effects of frictionand upset pressure, fracture in the SiC par-ticulate was observed in the MMC materialwhen approaching the weld zone. This phe-nomenon led to deposits of SiC in the weldzone. Uenishi et al. (Ref. 14) reported thatreinforcing Al2O3 particles in the MMCbase material are fractured in the zone closeto the weld interface. After samples wereexamined under an optical microscope, itbecame easier to explain why the hardnessvalues in the weld zone increased at higherpressure and time. Moreover, the occur-rence of Al-Fe intermetallic phases is ex-pected as a result of heat generated by thefriction as well as upset pressure. In the lit-erature (Refs. 12, 17, 22, 23), it has beenclaimed that intermetallic phases betweenAl and Fe such as Fe2Al5 and FeAl3 can takeplace after the diffusion of the materialsunder high pressure if a sufficient amountof heat (at higher than 400°C) is provided.The subject material’s intermetallic phasesadversely affect the weld strength becausethey form a brittle structure. To prevent this,
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Fig. 11 — Linear EDS analysis results of the weld zone.
Fig. 10 — EDS analysis line and points on experiment 3.
there must be high friction and upset pres-sure, as well as sufficient friction time men-tioned before.
Figure 4 depicts the microstructure im-ages of samples in five different experi-mental conditions. In examining samples 4and 6, it can be observed that the weldingis like a line, and the zone of transitionwhere the materials diffuse into eachother is not revealed. In visual and micro-scopic examinations of the samples, it wasobserved that flange and weld zones werenot formed. It was also observed that thematerials were connected only by meansof mechanical locking, and there was nodiffusion between the materials due to thefact that the necessary friction tempera-ture could not be achieved with the insuf-ficient friction pressure and time.
The joining quality of the samples fromexperiments 2, 3, and 5 was very good, es-pecially as the width of the weld zone caneasily be seen. It can further be seen fromMMC that the materials are sufficiently dif-fused to ensure joining. The diffusion be-tween the materials as well as the formationof the weld zone was adequately achieveddue to the high pressure and sufficient fric-tion. Detailed microstructural images be-long to the zones 1, 2, and 3 depicted in Fig.3 are shown respectively in Fig. 5A–C.
In the friction welding process, circularvelocity is zero at the center. As the diam-eter and distance from the center in-creases, this velocity increases. In connec-tion with this, friction and temperaturerise. Moreover, the width of the HAZ getslarger (Refs. 24–26). These changes wereinvestigated throughout the welded areaat various recorded distances from thewelding center. Deeply assessed points ofA, B, and C in the welded joint are de-picted in Fig. 6, and SEM images of thesepoints taken from the welded joint zoneare shown in Figs. 7–9. Following the SEMinvestigation, a linear EDS analysis ofzone C was carried out. In Fig. 10, the linesand points used in the EDS analysis are re-vealed, and Fig. 11 depicts the results. In
Table 5, values ob-tained from pointanalysis can be seen.
Examining the SEMimages and EDS re-sults, the distributionof Al, SiCp, and Fe can
be seen in the weld zone. In the weld zone,it can be observed that the Fe element ismore diffused on the side of the MMCwhile Al and SiCp were not very diffusedon the AISI 1030 side. On the side ofMMC, as the weld zone is approached, thesize of the SiC particulate became smaller;in other words, they were broken. As waspreviously explained, microhardness val-ues in the weld zone increase as theamount of particulate in each unit zone in-creases, which in itself is caused by thefracture of SiC particulate that accumu-lated in the weld zone. In the SEM images,SiCp clustering in the weld zone was notobserved. This supports the results thatthe weld strength in this sample is high.
When examining the fracture surfacesmore closely, we can see smooth andbright surfaces that mean it is a brittle frac-ture. In Fig. 12, it can be observed thatthere were many indentations on the sur-face in the form of white braids that re-sulted from the tensile force that was ap-plied. Also, there were large dents withductile fractures prevalent in these sec-tions of the material.
To be able to understand the Fe, SiCp,and Al status on the fracture surface, a lin-ear EDS analysis was taken on the AISI1030 — Fig. 12. The results of the linearanalysis are shown in Fig. 13. The fact thatSiC, Al, and Fe materials are on the samesurface and also that there are remains ofMMC material on the fracture surface indi-
cate the fracture took place on the MMCside close to the welding zone.
Conclusions
1. In the tensile tests applied to thewelded samples, it was observed that exper-iment 3 had the highest tensile strength(99.05 MPa), whereas experiment 4 had thelowest tensile strength (53.99 MPa). It wasobserved that friction pressure and frictiontime were important for welding strength.Friction pressure has to be at the optimumvalue where it does not cause high defor-mation but still allows for diffusion.
