Bedan Journal of Psychology 2008

Aldefer’s Model in the Formation of Gangs in San Pedro

Edilbert H. Aguilar

The study was conducted to determine what motivates people to create a gang. The qualitative method of research was used for this study to collect and analyze the gathered data. A self concept interview was conducted to draw together the qualitative data. The study involves five male gang leaders living in the area of San Antonio San Pedro Laguna. Their age ranges from 19 to 22 years old. Based from the results the researcher concluded that gang leaders create their own gang for protection from other gangs who dominated and bullied them or pushed them around when they did not have a gang and because of the respect that they get from their gang members. This research implies that gang leaders are motivated to create gangs due to the need for security, respect and social acceptance.

The rampant incident of youth violence and crimes has been a problem of the society for quite some time. About 6 out of 10 incidents (from barangay San Antonio SPL 2005) are caused by the youth. What started from small groups that strived for individuality from others, to the current and quite escalating numbers of reports of violence and destruction gangs are causing, the subject of who, why and how these gangs are formed has been catching the attention of the researchers, foreign and local, especially the current researcher since gangs are often established in his hometown.

With such deviant behavior roaming around the area, people tend to come up with their own explanations of why such behavior occurs. These explanations are of course limited to their own interpretation, just enough for them to understand or just enough to make a conversation. But nevertheless, the question arises, what pushes such individuals to create a group of people that cause mayhem and destruction?

The same story has been heard over and over again from what is seen in the news about gang wars, robbery and extortion, possession of deadly weapons, drugs and sometimes destruction of private and government properties, such crimes are committed, why? …they were driven by their need to survive.

The researcher uses Clayton Alderfer’s theory which is the simplified Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Aldefer’s states that there are different levels of needs that a person should achieve, that man’s necessities should be fulfilled to live. It also states that the needs do not follow a hierarchy. Alderfer mentioned that one can move on or even skip to a need regardless of whether a need can or cannot be completely fulfilled.

How then does the theory explain why gang leaders create gangs? Like how the old saying goes, “It is easier to be broken if you stand alone, but stand together, you can become stronger” Gang leaders create gangs in such a way that the gang is motivated by the same needs, thus it would be more efficient for them to achieve their needs if they move as one group.

1

The researcher focuses on this concept in hopes of identifying whether the factors that motivate the creation of gangs follow Alderfer’s E-R-G theory or is not bound by such process.

The study aims to answer the question: What are the motivational factors that lead to the formation of gangs?

In this study, the researcher aims to identify what motivates a person to create a group called a gang. The researcher wants to identify what were the factors that affect a person and pushes them to create gangs.

Review of Related Literature

According to Le and Jenkins (1993), gangs are “deviant" groups whose activities were considered violations of folkways, rather than clear violations of laws. But today when you hear the word gang it is all about the group of people that always violates the law rather than maltreatment of folkways.

Moreover Dresag’s, case study, La Follette school of Public Affairs (2001) states that young people join or form gangs for a variety of reasons. For some, it is not even a conscious decision, but rather simply following friends, neighbors, and relatives. In most communities in the barangay, boredom is the most common reason that young people join gangs and/or abuse drugs and alcohol. For some, gangs offer an opportunity for belonging, excitement, and employment, albeit in ways that involves dangerous and illegal activities.

According to Rizzo and Mark (2003), social, economic, and cultural factors may have pushed many adolescents in the direction of forming a gang. Protections from other gangs and perceived general well being are key factors. Some researchers contend that the "underclass" status of minority youth serves to push them into gangs. Feeling marginal, adolescents join gangs for social relationships that give them a sense of identity. For some youth, gangs provide a way of solving social adjustment problems, particularly the trials and tribulations of adolescence. In some communities, youth are intensively recruited or coerced into gangs.

In addition, Tuckman’s (1965) group formation theory goes through a five step process. The first step is defined as the forming stage; this stage involves the joining process. The second stage is known as storming; in this stage, the members of the group start to realize their roles. The third stage is norming, in this stage the members perform constructive roles to show their talents and be identified. The fourth stage is termed as performing, the group has identified its leader and each person knows their role in the group, at this point they can now be called a team. And lastly the mourning stage, this level of group formation deals with the group’s identity.

