Benito Mussolini

Background and Rise to Power Italian government was never particularly stable, and the First World war was very

unpopular (bad economic situation, strikes, lots of violence, frustration with democratic

system, discontented with peace treaties)

Many people demanded strong leadership to establish law and order and regain honour.

Born in Romania, was a bully as a child (expelled from school for staging a revolt)

Established a socialist paper Avanti, but later turned radical and was expelled from the

socialists

Served in the army but was injured during practice, still very ultranationalist, frustrated

with the Italian State doing nothing.

Became associated with battlegroups responsible for ending Italian issues.

Begins organization that became seed of fascist party in March 1919 (diverse

membership), it was called the Fasci di Combattimento, and wanted to replace the senate

with strong government, institute agricultural reform, purge the left, and achieve Italian

war aims.

His group failed to win a single seat, so he merged with the National Fascist Party.

o Mussolini’s masterful propaganda increased popularity, he was seen as the Duce

(leader) of fascism.

March on Rome: Mussolini’s National Fascist Party came to power in Italy in October

1922.

o The prime minister asked the King to declare martial law, but he refused in order

to prevent revolution or civil war, and instead offered Mussolini a spot as Prime

Minister.

o He accepted, but the march was carried out anyway for symbolic purposes.

Started by creating a good image of himself domestically and abroad. (Attempted to

continue to feign support by restoring Catholic education and banning public swearing)

Attempts to broaden support by conservative business interest, plays on communist threat

November 22, 1922: asks Parliament for 1 year of emergency powers to act with firm

and decisive will, which was granted to him

o Only a temporary measure, and not a big deal to the current government.

o However, Mussolini uses this to extend his power, becoming Minister of Interior

and Exterior.

Pursued a policy of normalization, bringing nationalists and middle class members into

the party and increasing its reputability.

Mussolini changes the electoral system by introducing the Acerbo Law in 1923

o The country is divided into 5 constituencies, and if a party gets 25% or more of

the votes per constituency, they gain 2/3 of the seats in Parliament

o Enables the fascists to win the next election democratically.

The Fascists combination of an effective propaganda campaign, suppression of

opposition, and utilization of violence, as well as the division of socialists and

communists allowed them to win.

Matteotti Crisis: moderate socialist (opposed to fascists) murdered in 1924 by the

Squadristi (paramilitary branch responsible for suppressing the socialists)

Mussolini thought this crisis would diminish his credibility, but in reality it destroys the

far left due to a lack of unity and strength)

King Emanuel decides to support Mussolini in the face of a suspected far left revolution

(wanted stability for Italy).

Squadristi wanted Mussolini to act, or they would leave, so Mussolini takes over in 1925.

o He bans all opposition and unions, introducing a fascist secret police.

o Law in 1925 gives Mussolini the power to rule by himself without the parliament.

o In 1926 he is allowed to govern by decree, and political parties are abolished.

However, relative to Stalin and Hitler, Mussolini was only totalitarian to a small extent.

o The King still remained the head and was not eliminated (the King can dismiss

Mussolini at any point)

o The army and navy were not entirely fascist, nor was the church.

Repression was achieved through the censorship of the press, imposition of new

textbooks, and was mostly carried out by the police and army rather than by fascist

organizations themselves.

o Mussolini feared rivalry of the Fascists more than any other group, purged

thousands of the original blackshirts in much the same way as Stalin did.

In 1928, universal suffrage was abolished, and democracy was heavily limited.

o Vatican city became an independent state and the Roman Catholic Church

remained as the most powerful non-Fascist organization.

Reasons for Mussolini’s Consolidation

Mussolini brilliantly took advantage of the many needs and fears of different groups.

He was always able to compromise in order to gain advantage, much like Lenin.

o Dropped much of his early radicalism (anti-clericalism) in order to gain support of

authoritative centres.

o Mussolini was also ruthless enough to dispose of opposition.

Italy welcomed authoritarian rule and were tired of corrupt politicians, frequent

government changes, strikes and riots, and wanted economic stability and restored

national honour.

Socialists and communists could not cooperate against the fascists.

Italian Fascism Emphasis on struggle, militancy, imperialism, national expansionism, corporate and

national solidarity, autarky, singular state rule, action.

Opposed to Marxism, internationalism, liberalism, atheism, class division.