2. In the examinations of hardness per-formed on the welded samples, hardnessvalues are not linear, also they increasewhile moving away from the welded zonetoward the main materials. The increase inhardness values in the welded zone is theresult of intermetallic phases such asFe2Al5 and FeAl3, internal stress generat-ing by high temperature differences, de-formation hardening, and fracturing ofSiCp because of high pressure in the zone.
3. In the microstructural examinationsperformed on the weld zone, three sepa-rate zones were encountered: the HAZside to the MMC; the weld zone (de-formed after being exposed to high tem-perature values); and the HAZ side toAISI 1030. Substantial structural changewas not observed in the HAZ side to AISI1030. This is due to the fact that the tem-perature did not reach sufficient values forthe deformation of AISI 1030 during fric-tion welding.
4. In investigating the SEM images, thediffusion of SiCp, Al, and Fe were ob-served in the weld zone. It was also notedthat as SiC was located closer to the weld
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Fig. 12 — SEM image of fracture surface on the side of AISI 1030 materialand EDS analysis line.
Fig. 13 — Linear EDS analysis results of fracture surface on the side of AISI1030 material.
Table 5 — EDS Analysis Values Obtained from Points in Fig. 10
(1) (2) (3) (4) Element wt-% wt-% wt-% wt-%
C K — — — 4.763O K 8.770 — — —Al K 56.328 78.551 — —Si K 34.902 5.702 — 0.193Fe K — 15.747 100.000 94.326
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zone, it fractured, and its size diminisheddue to the effect of upset pressure. This, inturn, caused an increase in plastic defor-mation and to rise in the hardness value.
5. According to the tensile and hard-ness tests and the microstructure, SEMand EDS investigations, the best weldingparameters were in experiment 3 (Pf = 40MPa, Pu = 40 MPa, tf = 10 s, tu = 4 s). Atlocations where MMC and AISI 1030 haveto be used together, the use of frictionwelding as a joining method resulted in therealization of the welding in a very shorttime by working below melting tempera-tures. More specifically, it has shown thatSiC-reinforced A356 aluminum alloy canbe successfully joined to AISI 1030 steel byfriction welding.
References
1. Zhu, Z. A. 1988. Literature survey on fab-rication methods of cast reinforced metal com-posites. Edited by S. G. Fishman and A. K.Dhingra. ASM/TMS Committee, World Mate-rials Congress, Sept. 24–30, Chicago, Ill.
2. Han, N. L., Yang, J. M., and Wang, Z. G.2000. Role of real matrix strain low cycle fatiguelife of a SiC particulate reinforced aluminumcomposite. Scripta Mater. 43: 801–5.
3. Zhang, X. P., Quan, G. F., and Wei, W.1999. Preliminary investigation on joining per-formance of SiC-reinforced aluminum metalmatrix composite by vacuum brazing. Compos-ites Part A 30: 823–7.
4. Zhang, X. P., Ye, L., Mai, Y. W., Quan, G.F., and Wei, W. 1999. Investigation on diffusionbonding characteristics of SiC particulate rein-forced aluminum MMC. Composites Part A 30:1415–21.
5. Meshram, S. D., Mohandas, T., Mad-husudhan, and Reddy, G. 2008. Friction weld-ing of dissimilar pure metals. J. Mater. Process
Tech. 184: 330–7.6. 1980. Resistance and solid-state welding
and other joining processes. Welding Handbook,p. 240. Miami, Fla.: AWS.
7. Spindler, D. E. 1994. What industry needsto know about friction welding. Welding Journal73(3): 37–42.
8. Boyer, H. E., and Gall, T. L. 1988. Join-ing, desk edition. Metals Handbook, pp. 30–58.Metals Park, Ohio.
9. Jenning, P. 1971. Some properties of dis-similar metal joints made by friction welding.The Welding Institute, pp. 147–53. AbinghtonHall, Cambridge.
10. Midling, O. T., and Grong, O. 1994. Aprocess model for friction welding of A1-Mg-Sialloys and Al-SiC metal matrix composites — I.HAZ temperature and strain rate distribution.Acta Metall. Mater. 42(5): 1595–1609.
11. Midling, O. T., and Grong, O. 1994. Aprocess model for friction welding of A1-Mg-Sialloys and Al-SiC metal matrix composites — I.HAZ microstructure and strength evolution.Acta Metall. Mater. 42(5): 1611–22.
12. Pan, C., Hu, L., Li., Z., and North, T. H.1996. Microstructural features of dissimilarMMC/AISI 304 stainless steel friction joints. J. Mater. Sci. 32: 3667–74.
13. Zhou, Y., Zhang, J., North, T., andWang, H. Z. 1997. The mechanical properties offriction welded aluminum-based metal-matrixcomposite materials. J. Mater. Sci. 32: 3883–89.
14. Uenishi, K., Zhai, Y., North, T. H., andBendzsak, G. J. 2000. Spiral defect formation infriction welded aluminum. Welding Journal79(7): 184-s to 93-s.