Summing it all up, according to Dresag (2001) gangs are formed because of the “bandwagon” mentality wherein young people make decisions because of the influence of the majority in the community while Rizzo and Mark (2003) view gang formations as

2

a form of fulfilling needs like protection and problem solving. And finally for Tuckman (1965) gangs are formed through a 5 stage process. With all the different reasons involved in gang formation, the general term that can be concluded from all theories is survival. All reasons that lead to gang formation always involve the survival of self. It comes natural for individuals to join a bigger and secure group rather than risk being alone.

According to Platow M., Foddy M. and Oldmeadow J. (2005) the social identity approach, psychological group formation comes about through two related processes: self-categorization and social identification. Self-categorization is a cognitive process through which a collection of individuals, including the self, become perceived as a single unit. This occurs primarily through contrasts at the group level. For example, a comparison between countries bidding for the Olympic Games makes self-categorization (and self-definition) in terms of one's nationality more likely than self-categorization in terms of, say, gender. Self-categorization in terms of a specific group membership is also more likely when that group is highly accessible in memory. More importantly, the social identity approach suggests that in any given social context, one level of self-categorization is most salient, and it is in terms of this level that self and others are evaluated.

In addition Geen’s (1995 stated in Puyat J. 2005) theories of aggression emphasize the casual role of negative emotions and its interpretation in aggressive behavior. Studies have shown that any unpleasant emotion will predispose a person to be aggressive (Anderson and Anderson 1996, Berkowitz 1993 and DeNeve 1992 Griffit and Veiftch 1971). Whether that person will act aggressively or violently will depend on the assessment of the social context, which includes among other things, the attribution that makes the assessment of the retaliatory capabilities of the other person and the beliefs about aggression (Geen, 1998 and Aronson, Wilson and Akert 1997, stated in Puyat, J., 2005).

Moreover Aldefer’s theory is divided into three levels existence, relatedness and growth. This levels state the needs that a person wants to fulfill (ChangingMinds.org, 2003). The first level or existence is all about the basic necessity of a human person and focuses on ones existence. This level includes Maslow’s theory on physiological and security needs. The second level or relatedness is basically all about the social needs, the need to belong, to be loved and to focus on social identity or social status. The third level or growth is the self actualization or the transcendence. In this level there is the desire to grow. This level shows the fulfillment of a person the final stage of their needs.

3

Theoretical Framework

Aldefer’s hierarchy of needs is basically based from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Aldefer’s theory focuses on human needs that must be fulfilled. This states that the three levels of needs which were the existence, relatedness and growth and Aldefer give emphasized that it can only be achieved through a step by step process from the bottom portion going up. He clearly indicated that one cannot proceed to the next level without completely fulfilling or at least continuously fulfilling the current level.

Existence

At the lowest level is the need to stay alive and safe, now and in the foreseeable future. Maslow's Physiological and Safety needs occur when an individual has satisfied the existence needs, when there is the feeling of safety and physical comfort.

Relatedness

At the next level, once safe and secure, individuals consider their social needs. They are now interested in relationships with other people and what they think of us. When there are relations, there is a feeling of sense of identity and position within the immediate society. This encompasses Maslow's Love/belonging and Esteem needs.

Growth

4

GROWTHSelf-esteem andSelf-actualization

RELATEDNESSBeing understood and

accepted by people

EXISTENCEPhysiological andSecurity factors

At the highest level, individuals seek to grow, be creative for one’s self and for the environment. When there is successful growth, there is a sense of wholeness, achievement and fulfillment. This covers Maslow's Self-actualization and Transcendence

Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework of the research was based on Aldefer’s theory on the hierarchy of needs. The first stage or existence stage focus on one’s need, it is all about fulfilling physiological needs. In this stage a person create a group to fulfill the basic needs and to give them protection from other groups or other people. A person seeks another person with the same dilemma that they are having so that they could satisfy both their needs if they work together. This stage also focuses on security needs. If they join together they will have a better chance of surviving. They could count on each other; to look out for one another and because of this; many more like them, seeking the same remedy will join them. The second stage is all about social needs. If they have been together and have been taking care of each other, they will establish a special relationship more so like a family because they help each other and no matter what happens they stick together. It also focus on the ego needs, this stage a person has proven his worth or what they are capable of doing. And the third and final stage is the self actualization or transcendence. In this stage the group leader can turn the group into a more solid body, namely a gang. This stage may come in different order but each stage is subject to different levels of intensity.