Problems of fascism include infantilism, anti-intellectualism and simple polarities,

hatred and scapegoating, and a culture of death.

The Corporate State Fascism was imposed onto existing institutions so that Mussolini could preside over a

number of competing centres of power.

Propaganda played a huge role in the Fascist state.

o Mussolini censored newspapers himself, used cinema systematically for gain, and

used parades and speeches as forms of entertainment.

Government subsidies were given to industry to increase production, the government

aimed at self-sufficiency by encouraging grain production, and massive land reclamation

and infrastructural improvement programmes ensued.

Ironically, the corporations themselves had little impact on economic policy in practice.

Disenchantment

The lira was revalued in 1926 to demonstrate the strength of the currency, but it only

resulted in falling exports, rising unemployment, and falling prices.

When the Great Depression came in 1929, a state-owned industrial sector was created,

and spending was increased on public works.

Sanctions were placed on Italy during their invasion of Ethiopia which led to a further

need for self-sufficiency.

Various conservative groups withdrew support from the Fascists due to its unreliability.

o Anti-Fascist feeling became more widespread in the 1930s (close alliance with

Hitler was resented and feared, economy was no longer efficient)

o Anti-Fascist movements however remained illegal for a long time.

Foreign Policy Italy wanted expansion on the grounds of historic claims (Roman Empire), glory and

revenge to solidify Italian World Power status, racism, national security.

Mussolini was not very aggressive however because he did not initially have a master

plan (nothing Mein Kampf like), and he wanted to maintain his status of being respected.

However, there were some aggressions, including the Corfu crisis (an Albanian-Greek

border issue leading to the bombardment of Corfu because 3 Italian officers had been

shot. The Great Powers asked Italy to leave Corfu, and Italy threatened to leave the

League.) Early instance of appeasement which encouraged Mussolini to continue

pursuing his interests.

Period of Peace

1924 Pact of Rome with Yugoslavia where Italy received Fiume.

Italy signed the Locarno Treaties in 1925 guaranteeing Western frontiers with Germany,

and the Kellogg-Briand pact in 1928.

Increased friendship with Hungary, Austria, Albania, and Bulgaria.

Mussolini gets involved in Stresa in 1934 to oppose German attempts to invade Austria.

Italy threatens invasion if Germany goes any further, so Germany backs off.

Change in perception of peace in Italy:

1. Aggressiveness was actually always dormant

2. Fascist principles required militancy.

3. Frustration at limited Italian gains

4. The Great Depression

5. Divert attention from domestic problems to nationalism

6. Rise of Nazism

7. Failure of Disarmament

8. Success of the Manchuria Crisis for Japan.

Mussolini was still presenting himself as a peaceful ruler at the time, but Germany wants

to inaugurate an Austrian-German union (rejected by Austrian dictator, assassinated as a

result)

o Mussolini sends troops to the German border, causing Hitler to retreat.

Italy, France, and Britain agree to maintain the independence of Austria, securing

Locarno Treaties and resisting further attempts to violate Versailles.

France becomes suspicious of German military gains

Italy undermines Stresa by keeping the door open to treaties with Germany

Britain undermines Stresa by making an agreement with Germany, allowing them to

increase their navy to 35% the size of the Royal Navy.

Ethiopian War

Necessary for revenge, glory, racial reasons, war as a purpose of the fascist ideology,

economic factors, demographic reasons, strategic reasons, nationalism to divert attention

from domestic difficulties.

Mussolini attempted to win quickly and without embarrassment, invaded in 1935 with a

huge army, new technologies, and even poison gas.

o Wanted to show what fascism represents through swift and absolute victory.

League of Nations said it was a clear violation of the principles of the League through

Italian aggression.

However, the British needed Italy on their side, and opened the Suez canal for them to

access Ethiopia.

Italy gains Imperial glory, and this ends up being the height of the fascist regime.

Clear use of poison gas and barbarian warfare undermines Italy’s claims to civilization

Mussolini begins to see himself as unstoppable, enters Spain and suffers disastrously.

o Now he is isolated, leading to a friendship with the Nazis, falling under their

influence in terms of policy.

o Since Germany sees the inactivity of the League and the Great Powers, they

decide to invade the Rhineland unopposed in 1936.

This incident discredits the League and the idea of collective security.