15. Lin, C. B., Chou, C., and Ma, C. L. 2002.Manufacturing and friction welding propertiesof particulate reinforced 7005 Al. J. Mater. Sci.37: 4645–52.
16. Lee, W. B., Kim, M. G., Koo, J. M., Kim,K. K., Quesnel, D. J., Kim, Y. J., and Jung, S. B.2004. Friction welding of TiAl and AISI 4140.J. Mater. Sci. 39: 1125–8.
17. Reddy, M. G., Rao, S. A., and Mohan-
das, T. 2008. Role of electroplated interlayer incontinuous drive friction welding of AA6061 toAISI 304 dissimilar metals. Science and Tech-nology of Welding & Joining 13(7), October:619–28.
18. Fauzi, M. N. A., Uday, M. B.,Zuhailawati, H., and Ismail, A. B. 2010. Mi-crostructure and mechanical properties of alu-mina-6061 aluminum alloy joined by frictionwelding. Materials and Design 31: 670–67.
19. Durmuş, H., and Meriç, C. 2009. Weld-ability of Al99–SiC composites by CO2 laserwelding. Journal of Composite Materials 43:1435–50.
20. Lin, C. B., Mu, C. K., Wu, W. W., andHung, C. H. 1999. The effect of joint design andvolume fraction on friction welding propertiesof A360/SiC(p) composites. Welding Journal78(3): 100–8.
21. Lienert, T. J., Baeslack, W. A., Ring-nalda, J., and Fraser, H. L. 1996. Inertia-frictionwelding of SiC-reinforced 8009 aluminum. J.Mater. Sci. 31: 2149–57.
22. Peyre, P., Sierra, G., Deschaux-Beaume,F., Stuart, D., and Fras, G. 2007. Generation ofaluminum-steel joints with laser-induced reac-tive wetting. Mater. Sci. and Eng. A 444: 327–38.
23. Naoi, D., and Kajihara, M. 2007. Growthbehavior of Fe2Al5 during reactive diffusion be-tween Fe and Al at solid-state temperatures.Materials Sci. and Eng. A 459: 375–382.
24. Li, Z., Maldonado, C., North, T. H., andAltshuller, B. 1997. Mechanical and metallurgi-cal properties of MMC friction welds. WeldingJournal 76(9): 367–73.
25. Noh, M. Z., Hussain, L. B., and Ahmad,Z. A. 2008. Alumina-mild steel friction weldedat lower rotational speed. J. Mater. Process Tech.204: 279–83.
26. Çelik, S., and Ersözlü, I. 2009. Investi-gation of the mechanical properties and mi-crostructure of friction welded joints betweenAISI 4140 and AISI 1050 steels. Materials andDesign 30: 970–6.
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The Fe-Cr-C alloy, well known for itshigh hardness and excellent wear and cor-rosion resistance, has been widely appliedin harsh working conditions. Many impor-tant workpieces, such as hammers in min-ing and mineral processing, squeezingrolls in cement production, and abrasion-resistant plates in the manufacturing andmetallurgy industries, are manufacturedfrom Fe-Cr-C alloy (Ref. 1). The excellentabrasive wear resistance results primarilyfrom the type, morphology, amount, di-
mension, and distribution of the carbides,while the toughness of the matrix also con-tributes to the wear resistance (Ref. 2). Fe-Cr-C alloys have been classified into hy-poeutectic, eutectic, and hypereutecticstructures (Refs. 3–5). Compared with thehypoeutectic one, the hypereutectic Fe-Cr-C alloy is regarded as having betterwear resistance, because its microstruc-ture consists of primary M7C3 carbide andeutectic (γ+M7C3) (Ref. 6). While theprimary carbides in the hypereutectic mi-crostructure maintain their forms as
coarser and larger blocks, this in turn de-creases the cast ability (Ref. 7). In general,Fe-Cr-C alloys with hypoeutectic mi-crostructures are applied in engineeringby the casting method.
Workpieces made of Fe-Cr-C alloy failthrough excessive wear over a period oftime. Failed workpieces can be remanu-factured using a hardfacing method. Nor-mally, the hardfacing layers are expectedto be hypereutectic microstructures forobtaining higher hardness and better wearresistance (Ref. 8). Much attention hasbeen focused on improving the wear re-sistance of hypereutectic Fe-Cr-C alloys(Refs. 8–12).
Tungsten carbide (WC), acting as anadvanced ceramic material with wear re-sistance and good thermal shock resist-ance, has been widely used for wear-resistance applications. Kambakas tried touse a double casting technique to producea WC-particle-reinforced high-Cr whitecast iron, and informed that the wear re-sistance of the high-Cr white cast iron withWC particle reinforcement was signifi-cantly better than that without thestrengthening phase. For hardfacing con-sumables, WC particles are not suitablefor reinforcing Fe-Cr-C alloy due to thehigh temperature of the weld pool (Ref.9).