5

Form a group to fulfill the basic needs and to provide security to

protect the needs they have acquired.

Each member feels that the group is their family because the group helps them to get their needs and

gain respect from the group members.

Gang formation in Barangay San Antonio San Pedro, Laguna

Method

Participants

The research used gang leaders that are still active as the participants so the data to be gathered is more accurate.

The researcher can easily establish a direct contact with the gang leaders because they are all acquaintances, this made data gathering easier. The researcher conducted a personal perspective interview on why gangs are formed with 5 males with ages ranging from 18 to 25 years old. Four of the participants were from the villages and subdivisions of San Antonio while the remaining one came from the squatter’s area. Barangay San Antonio San Pedro, Laguna is the prime location for the research since most of the gangs are concentrated within its vicinity.

Materials/Instruments

The researcher used a structured interview to dig up the data concerning the problem of the study. The set of guide questions contain questions related to what motivates them to create gang and how they deal with their gang members and a recorder to record the conversation.

Research Design

For this study, the qualitative method approach was used. The researcher utilized the “pakikipagkwentuhan” method by Pepua (1982) to interview the participants and have a free flowing conversation so that it will help in determining why they create gangs. It measured and analyzed the motivations of gang leaders why they create their groups or gang.

Procedure

The researcher identified the active gang leaders and gets the contact information from the Barangay records. The researcher chose five gang leaders, those of which are easy to establish a direct contact. The researcher had a free flowing conversation with the participants and the researcher also had frequent meetings and constant communication with the participants. At this point, the researcher establishes rapport with the participants by giving them the freedom to choose whether they can continue to participate in the study. The interview took place at the participants’ respective houses and would resemble a “drinking” session so that the participants will be comfortable and can express them selves in their own way while the researcher is acquiring the data’s needed for the research. After acquiring all the responses, the researcher tallies the common responses and interprets them accordingly.

6

Data Analysis

The researcher generalized the gathered information to identify the most common answer of the participants. From this information from the participants, the researcher analyzes the gathered data to discover what the motivational factors are that pushes gang leaders to create gangs.

7

Results and Discussion

Table 1.

Aldefer’s theory on Gang Formation

The participants for this study were all from San Antonio San Pedro Laguna. They were all males and ages range from 19 to 21, four of them were catholic, and the remaining one is an Iglecia ni Christo, even though he has different religion he doesn’t discriminate his catholic gang members, and he doesn’t care whether his members were Iglecia ni Christo or not, he gives respect to his gang members even though he has the highest position. Four of the participants were from the villages of San Antonio, their family have sufficient funds to give their basic need to live in a day, but they spend more time with their gang members than their family, because they can do anything they want if they are together, one of the participants came from a poor family, unlike the four other participants the researcher has hard time to reach and locate this specific participant, because he doesn’t stay at home often he spends more time with his friends or gang members than his family, because in his gang he is considered as the father and he is respected by his gang members.

Even though the participants were from different environments and have different status in life they all have some common reasons why they create a gang. They all have different gang but they have almost the same perspective about their gang and their gang members.

A. Existence

One of the key levels of Aldefer’s hierarchy of needs theory is existence which includes physiological and security factors. Existence has an important role in motivation because it motivates a person to stay alive and feel safe, now and foreseeable future. When we had satisfied our existence needs, we feel safe and physically comfortable. This includes Maslow’s Physiological needs and safety needs.

The respondents had almost the same reasons why they create a gang; to fulfill their basic needs like food, drinks etc.., the need to be protected from the power of other

8

gangs that overwhelmed them when they go out alone, for respect and the fulfillment that they get from their gang members, which they consider as their own family. This level is supported by the answers of three participants of this study that is based from their answers.