Spanish Civil War (1936)

Italy and Germany side with the nationalists while USSR sides with the loyalists.

Italy supports Franco by giving him massive amounts of resources (they want to preserve

interests in the Western Mediterranean and gain Spanish economical cooperation)

o Germany was much less supportive, and wanted to prolong conflict in order to

promote European divisions and solidify their dominance.

o Results in a massive waste of resources for the Italy

Germany just keeps benefitting due to continued Italian isolation and decision to ally

with the Nazis.

Axis Pact (1936)

Close diplomatic and military connection between Italy and Germany

Divided into Anti-Comintern pact and the Pact of Steel (1939), both economic and

military alliances.

By this time Italy becomes a secondary power relative to Germany.

Mussolini played a role in securing the Munich agreement which prevented war over

Czechoslovakia.

It was necessary for Italy because of their diplomatic isolation, the heavy international

opposition to fascism, and Italian expansionist aims.

This serves to divide Europe.

Mussolini adopts Nazi ideology, and Italy becomes a satellite of Germany, where Hitler

had no intention of consulting Mussolini about anything, even about their alliance with

the Soviet Union, and their eventual invasion of Poland.

Mussolini’s Fall from Power The Army was alarmed by Mussolini’s grandiose war plans, the church was alarmed with

his association with Hitler.

Hitler asked Mussolini to join him in 1939 in accordance with the terms of the Pact of

Steel, but Mussolini pleaded unpreparedness.

o Mussolini invaded France only after they had been heavily weakened by the

Germans. They were driven out of France, Libya, Greece, and Ethiopia.

A resolution was passed in 1943 that dismissed Mussolini from office after his continued

failures.

Reasons for his Downfall

Italy could not handle the War, and as a result was completely reliant on Germany.

Mussolini invaded Egypt and Greece without thought of the consequences.

Mussolini never displaced the Italian supreme authority (the king), never had the army

make an oath of allegiance to him or create a force loyal to him such as the SS in

Germany. In effect, he failed to create a truly totalitarian society.

Mussolini actually came to believe his own propaganda, in that he could do no wrong.

Italian armed forces were never very enthusiastic about the war and eventually became

disillusioned.

Appraisal Mussolini was hailed as a genius all over Europe and in the United States upon his rise to

power by 1) reinvigorating a demoralized and divided country, 2) carrying out important

social reform, 3) improving infrastructure, and 4) solved papal-civilian relations.

However, his 1) arrogance in abilities, 2) ignorance of Italian limitations, 3) dreams of

imperial success through foreign conquest and 4) tying of Italian fate to Hitler spelled his

downfall.

Adolf Hitler

Background The Weimar Republic was weakened from the beginning due to its agreement to the

terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

o It was a remarkably liberal and democratic system based on proportional

representation.

The war costs put Germany on the brink of bankruptcy, and when compounded with the

war reparations, Germany was decimated financially.

The French became exasperated when the USA stayed out of the League of Nations, and

weren’t too concerned with collecting German reparations. Additionally, the mark was

losing value, and as a result so were the reparation costs.

o Germany was unable to manage the full payments, and as a result French and

Belgian troops seized and occupied the Ruhr.

o The value of the mark collapsed, resulting in hyperinflation.

Adolf Hitler

Born in Austria-Hungary, many aspects of his life and personality were formed between

1908 and 1914, including his thoughts on racism, authoritarianism, and nationalism.

o He developed an intolerance for the bourgeois world and for non-Germans,

including Jewish people.

After World War 1 in which he fought for the German army, Hitler joined the German

Worker’s Party, which was later named the National Socialist German Worker’s Party, or

Nazi Party.

People resented the Treaty of Versailles, there was danger of social revolution, and

serious economic difficulties.

o Hitler discovered his powerful ability to speak, and quickly rose in the ranks to

gain Party President status in 1921.

o The Sturmabteilung was created in 1921 as the Party’s own paramilitary force.

Hitler’s Early Failures Beer Hall Putzsch

In November 1923, Hitler attempted a coup in which the Nazi Party tried to seize power

in Bavaria, and call for a nationwide “March on Berlin” (March on Rome similarities)

The coup failed because the Nazi party had no support outside of Bavaria and not

enough inside, the Munich police were not sympathetic, and the republic was not in

immediate danger of collapsing.