The applications of rare earth (RE) ele-ments have been of much concern recentlybecause of their excellent properties. Byadding RE elements to steel, the crystalgrain can be refined. Hao explored the ef-fect of RE oxides on the morphology of car-bides in hardfacing metal of high-chromiumcast iron. In his studies, the volume fractionand roundness of the carbides were gradu-ally increased, while their area and perime-ter were gradually reduced. The carbideswere refined and spheroidized, with the REoxide additions increasing. Nevertheless,the relationship between the volume frac-tion of carbides and the wear resistance ofthe hardfacing metal was not established in
Effect of Titanium Content on Microstructureand Wear Resistance of Fe-Cr-C
Hardfacing Layers
By adding different amounts of ferrotitanium into flux cored wire, a hardfacinglayer with good performance was obtained, and the M7C3 carbide refinement
mechanism is discussed
BY Y. F. ZHOU, Y. L. YANG, D. LI, J. YANG, Y. W. JIANG, X. J. REN, AND Q. X. YANG
ABSTRACT
Layers of Fe-Cr-C hardfacing material containing various amounts of titaniumwere deposited on ASTM 1045 steel base metal. Optical microscope (OM), field emis-sion scanning electron microscope (FESEM) with energy-dispersive spectrometer(EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to investigate the effect of titaniumcontent on the microstructural characteristics of Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layers. The so-lidification sequence calculation and lattice misfit theory were employed to discuss theM7C3 carbide refinement mechanism. The experimental results show the microstruc-tures of Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layers consist of primary (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides and the eu-tectic phases (γ-Fe+(Cr, Fe)7C3). In the solidification process, the formation andgrowth of the primary (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides occur along their long axis, which parallelsthe direction of heat flow. With the increase of titanium content, the primary (Cr,Fe)7C3 carbides are refined. However, it is not proper to increase titanium contentwithout limits. When titanium content reaches 1.17 wt-%, its microstructure changesfrom a hypereutectic form to a hypoeutectic one. The thermodynamic calculationshows MC carbide precipitates prior to M7C3 carbide from Fe-C-Cr-Ti alloy. More-over, the lattice misfit between (110)TiC and (010)Cr7C3 is 9.257%, which indicates thatTiC acting as heterogeneous nuclei of the Cr7C3 is medium effective. Therefore, M7C3carbide can be refined significantly.
Y. F. ZHOU ([email protected]), Y. L.YANG, D. LI, J. YANG, Y. W. JIANG, and Q. X.YANG ([email protected]) are with State KeyLaboratory of Metastable Materials Science &Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao,China. LI is also with School of Material Scienceand Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University,Chengdu, China. X. J. REN is with School of En-gineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Liv-erpool, UK.
his work (Ref. 10).Vanadium (V), niobium (Nb), and tita-
nium (Ti) are strong carbide-forming ele-ments, and are of benefit for refining themicrostructure and improving the wear re-sistance of the Fe-Cr-C alloy. Qi investi-gated the effects of vanadium additive onstructural properties and tribological per-formance of high-chromium cast ironhardfacing metal. In his study, V was abenefit element of the Fe-Cr-C alloy. Withthe addition of V, vanadium carbide wasformed as a secondary carbide of Fe-Cr-C-V alloy. The microstructure of the alloywas obviously refined with the increase ofV additive, and the amount of bulk pri-mary carbide was reduced with an increasein refined eutectic carbide (Ref. 8). Whilethe carbides in the Fe-Cr-C alloy appar-ently could also be refined with the Nb ad-dition, the shape of the primary M7C3 car-bides became isotropic. Via the XRD andEDS analyses, NbC carbide was identifiedwhen the Nb element was added into theFe-Cr-C alloy (Ref. 11).
The contribution of Ti to the Fe-Cr-Calloy also can be found in the literature, butthe views contained therein have not yetfully become the consensus. Chung foundthe added titanium in the Fe–25wt-%Cr–4wt-%C alloy did not act as an inoculant torefine primary M7C3 carbides (Ref. 12). In-stead, it was just the reverse, as Zhi ex-plained that the heterogeneous nuclei role
of TiC in the Fe-Cr-Calloy (Refs. 13, 14).Moreover, the wear re-sistance of Fe-Cr-Calloy related to themass fraction of thecarbide with added Tiwas not quantified as
described in previous literature.Based on the above study, the effect of
titanium on hardfacing metal of Fe-Cr-Calloy is reinvestigated in this work. Thevariation of microstructure, phase trans-formations, and wear resistance are ob-served, the carbide refinement under dif-ferent Ti content is describedquantitatively, and the carbide refinementis discussed.