Gangsters N’s narration on why he created his gang is because of he feels security from other groups, especially when they were strolling at night. He said “and other gang, the other group, we need protection for our selves, for my self, because my gang member think of it that way. That’s it, I’m brave, I’m not afraid of the police, I’m happy, what more? And the protection that I get, because they give me protection, group to group, the first one they protect is the leader”.

Although he came from a well-off family and can easily support his basic needs, he also said that his gang members helps him fulfill his urge to drink liquor, because he and his gang members share their money to buy drinks so that they can to fulfill their desire to drink. Based from his answer it can relate to Aldefer’s theory on existence, because under this stage are physiological needs and security needs. The participants need protection from other gang that pushes him to create his gang to fulfill his security needs.

On the other hand gangster P, age 21 stated that he created his gang, because other gangs treat him and his friends as under dogs and push them to do something they don’t want to do. He said that “plenty of reasons, its just the thing that pushes me is that when you go to a certain place and there were gangs and they will slap you in the head and they will push you around”. He also created a gang to unite his friends so that they could be protected from other gangs and can also fight them if necessary.

Gangster A, a former gang member, created his own gang to protect the youth in his community from other gangs that strolls in their neighborhood at night, which sometimes hurt youth in their community. He said that “the company that I get from the gang makes me happy, but I have friends inside the gang, that’s the reason, they told me that I should make my own gang, that’s what pushes me to create a gang”. “The things that my friend told me, when I saw them beaten down it makes me feel to fight back”. “Yes, for protection”.

Like gangster N and P, he creates a gang to fulfill his needs of security. He needed protection so that he will not be dominated and pushed around by other groups.

B. Relatedness

This is this second level of Aldefer’s E-R-G theory. This level includes the social needs of a person in other words this shows the social status of a person. Individuals become interested in relationships with other people and what other people think about them. When in a group, individuals feel a sense of identity within the group. This is like Maslow’s love/belonging needs.

9

In this level, people search the group in which they can belong. This is were they find self importance. People in this stage want to be self secured in the society. They don’t want to be left alone. Like gangsters U, D and P, they have family problems. They were both the “utusan” (the one who does all the cleaning in the family) in their family. That is why they created gangs, so that in their gangs which they were the founded they cannot be treated the way they were treated in their homes.

Gangster U, the older of 2 siblings, said that he has been considered as the black sheep of the family. He doesn’t have the freedom he deserves because of something he did when he was in high school. He created a gang to gain the respect that his family has not given him. He said that “in our home, they always pushes me around, they think I’m a rebellious child, hard headed, black sheep of the family, that’s why I don’t get any respect from them. Then I created my group, I get the respect from my members and they understand me”.

When he is with his gang members he feels like no one can hurt him, because they are there to fight beside him when needed. He said that “the respect and understanding, because we have the same way of thinking”. He also stated that “am I a fool? I have the respect I need and understanding, but if my family has given me the respect that I need, maybe I will think to stop my gang”. He said that in his gang he found what he wanted to have from his family. His gang members give him the respect that his family has not given him. And when he is with his gang they have the same way of thinking, they can easily relate to one another.

On the other hand gangster D has a different problem, and he also comes from a family in the squatter’s area. And he has some problems when it comes with dealing with the youth from the villages. He said that “because they always give the people here hard times, that’s why I think to create a group that will fight them”. He also said that his brother is a former gang leader and no one dared to touch his brother, that’s why he created a gang, he said that “ yes, I’m jealous of my brother, he is tough, no one can touch him”. He also said that he created a gang for companionship and respect, “there were many people to tell them what you wanted them to do, the girls, right?, you cant tell.., you’re a leader, no one can touch you..”. Based from his answers, he created a gang to follow in his brother’s footsteps, where his brother was so dominating in their community. Plus, he created a gang so that girls will be close to him, because of the power he has over his gang members.

Gangster P has created a gang because his former gang has been dismantled, because their former leader died because of a gang fight. He said that “because our gang leader had died in a gang war, that’s why I create a gang, to unite our former group and promote brotherhood”.

