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Basic concepts of psychology
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Psychology
Scientific investigation of behaviour and
mental processes
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Biological approach:Focus on the neuronal processes of behaviour,
motivation and emotional processes.
BehaviourismFocus on the directly observed behaviour
Cognitive approachFocus on perception, memory, appraisal,
decision making and other thinking processes.
2.-3. form the behavioural and social learning
psychology
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Psychoanalytic approachConcentrate on conceptualising mental
processes as conflict of intrapsychic forces
Phenomenological approach
Concentrateon the personal experiences and thesubjective interpretation of the world
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Interdisciplinary approaches.
Cognitive science
Investigate mental processes as perception, memory and
decision making as computing mechanisms and create
comprehensive models on multiple scientific bases
(mathematics, computer sciences, neurobiology, linguistics
etc.)
Evolutionary psychology
Focus of the origin of different psychological mechanisms
using the terms of genetics, ethology and physiology
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Basic disciplines:
1. Experimental psychology
Focus on the experimentation concerning the basic mental processes.
2. Developmental psychology Focus on the human development
3. Personality psychology
Focus on the constructs of human personality
4. Social psychology
Focus on the nature and organisation of human interpersonal relationships
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Applied disciplines:
School and education psychology
Work and organisation psychology
Military psychology
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Clinical disciplines:
Clinical psychology
Focus onthe assessment and treatment
of mental/behavioural disorders
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Health Psychology
Focus onhealth behaviour andprevention
with modification of those behaviours that
carry epidemiological risk.
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Medical psychology
Focus on the psychological issues in general
medical practice e.c. doctor patient
relationship, communication, assessmentand treatment of psychological complaints,
symptoms and disorders frequently
associated with general medical problemsand
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Behavioural medicine
Focus oncomprehensive management of
complex, chronic physical disorders (e.c.
CHD, bronchial asthma, pain, diabetes,
chronic GI diseases)
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Theory of Mind I.
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Intrapsychic conflicts
Determinims
Libido
Early childhood development
Unconscioous mental process
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The unconscious mental process
Much of the human mental activity occurs outsideof awareness
These activity influences behaviour and conscious
thoughts but not available to voluntary recall
The unconscious process represents drives,instincts and wishes, impulses, fantasies
considered unacceptable
The unconscious process produces attitudes,
thinking patterns and behaviours as part of thepersonality (conscience, defence mechanisms,
automatic behaviours)
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Psychic determinism
All mental activity is meaningful and is
connected with previous life experiences.
No mental activity is accidental or
meaningless.
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Drives
Drives is the motivation behind mental processes
and behaviour
The manifestation of unconscious drives are:
wishes, fantasies, impulses
There are two major categories of drives: libido
(sexual drive) and thanatos (aggressive drive)
Drives press toward gratification and discharge. In the
infant and child the actions are more direct and overt
(primary process) then gradually meet social standards
(secondary process).
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The importance ofpsychosexual
development
oral stage (primary drive satisfaction is
achieved by sucking)anal stage (primary drive satisfaction is
achieved by voluntary control of urinary and
anal expulsion and retention)
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Oedipal stage
Genitals became the primary source of interest and
pleasure
Oedipus complex (child wishes to have an
exclusive relationship with the opposite sex parent)
and oedipal conflict (fear that the same sex parent
will be displeased and angry with the child for his
rivalrous wishes). The resolution is theidentification with the same sex parent.
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Latency (primary interest on peers and
socialisation)Genital stage: Previous experiences are
integrated to primary genial sexuality.
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Defence mechanisms:
Mental operations that function outside of
awareness to ward off anxiety and maintain
a sense of safety, self esteem, and well beingAlong with maturation emerge in a
developmental sequence
Some defences may emerge episodically
some may become habitual as the part of
the personality.
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Structural model of mind:
Id the unconscious, psychic representation
of drives
Ego is a group of functions that provide foradaptation to the demand of the drives and to
the requirements of external (sociocultural)
reality.
Superego: represents the moral, ethical
values, judgements, conscience and the ego-
ideal
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Psychoanalysis as treatment:
Main objective: Cope with fixation or
regression
Free association and dream analysisClarification: obtaining further associations about issues and
relationships
Confrontation: Pointing out the defences and other
unconscious actions by identifying connections, continuities
and inconsistencies
Interpretation: Conceptualisation the nature of the patient s
unconscious wishes and thought through clarification and
confrontation
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Transference: Attitudes, feelings, thoughts and
wishes that involve important figures in the past are
unconsciously re-enacted with individuals (therapist,
medical staff, physician) in the present.
Counter-transference: The same process but
occurs on the part of the therapist toward the patient.
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Behavioural and SocialLearning Psychology
Theory of Mind II.