Experimental Procedures
The base metals (100 × 80 ×10 mm)for hardfacing were prepared from ASTM1045 steel plates. Before welding, the basemetals were ground and cleaned with ace-tone. Flux cored wire, which consisted ofan outer steel strip and wrapped powder,was prepared. H08A was selected as thesteel strip due to its good toughness. In ad-dition, the composition of the wrappedpowder was adjusted by adding differentraw materials. The graphite (2 wt-%), fer-rochrome (25 wt-%), ferrosilicon (3 wt-%), ferromanganese (3 wt-%), and fer-rotitanium were uniformly mixed andprepared. Moreover, to investigate the ef-fect of titanium on the microstructures ofthe hardfacing layers, 0, 1, 2, and 4 wt-%ferrotitanium, respectively, were alsoadded to the powder. After the powderwas prepared, the forming roller was usedto roll the steel strip into a U-groove, and
then, before the steel strip was rolled intoa tubular shape, the well-mixed powderwas filled into the U-groove. Furthermore,the required dimension of the flux coredwire was achieved by rolling or wire draw-ing methods. The diagram of flux coredwire fabrication is shown in Fig. 1A, B.
The bead-on-plate technique with fluxcored arc welding (FCAW) was used to de-posit the layers via an automated system inwhich the welding torch was moved backand forth above the base metal at a constantspeed in a multitrack overlapping process.The length of the single track was 50 mm,and the overlap width was 4 mm. To reducethe effect of base metal on the microstruc-ture and property of the hardfacing metal,the hardfacing claddings were welded inthree layers. Table 1 presents the range ofwelding conditions, and the hardfacingequipment and process used in this researchare shown in Fig. 1C, D.
The center of the hardfacing layers wasselected as the analytical region. Speci-mens were machined into cuboids (10 ×10 × 18 mm) by a wire cutting machine foranalysis. The chemical composition of thelayers was determined by a SPECTRO-MAXx optical emission spectrum (OES),and the data are listed in Table 2. Both thehorizontal and vertical faces of the speci-mens were treated with rubdown and pol-ishing processes, and then etched with 4%nitric acid. The microstructures of speci-mens were observed through an Axiovert200 MAT optical microscope and a Hi-tachi S4800 field emission scanning elec-tron microscope (FESEM). The morphol-ogy, size, and grade of the primarycarbides, and transfer of matrix structureswere measured with Image-Pro Plus Ver-sion 6.0 software. In addition, 10 OM im-ages were selected randomly from eachlayer in the horizontal direction at 200×magnification to describe the statisticalnature of the maximum diameter and areaof each M7C3 carbide. The inclusion com-positions were analyzed by an EMAX en-ergy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS).D/max-2500/PC X-ray diffraction (XRD)with Cu Kα radiation was used to analyzethe constituent phases of the top surface
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Fig. 1 — A, B — Diagram of flux cored wire fabrication; C — hardfacingequipment; D — hardfacing process.
Fig. 2 — Schematic diagram of analysis layer.
Table 1 — FCAW Condition
Parameter Wire Voltage Current Travel Speed Welding LayerDiameter Layers Thickness
Value 3.2 mm 22∼24 V 240∼260 A 300 mm min–1 3 8 mm
A B
C D
of the hardfacing layers. A wear resistancetest was conducted on an abrasive belt-type wear testing machine in dry friction.SiC of 80 mesh was selected as the abra-sive material, and the wear velocity of theabrasive belt was 1.8 × 104 mm/min. Elec-tronic balance was used in the wear test toweigh the specimens’ loss of mass perhour. To decrease experimental error andmaintain accuracy, six samples of eachchemical composition were prepared forthe wear resistance test.
The NETZSCH STA 449 C differential
scanning calorimeter(DSC) was used tostudy the phase trans-formation of the hard-facing metal. Theheating and cooling
rates were 40° and 10°C/min, respectively.The Thermo-Calc software was used forphase mass fraction calculation of Fe-Cr-C-Ti alloy with temperature.
Experimental Results andDiscussions
Microstructure and Phase Characteristicsof the Fe-Cr-C Hardfacing Layers
Figure 2 illustrates the three-dimen-sional microstructure schematic of the Fe-
Cr-C hardfacing layer. The XRD results ofsurface layers with and without titaniumare shown in Fig. 3. From the microscopeimage of the vertical face, it can be con-cluded that the specimen can be dividedinto the hardfacing zone, dilution zone,heat-affected zone (HAZ), and substratein sequence. With the aid of X-ray diffrac-tion, the hardfacing microstructure withfree Ti addition is found to consist of twophases: the primary (Cr, Fe)7C3 and theeutectic (γ-Fe+(Cr, Fe)7C3). Besides, afterTi was added into the hardfacing layer, TiCcarbide can also be detected in the hard-facing microstructures. Moreover, the mi-crostructure of the dilution zone can be anadmixture of γ-Fe, (Cr, Fe)7C3 and ferrite.The microstructure of the HAZ consists ofthe coarse grain caused by the heat input
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Fig. 4 — OM photographs of Fe-Cr-C-Ti layers in horizontal direction withdifferent titanium contents: A — 0 wt-%; B — 0.28 wt-%; C — 0.63 wt-%;D — 1.17 wt-%.