Hitler was eventually arrested by Bavarian police, and Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in

prison (where he wrote Mein Kampf and gained popularity due to his speeches during

his trial; he was released early in December 1924)

It provided Hitler with revolutionary credentials, nationwide publicity, and allowed him

to learn from his mistakes as he regained his leadership position.

Nazism

Extreme form of nationalism which was justified by an extreme form of racism

o Racism of quasi-scientific status, as the White race was superior to all others and

was destined to rule the world.

o In contrast, the Jews were morally inferior, and only the Aryans could resist them.

A glorification of force and will brought along by Social Darwinism

The state was important as a symbol of national unity and strong government, democracy

must be rejected as a degenerate ideology.

Promotion of eugenics would ensure the strength of the state.

The state must aim towards autarky (much like Mussolini, Stalin).

Propaganda department led by Josef Goebbels served to spread these messages.

Years of Peace

Germany was in a period of relative prosperity and peace when Hitler was released.

o The Dawes plan allowed for more doable reparation payments, and the

establishment of a newer, more stable currency.

o Unemployment was still high, prosperity was dependent on short-term loans from

the United States.

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles were oftentimes evaded, calling back to its illegitimacy.

Hitler realized that in order to regain power he must achieve it through democratic

means.

o He refounded the party, but there was a lot of infighting, making it difficult to

reorganize. Yet, an administrative machinery was rebuilt, and allying with the

National Party increased his influence. However, the Nazis only gained 2.6% of

the total vote.

Crisis of the Republic

An agricultural crisis developed in 1928, and though the Young Plan reduced German

war reparations, it was too late to help.

o US stopped giving loans to Germany after the Wall Street Crash of 1929,

collapsing German banks and undermining the currency.

o Gustav Stresemann died that month, slumping world trade and sharply rising

unemployment due to a lack of competent politicians to deal with the issue.

Voters were polarized and were attracted towards extremist groups, calling an end to the

era of democracy, and a rise in Nazi support.

In the first 1932 election, the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag, and Hitler ran

for President and lost to Hindenburg (though it only increased his popularity)

o Due to improving economy, the Nazis lost a considerable amount of influence

later in the year.

The Rise of the Third Reich Hindenburg was unwilling to appoint Hitler to government, but Chancellor von Papen

believed he could be controlled.

o He also wanted to pre-empt a potential Nazi Putsch.

o Believed they could control Hitler better inside the government than outside of it.

o The Nazi votes would give the monarchy enough votes to replace the Weimar.

o Hitler was thus appointed Chancellor of Germany in 1933.

Hitler as Chancellor

Hitler began working towards an absolute dictatorship as soon as he came to power.

o He immediately announced parliamentary elections for March 1933.

Nazis were placed in important positions to ensure high votes, many police officers were

appointed (mostly SA and SS), and the media was used for Nazi propaganda.

On February 27th, the Reichstag was burned down by a Dutch Communist.

o Hitler used the incident to create a climate of fear so that people would relinquish

their civil rights, frighten the voters into supporting a strong leader, and justify

outlawing the Communist party.

The Nazis won 44% of the seats, and due to the void seats of the Communists, gained

majority. After that, he was able to pass the Enabling Act, letting him govern by decree

without reference to the constitution of the Reichstag for 4 years.

The Third Reich

President Hindenburg was widely respected and still could limit Hitler’s power.

o The SA under Ernst Rohm expected some form of social revolution, and the army

were contemptuous of Hitler.

Hitler initiated a policy Gleichschaltung (coordination) to gain more control.

o All political parties except the Nazis were banned, trade unions banned, schools

forced to indoctrinate Nazi ideals, purge of opposition ensued.

o The SA and SS took over government buildings; formation of the Gestapo to

crush opposition through brutal means.

o Concentration camps set up for political prisoners, and the civil service was

purged of Nazi enemies (Jews)

o Propaganda dominated the media, and the economy was placed under Nazi

control (industrialists told what to produce, etc.)

o The justice system was incorporated into the totalitarian state, and culture became

an instrument of ideology (Jewish art destroyed, replaced with Aryan art)

These measures were popular with many Germans because they promised action, the

purge of Jews provided more jobs to Germans, and they felt safer from Communism.

o Reminiscent of Mussolini’s policy of divide and rule.

o Hitler was often lazy and didn’t put many of his orders into writing.

o He didn’t value hierarchy over personal relations, and often important decisions

were left to confidants rather than the appropriate Ministers.

o He was concerned with his personal popularity, and only made decisions deemed

popular at the risk of causing domestic crisis.

o Hitler was distrustful of traditional leadership and didn’t often meet with judges

or cabinet ministers.

o He was tolerant of infighting among his subordinates, seeing it as healthy.