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All behaviours and personality development
represent the acquisition and organisation of
reactions, responses and (perceptual,cognitive and behavioural) patterns. These
originate in and are governed by learning
that are subject primarily to environmentalinfluence
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Behaviourism
Subject of study the objectively measurable
behaviour
external behaviour - directly observable
internal behaviour - emotions and cognition
(could be monitoring with instrumentation)
empirism and experimentation
emphasis on learning
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Classic or respondent conditioning (Pavlov)
stimulus: cue from an internal or external event
response: a behaviour provoked by a stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) e.g. food
unconditioned response (UCR)
conditioned stimulus (CS) e.g. bell ringing
conditioned response (CR)
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acquisition phase: the period when the conditioned response is
learned
discrimination: some stimuli which similar to CS can elicit the CR
but others not
generalisation: (almost) all stimuli which similar to CS can elicit
the CR
extinction: CS loses the power to elicit CR (by no longer paired
with the CS) or response no longer follows the behaviour
aversive conditioning: an aversive stimulus (e.g. feeling nausea)
pairs an unwanted behaviour (e.g. drinking alcoholic beverages)
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Operant conditioning (Skinner)
behaviour is determined by its
consequences
actions reward - one action (or some
actions) are reinforced others are extinct
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+reinforcement: increasing the probability of anaction by a + stimulus (e.g. giving rewards)
-reinforcement: increasing the probability of an
action by removing an aversive event
+punishment: decreasing the probability of anaction by a negative stimulus
- punishment: decreasing the probability of an
action by removing a + stimulus
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Problems with punishment:
reinforcements are much more
effective
punishment models aggressivebehaviour
negative emotional responses are
conditioned incidentally
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Social learning (Bandura)
Modelling:
facilitate appropriate behaviour
can facilitate/inhibit behavioural preferences
from own repertoire
can influence emotional responses and
anticipatory arousal
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Self regulation
self observation and monitoring
self evaluation and judgement
self reaction
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Self efficacy
success experiences,
vicarious experiences
verbal persuasion
physiological state
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Cognitive and behavioural therapies
well elaborated treatment protocols
collaborative relationships
aims/goals/models/explanations are
explicit for the patient
time limited
mainly self help
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Comparison ofbehavioural
and psychoanalytic model:
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Behaviour is
determined by
currentcontingencies,
reinforcement
history and geneticendowment
Intrapsychic
processes
determinebehaviour
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Problem behaviour is
the focus of study and
treatment
Behaviour is
interpreted as a
symbol ofintrapsychic
processes and
symptoms of
unconscious conflicts.The underlying
conflict is the focus of
treatment
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Contemporary
variables, such as
contingencies ofreinforcement, are the
focus of analysis
Historical variables,
such as childhood
experiences, are thefocus of analysis
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Treatment entails
application of
learning principlesand cognitive
conceptualisation of
beliefs, attitudes and
behaviour
Treatment consists of
bringing unconscious
conflicts intoconsciousness
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Objective
observation
measurement andexperimentation are
the methods employed
Subjective methods of
interpretation of
behaviour andinference regarding
unobservable events
(e.g. intrapsychic
processes) areemployed
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Theory is based on
experimentation
Theory is
predominantly based
on case histories
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Tenets can be
formulated into
testable hypothesesand evaluated through
experimentation
Many tenets cannot be
formulated into
testable hypotheses
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Psychological assessment
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Psychological interview I.
General description
Appearance
Overt behaviour and psychomotor activity
- Manierism
- Stereotyped behaviour
- Agitation
- Psychomotor retardation
Attitude
- Hostile
- Passive
- Complainant
- Co-operative
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Mood and affectivity
Mood
- Depressed
- Euphoric
- Alternating
Affect
- Anger
- Anxiety- Euphory
Appropriateness of affects
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Speech characteristics
Talkative
Unspontaneous
Voluble
Responsive/unresponsive
Bizarre
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Perception
No perceptual disturbances
Illusions
Hallucinations
- Visual/auditory/olfactory/tactile
- Scenic/coomentatory/imperative
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Thought process
Loosening of associations
Flight of ideas, racing thoughts
Incoherence
Neologisms
Thought blocking
Tenacity
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Content of thought
Delusions
Paranoia
Preoccupaitons
Obsessions and compulsions
Phobias
Suicidal ideas
Poverty of content
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Sensorium and cognition I.
Consciousness
Orientation (time, place, person, situation)
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Sensorium and cognition II.
Memory
Remote
Recent past (months)
Recent (few days)
Immediate recall
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Sensorium and cognition III.
Concentration and attention
Reading/writing
Abstract thoughts (proverbs)
Information and intelligence
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