Fig. 5 — Microstructure of Fe-Cr-C-Ti layers with different titanium additions.
Fig. 3 — XRD of hardfacing layer with and without titanium contents: A — 0 wt-% Ti content; B — 0.28 wt-% Ti content.
Table 2 — Chemical Compositions of the Hardfacing Layers and Base Metal
Composition (wt-%)
Layer C Cr Mn Si Ti Fe
Base metal (1045) 0.43 0.23 0.65 0.21 balSpecimen a 3.82 16.35 2.24 2.09 0Specimen b 3.79 15.97 2.27 2.11 0.28Specimen c 3.85 16.14 2.18 2.14 0.63 balSpecimen d 3.77 16.27 2.22 2.03 1.17
A B
A B
C D
energy, and the substrate contains ferrite.The solidification morphology and thegrowth pattern of the layer are controlledby the thermal conditions in the weld pool.The formation and growth of the primary(Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides occur along their longaxis, which parallels the direction of theheat flow. The primary (Cr, Fe)7C3 is thehexagonal-columniation structures. Dueto different angles, it is an acicular or
blade-like morphology on the verticalfaces, and a hexagonal-shaped morphol-ogy on the horizontal.
Effect of Titanium on Microstructure ofthe Fe-Cr-C Hardfacing Layers
For the hardfacing application, thewear resistance is mainly determined bythe morphology and distribution of pri-
mary (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides in the horizon-tal direction. The OM photographs of thelayers in the horizontal direction areshown in Fig. 4.
As shown, the microstructure of thehardfacing layers consisted of primary(Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides and eutectic (γ-Fe+(Cr, Fe)7C3), while the carbides and,in particular, the primary carbides, are re-fined gradually with the increase of Ti con-tent. However, in Fig. 4D, γ-Fe dendritecan be observed. Too much carbon is con-sumed with the formation of TiC domainswhen titanium content reaches 1.17 wt-%,resulting in a change in microstructure ofthe alloy from the hypereutectic form to ahypoeutectic one. Therefore, it is notproper to increase the titanium contentwithout limits.
The schematic diagram of the mi-crostructural changes is illustrated in Fig.5. As shown, the morphology of primary(Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides changes from a bulkform to a refined one and the size of pri-mary (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides becomes muchsmaller. Besides, matrix microstructurestransform from eutectic (γ-Fe + (Cr,
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Fig. 6 — Quantitative analysis of M7C3 carbide.
Fig. 8 — Differential scanning calorimeter curves of Fe-Cr-C alloy with 1.17Ti content.
Fig. 7 — Mass loss and hardness of Fe-Cr-C layer with different titanium con-tents.
Fig. 9 — Phase mass fraction calculation of Fe-Cr-C-Ti alloy with temperature.
Table 3 — Planar Lattice Misfit between Orthorhombic Cr7C3 and TiC
Matching Interface (110)TiC // (010)Cr C7 3
[uvw]TiC [001] [110] [111]
[uvw]Cr C [001] [100] [101]7 3
Θ 0 0 12.1
dTiC(nm) 0.432 0.610 0.747
dCrC (nm) 0.453 0.701 0.8347 3
δ,% 9.257
- -
Fe)7C3) to dendrite γ-Fe +eutectic (γ-Fe+ (Cr, Fe)7C3).
Because the M7C3 carbide is the majorreinforcing phase in Fe-Cr-C alloy to re-duce friction and wear, the refinement ofthe carbide was analyzed quantitatively,which is shown in Fig. 6. As shown, thearea of M7C3 carbide is gradually reducedwith the increasing Ti content. When theFe-Cr-C alloy is Ti-free, the area of M7C3carbide is nonuniform from 200 to 900μm2. With higher Ti content, the unifor-mity of M7C3 carbide is enhanced. With0.28 wt-% Ti content, a majority of M7C3carbide area are distributed between 200and 600 μm2 and in the case of 0.63 wt-%Ti content, the M7C3 carbide area fell tothe range of 100~300 μm2. As the Ti con-tent increased to 1.17 wt-%, the area ofM7C3 carbide reduced further, which re-mained constant at less than 200 μm2. Be-sides, the maximum diameter of the M7C3carbide declined markedly as the Ti con-tent increased.
Effect of Titanium on Wear Resistanceand Hardness of the Fe-Cr-C HardfacingLayers
Figure 7 presents the wear resistanceand hardness of the hardfacing layers. Asillustrated, the wear resistance of the Fe-Cr-C alloy increases and then declineswith respect to the amount of added Ti.Meanwhile, the changes in hardness areassociated with the wear resistance be-havior. When the titanium content is 0.63wt-%, the Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layer pres-ents the best wear resistance and thehighest hardness. There are two factorsthat lead to the variation in wear-resis-tance property. TiC carbide, which has ahigh micro-hardness of 3200–3800 HV(Ref. 15), is present in the Fe-Cr-C alloyas added Ti. However, the high micro-hardness of TiC carbide may not work tocontribute to the improvement in wearresistance. When the Ti content is 1.17wt-%, the wear resistance behavior is the
worst and thehardness has re-duced dramati-cally. Therefore,the TiC carbide it-self may not havethe main role inthe variation ofwear-resistancebehavior.