The SA became a problem because they were a more socialist part of the Nazi wing, and

Hitler wished to focus on the nationalist aspect. Additionally, the soldiers were expecting

rewards and Hitler was afraid of Rohm’s ambitions.

o The Night of the Long Knives was when SA leaders, including Rohm, were

murdered under accusation of plotting against the state. Hitler took the

opportunity to also dispose of anyone he considered dangerous.

Hindenburg died in 1934, and Hitler merged the positions of Chancellor and President.

The Wehrmacht (army) swore allegiance to the Fuhrer at this point as well, something

Mussolini neglected to do.

Reasons for Hitler’s Rise

The Weimar Republic’s disadvantages and weaknesses:

o It was associated with defeat due to the Treaty of Versailles, a break in German

tradition (democracy and civilian leadership were not entirely respected)

o Minority governments that couldn’t successfully implement their policies,

political assassinations and disorder gave the republic an appearance of weakness.

o The economic problems of the Republic, spurred on by war costs, reparations, the

Ruhr crisis, and a reliance on foreign loans encouraged voters to support extreme

groups in order to change the government outlook.

Authoritarian politicians had used the constitution to push Germany towards monarchy,

creating resentment for everything constitutional

The Nazis promised strong and competent government in the face of continued failures of

monarchy and democracy.

o They promised to restore the economy, rid Germany of its troubles, overthrow the

terms of the Versailles Treaty, and protect the public from Communist Revolution

Hitler constantly reformed party policy to appeal to different sectors of the public (much

like Lenin and Stalin).

Hitler’s oratory abilities and the Joseph Goebbels led propaganda machine were also

instrumental in creating public support.

Von Papen and Von Schleicher believed they were controlling Hitler by bringing him to

power, but it backfired on them.

The Racist State In 1939, Hitler secretely authorized the euthanasia programme to free up resources for the

war effort

Origins of Anti-Semitism

Anti-Semitism has a long European history, and in German culture it was just ingrained

in their culture. They were also threatened by Jewish progress from greats such as

Einstein, and the idea of racism was tied to anti-semitism.

Jews were at the forefront of the Bolshevik revolutions and in the signing of the

Versailles Treaty, and so Hitler associated Jews with being a threat to German purity, and

a sign of German weakness.

Anti-Semitism became a matter of government policy, and systematic discrimination was

encouraged by the regime.

o Legislation against Jews began immediately with the Career Civil Service Act,

excluding Jews from civil service.

o Nuremburg Laws deprived Jews of public rights, and the Blood Protection Act

prevented marriage or sexual relations between Jews and Germans.

After a Jew assassinated an embassy secretary, Goebbels launched Kristallnacht, an

attack on Jewish businesses resulting in many deaths and many imprisonments.

o Jews were later subject to many other discriminatory laws (no schooling, not

allowed to practice as doctors, radios confiscated, lost property rights)

At the Wannsee Conference of 1942, the “Final Solution” to the Jewish question was

considered and planned.

o Rations for Jews were decreased, gassings began, extermination camps became

populated, beginning of the Holocaust where ~ 6 million Jews were killed.

Conditions Which Made the Holocaust Possible

The background of Anti-Semitism provided a framework for the demonization of the

Jews and just continues the tradition of religious Anti-Semitism.

The Nazis were able to combine Anti-Semitism with Anti-Bolshevism

Hitler carried out his plans gradually and secretively.

Domestic Policy Economic Policies

The initial aims of Nazi economic policy were to secure the support of the population,

and prepare for war through autarchy and rearmament, in the process reviving German

industrial and military strength.

The programme included radical measures such as land reform, reduction of taxes,

production of infrastructure such as Autobahns.

Starting in 1934, the economy came to be known as Wehrwirtschaft (war economy) as it

was preparing for total war.

o He appointed Schacht as Plenipotentiary for the war economy

o Schacht manipulated the currency markets to Germany’s advantage, negotiated

barter deals with other countries, and issued bills payable to armaments

manufacturers.