Nevertheless,the morphologyand distribution ofM7C3 carbide ischanged when Ti isadded to the Fe-Cr-C alloy. Partic-ularly when com-pared with thelarge block car-bide, it has beenconfirmed that therefined carbide,which has muchmore contact areawith the matrix,causes a better antistripping ability.Therefore, the wear-resistance is betterwhen the carbide is refined and well dis-tributed. However, the M7C3 carbide isnot only refined but changes its phasestructure when too much Ti is added.When the Fe-Cr-C alloy contains 1.17 wt-% Ti, more carbon is consumed to formTiC carbide. The loss of carbon reducesthe formation of chromium carbide andcauses the hardfacing layer to change fromthe hypereutectic microstructure to a hy-poeutectic one. It is well known that thewear resistance of hypoeutectic Fe-Cr-Calloy without coarse primary carbide is notas good as the hypereutectic alloy, whichwould lead to a decline in hardness and re-duced wear resistance.
Furthermore, the hardness of the hard-facing metal increases from 58 to 61 HRC
with the increasing titanium content from0 to 0.63 wt-%, while the hardness de-creases to 55 HRC when the titanium con-tent reaches 1.17 wt-%. The variation inthe hardness is consistent with that of thewear resistance results.
Effect of Titanium on Phase Transforma-tion of the Fe-Cr-C-Ti Alloy
The differential scanning calorimeter(DSC) results for the Fe-Cr-C hardfacingalloy with 1.17 wt-% Ti content are shownin Fig. 8. There are, respectively, two en-dothermic peaks in the heat process andtwo exothermic peaks in the coolingprocess shown in the curves.
The first peak in cooling curve at1284.6°C is due to the formation of M7C3carbide and γ-phase. And, then, the liquiddisappears. At lower temperature, the sec-ond exothermic peak can be seen at
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Fig. 10 — Effect of Ti on phase mass fraction calculation of Fe-Cr-C-Tialloy.
Fig. 11 — FESEM morphology and line scanning results of hardfacing layer.
Fig. 12 — Correspondence condition of (110)TiC and (010)Cr7C3.
764.6°C, corresponding to the transforma-tion from γ-phase to α-phase.
Nevertheless, the MC carbide, whosemelting point is higher, cannot be observedin the DSC result. Therefore, the computa-tional thermodynamics method is used toanalyze the phase transformation of the Fe-Cr-C-Ti alloy during the equilibrium state.The calculation result is shown in Fig. 9.
The primary phase precipitates fromliquid at 1570°C is MC carbide. With thetemperature dropping, the MC content isalmost invariable and remains at about0.015 wt-%. At 1280°C, a small quantity ofM7C3 carbide precipitates from the liq-uid, and then austenite is expected to formbelow 1270°C together with some addi-tional precipitation of M7C3. At 1260°C,the liquid disappears and the mass frac-tion of M7C3 still increases with a little re-duction of austenite. Thereafter, M7C3starts to be transformed from the austen-ite. When the temperature falls to 780°C,the transformation of austenite to marten-site occurs and leads to exotherm in thecooling process. The temperature ofexothermic peaks in DSC result (Fig. 8) isclose to the calculation, which verifies theexactness of the calculation model.
The influence of titanium on phasemass fraction is shown in Fig. 10. The massfraction variation of each phase is not ob-vious during the changes in Ti content.With Ti content increasing, the mass frac-tion of MC rises slightly. Meanwhile, themass fraction of M7C3 declines becausesome carbon has been consumed by the Ticontent to form the initial MC carbide.Martensite in Fe-Cr-C-Ti alloy ascendsslightly due to the rising of austenite at ahigh temperature.
M7C3 Carbide Refinement Mechanism
The results described previously sug-gest that the improvement in wear resist-ance is mainly dependent on the refine-ment of the carbide in Fe-Cr-C-Ti alloy byadded Ti content. As an effective element,Ti is widely used in metallurgy of iron andsteel for partition to the matrix as well asmodification of the carbides (Ref. 14).How it works for refining the Cr7C3 car-bide is discussed in this section.
Figure 11 shows the field emissionscanning electron morphology of thehardfacing layers. From Fig. 11A, it can beseen that square particles are surroundedby (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides. According to theEDS analysis and line scanning results ofthe square particle shown in Fig. 11B andD, the main compositions are titaniumand carbon, which indicates that thesquare particle is TiC carbide. Besides, themore clear morphology of the TiC carbidecan be seen in Fig. 11C.