Hitler became discontented with the progress, and a four year plan was implemented

starting in September 1936; imports were reduced to a minimum and severe controls

were placed on wages in order to achieve their autarchy aim.

o Increasing dominance of the arms industry and growing power of the state in the

economy helped to implement great change in German economy.

o In many ways this wartime economy was a continuation of peacetime economy,

as a degree of mobilisation of the economy had already occurred, Germany was

still not prepared for Blitzkrieg, and Hitler was unwilling to sacrifice the

population.

By 1942 it had become a war of attrition, showing the weaknesses and lack of distinctive

economical theory of the Nazi regime.

Appraisal of Domestic Policy

Some say it was successful:

o His regime was only undermined by the war, and he managed to regain full

employment, raise wages and gave benefits to workers, and kept businessmen,

farmers, and the army secure and content.

Others say the success was superficial:

o Even without the war his policies were doomed to fail.

o Full employment was only achieved through rearmament, party bureaucracy,

population purges, and the removal of women from the workforce.

o Autarchy was not possible for Germany without military expansion. It depended

on the exploitation of other countries, and to that end required war.

Reich Popularity and Opposition Popularity

Nazi rise to power was very well received due to their strong promises.

Hitler was successful at eliminating unemployment, and kept the loyalty of the workers.

He provided spectacles and entertainment for the people.

Wealthy industrialists felt safe from communists, unionists, and enjoyed the economic

recovery, while farmers were pleased because their farms became inherited, and the army

was pleased at Hitler’s rearmament plans that ignored the Treaty of Versailles provisions.

o Anti-Semitism was also very popular with the population.

Opposition

Communists, Socialists, trade unions, Jews, and monarchists were all ruthlessly repressed

o Leaders of opposition were arrested, trade unions were replaced with Nazi

organizations.

Concentration camps were built to hold and intimidate the opposition.

The SA became a problem once Hitler came to power, as Hitler was afraid of Rohm’s

ambitions, and the SA was not really a representation of Nazi ideals.

The Wehrmacht remained the only organization capable of unseating Hitler

o His policy of rearmament and the Night of the Long Knives appeased army

generals, and many Nazis entered the ranks.

o Though an opposition group was formed within the army, Hitler managed to keep

it at bay and bribed officers to remain loyal.

Failures of Opposition

Once Hitler came to power, there was no legitimate authority that could dismiss and

replace him, unlike the King of Italy with Mussolini

Hitler was too popular with a majority of the public, which only increased with his

diplomatic and military successes. The population was willing to spy on eachother.

Hitler’s ruthless suppression of opposition movements deterred further opposition.

Appraisal Some believe that Hitler was an anomaly in German history, and that he and the Nazis

imposed their will on Germany like foreign conquerors.

Others believe that Hitler’s ideas were part of German tradition, including nationalism,

racism, Social Darwinism, the glorification of war, expansionism, admiration of the

leader and the creation of a personality cult, and anti-Semitism

o The only uniqueness was Hitler’s ruthless application of his ideals

The Nazi regime can be regarded as:

o A logical development of earlier German racist nationalism

o A reaction to the instability and chaos of the times, and the need for order and

national unity.

o A creation of a bourgeoisie as a defence against the threat of Bolshevism.

o A result of the stresses of a move from pre-capitalism to capitalism.

Juan Peron

Born in Lobos, Argentina on October 8, 1895, and was not very rich. He was tall and

athletic, making him a good fit for military school at the age of 16.

o An important event in his growth was his trip to Italy, where he was able to witness

the development of the Fascist state in 1938-1940.

When he returned to Argentina in 1941, he joined a secret group of military officers called

the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos, where he participated in a coup to overthrow the civilian

government. He took on the post of secretary of labor and social welfare in this new regime.

Peron’s influence steadily grew, as he rose to the rank of minister of war, and then vice

president between the years of 1944-1945.

o Popular among the military as well as the country’s labourers due his representation

of both during his upbringing. He had a reputation as a pro-labor military man,

constantly making advancements in labour, and promoting labour to holding the

leading role in the economy of Argentina.

o Even military efforts to lessen Peron’s influence were unsuccessful, as he was

elected president of Argentina in 1946.

o He was elected president three times, 1946-1951, 1952-1955, 1973-1974.