Therefore, it can be said that the re-fined primary (Cr,Fe)7C3 carbides are re-
lated to TiC carbides. During the hard-facing solidification process, the fastercooling rate results in smaller dimensionsand greater number of nuclei. The resist-ance of heterogeneous nucleation mainlydepends on the interfacial energy be-tween nucleation basement and crys-talline phase. And the interfacial energyis constituted by its chemistry item andstructural one. The chemistry item in-cludes bond strength, bond energy, andbond types between atoms, and the struc-tural item is mainly decided by lattice dis-tortion energy, which is caused by theatomic misfit. Misfit is the major factor ofthe interfacial energy in higher lattice dis-tortion energy.
The value of the two-dimensional lat-tice misfit is used to estimate whethersome inclusions can act as the heteroge-neous nuclei. A mathematical model ofthe two-dimensional lattice misfit is as fol-lows (Ref. 16):
Where(hkl)s is a low-index plane of the matrix;[uvw]s is a low-index direction in (hkl)s;(hkl)n is a low-index plane in the nucleatedsolid;[uvw]n is a low-index direction in (hkl)n;d[uvw]n is the interatomic spacing along[uvw]n;d[uvw]s is the interatomic spacing along[uvw]s;θ is the angle between the [uvw]s and[uvw]n (θ≤90 deg).
Bramfitt (Ref. 16) proposed a theoryregarding the heterogeneous nucleationprocess. The nuclei with δ<6% is themost effective, and that with δ between 6and 12% is medium effective, while thatwith δ>12% is ineffective.
The crystal lattice of TiC is face-cen-tered cubic, and its lattice parameter is a= 0.432 (nm). Orthorhombic Cr7C3 isone mode of (Cr, Fe)7C3, and its latticeparameters are a = 0.701 (nm), b = 1.214(nm), and c = 0.453 (nm) (Refs. 17, 18).The atom correspondence condition ofthose two planes is shown in Fig. 12. Table3 lists the calculated result of the latticemisfit δ between (110)TiC and (001)Cr7C3.It can be seen that the lattice misfit be-tween (110)TiC and (001)Cr7C3 is 9.257%.According to Bramfitt’s two-dimensionallattice misfit theory, TiC acting as het-erogeneous nuclei of the Cr7C3 is middleeffective and the primary Cr7C3 carbidesare refined. These results are appropriatesupplements that some works (Ref. 13)also point out that titanium and/or nio-bium can refine the microstructure of theFe-Cr-C alloy.
Conclusions
A series of Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layerswith varying amounts of titanium was de-posited by the FCAW process. The mi-crostructure and wear resistance of the Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layers were determinedand correlated to the varying titaniumcontents. Meanwhile, the carbide refine-ment mechanism and the phase precipita-tion rule were discussed. Following are themajor conclusions that can be drawn fromthis work:• Microstructures of the hardfacing layers
consisted of the primary (Cr, Fe)7C3and the eutectic (γ-Fe+(Cr, Fe)7C3).The existence of M7C3-type carbidemaintains a high hardness and goodwear resistance of the Fe-Cr-C alloy.
• Primary (Cr, Fe)7C3 carbides are refinedgradually with the increase in titaniumcontent. The morphology changes froma bulk form to a refined one. Mean-while, the increase in hardness and wearresistance improve until the titaniumcontent is increased to 0.63 wt-%. Whenthe titanium content is 1.17 wt-%, toomuch carbon is consumed by titaniumto form TiC carbide. This leads the mi-crostructure of the Fe-Cr-C alloy tochange from a hypereutectic form to ahypoeutectic one. In addition, the hard-ness decreases and wear resistance be-comes worse. Therefore, it is not properto increase the titanium content unlim-itedly, and the x%Fe-16%Cr-3.8%Calloy with 0.63 wt-% titanium content ismore appropriate.
• The M7C3 carbide refinement is relatedto the complex metallurgical reactions.According to the thermodynamic calcu-lations, the MC carbide is found to pre-cipitate prior to the M7C3 carbide. Thisprovides the MC carbide with thechance to act as the heterogeneous nu-clei of M7C3 carbide. Moreover, the lat-tice misfit between (110)TiC and(010)Cr7C3 is 9.257%, which indicatesthat TiC acting as heterogeneous nucleiof the Cr7C3 is medium effective due toBramfitt’s theory. Therefore, the M7C3carbide can be refined.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express theirgratitude for projects supported by Pro-gram for 100 excellent talents of HebeiProvince of China (SPRC 021) and keyproject of science and technology of HebeiProvince (09215106D).
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δ θhkl
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n
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uvw ni( )
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⎡⎣⎢
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cos // /duvw n
i
i
⎡⎣⎢
⎤⎦⎥
=
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⎡
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⎦⎥⎥×∑ 3 100 (1
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