Peron’s administration held many advantages and disadvantages. He kickstarted economic

growth in Argentina, as well as preaching industrialization and government intervention.

o Peron actually promoted a “Third Way” that was neither capitalist nor communist

and is reminiscent of European Fascist dictators such as Benito Mussolini, who

opposed both communism and capitalism and sought an ideology that solved the

problems of the others. While it was NOT fascism, his “Justicialismo” ideology did

try to pave its own path.

Upon becoming president, he announced goals of introducing a five year plan (reminiscent

of those of Stalin and Hitler), increase of salaries, giving priority to pensions, economic

independence and diversification and investment in public transportation.

o His priority on labour was so heavy that he even encouraged striking amongst

employers who did not grant labour benefits.

Accomplishments:

1. Trade unions were formed in every industry

2. Social security was made universal

3. Education was made free to all who qualified. Of course that begs the

question of who would qualified, supposedly those who would support and

help the regime in the future. Education as a means of suppression under

the disguise of progress and government benevolence.

4. Vast low-income housing projects were created.

5. Paid vacations became standard.

6. Argentina Institute for Promotion of Exchange (AIPE) was created; it is a

monopoly handling commodity exports. Centralizing institutions such as

foreign trade seems to be taking a page out of the socialist playbook. He

managed to pay off Argentina’s foreign debt.

7. Making heavy progress in the heavy industry sector, initiating hydroelectric

projects, an iron and steel industry, and moving forward in the coal and

transportation industries.

Peron was unable, however, to hold on to these progressive changes, because his policies

were not radical enough.

o This was seen as well in the Mexican revolution, when leaders such as Francisco

Madero and Venustiano Carranza would come in promising real revolution and

change, only to disappoint the people with policies that were not radical, but only

modestly reformist.

o His refusal to nationalize the land caused a sharp decline in land under cultivation,

doing the Argentinian economy no favours.

Categorizing Peron’s ideology is always difficult for historians as he had elements of many

different nations.

o He urged “neutrality” in World War Two, but clearly admired Hitler’s Germany and

Mussolini’s Italy.

o His policies were much closer to European fascism than they were to socialism.

o Argentina was also a safe haven for Nazi perpetrators, as many escaped punishment

by going into exile there.

Peron’s government did not completely match up with those of Hitler, Mussolini, or

Franco, but they do have a few things in common, including militarism, nationalism, and

class collaboration.

His government espoused

Eventually, he severely restricted constitutional liberties, actually rewriting the law to

allow his re-election in 1951. This is similar to Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz, who

remained in power for 40 years due to constant and fraudulent re-election.

Interestingly, the First Lady of Argentina at the time, Eva Peron, became a very prominent

figure, making frequent public appearances in support of the administration.

o Her untimely death in early 1955 left Peron disoriented, as she was a major factor in

his success, maintaining control over the poor and the working class through her

glamorous nature.

Additionally, a serious economic crisis, with inflation reaching 30 percent, caused tensions

in Argentina.

His most serious blunder was a falling out with the Roman Catholic Church as a result of

their refusal to canonize Eva upon her death. He threatened the separation of church and

state, ended religious instruction in state schools, and planned to legalize divorce and

prostitution.

o In June 1955 Peron had two Catholic priests deported to Italy, to which the navy and

the air force rebelled and dropped bombs on Buenos Aires. 7 churches were burned

down in Buenos Aires by thugs, severely damaging Peron’s reputation.

In August 1955, a carefully organized protest was set up against Peron, at which Peron

made a very inflammatory speech, encouraging his supporters to kill his opponents.

o Army and air force as a result launched into full revolt, and Peron felt that there was

no chance of victory, and resigned the next day.

Peron’s position of opposing both capitalism and communism became an example of

fascist corporatism.

o Fascist corporatism aims at organizing society into corporations with a common

economic interest, all subordinated under the state. It seeks to avoid the class warfare

of Marxist Socialism, as well as the bureaucratic passivity associated with

democracy.

o And at the center of the fascist system is a leader who would reach political power

through a coup d’état or democratic elections. Once in power, the leader would

replace the multi-party system with a one-party system. Peron was not able to fully

implement the fascist half of fascist corporatism, but his focus on organizing the

Argentinian society into corporations was paramount.