He created one, because he wanted to unite his former group mates and to promote brotherhood in his community and he wants to show his former gang that his gang is better, because he could lead them much better than his former leader. He also

10

told the researcher that he had formed a gang, because he has been bullied by other minors from other gang.

C. Growth

At the highest level, individuals seek to grow and be creative for themselves and to efficiently cope with their surroundings. When growing mentally and spiritually, there is a sense of wholeness and with these we achieve the things that fulfill our lives. This stage covers Maslow’s Self-actualization and transcendence. This is the stage were a person is having a self-actualization and were they boost their self esteem. In this stage a person will come up with a solution to the problem at hand and possess enough courage to implement what they need to do.

Based from what the participants had said, they formed a group called a gang due to the following; the first reason was for protection from other gangs that dominated and pushed them around for quite sometime, second is peer pressure and third was they get respect form their subordinates. This has motivated them to create a group that is called a gang.

This stage is supported by the result of the study. All five participants self-actualizations results to the creation of their gang. They have almost the same reasons; for protection from other gangs and to gain social status, which led them to their self-actualization to create a gang, fulfilling their needs from the lowest to their highest need.

Conclusion and Implication

Based from the result of the study, the researcher concluded, that the need to be protected form other gangs is one of the defining factors that motivate a person in San Pedro to create one. The gang is there to fulfill their need of protection and security, especially from the other gangs that has dominated them throughout most of their stay. Other factors like social relationship and peer pressure had also pushed a person to create a gang, because of their fear that they will be left alone. Respect, also counts as another motivating factor in the creation of gangs, because they did not get the respect they want from others.

The youth in this generation are more sophisticated than before; also they are more curious in finding ways to solve their problems on their own. They are more independent and would rather tell their problems to their friends rather than their families.

The findings in this research implicate that the youth today find different ways to solve or fulfill their needs. The need of protection from others (gangs or other social groups), has pushed them to think of a solution to solve such a need. And the need to belong and the need to be accepted by other people, has also pushed them and motivated them to create such a group.

11

This result implies that most gangs need protection from other gangs. They need protection because they don’t feel secure in their community. They feel that other gangs will take advantage of them if they stand alone, and don’t have enough protection with them. It also shows that their community has not been given enough security by the barangay police.

This research shows that if a community has enough security, it can maintain peace and order and people will feel more secure, from any kind of group and will not think of the things like creating gangs to fulfill their needs of security.

This research also shows that families should be aware of the things that their children need. They should also consider that their child has different personalities and that they should be sensitive enough to care for each one.

This research can help solve the problem of the government when it comes to youth crimes. They can prevent gang violence by preventing gang creation, by giving more priority on security and more police patrol at night, so that the youth will not be afraid to go out even, without the protection from a gang because they will feel more secure.

This study also implies the social relationship of a person, because a person needs to meet a certain level of respect and security from the people in his environment.

12

References

Ashby and DeGraaf, Reconsidering Group Process in Challenge Education:Paradigmatic Shifts, University of Northern Iowa, 1993

ChangingMinds.org, ERG Theory retrieved from www.changingminds.org, 2003

Dresang, Case Studies Intro, La Follette School of Public Affairs, retrieved from http://Case%20Studies%20homepage.htm, 2001

Harte, Groups and Groupwork, Essays Online, retrieved from www.lycos.com

Le and Jenkins, Youth Gang, The Pennsylvania State University, Abington-Ogontz Campus retrieved from http://thesis/index.htm, 1993

Haslam, S. Alexander, Penelope Oakes, Katherine J. Reynolds, and John C. Turner. 1999."Social Identity Salience and the Emergence of Stereotype Consensus." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25:809-18.

McGarty, Craig, S. Alexander Haslam, Karen J. Hutchinson, and John C. Turner. 1994. "The effects of salient group memberships on persuasion." Small Group Research 25:267-293.

Oakes, P. 1987. "The salience of social categories." Pp. 117-144, Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory, edited by J. C. Turner, M. A. Hogg, P. Oakes, S. D. Reicher, and M. S. Wetherell. NY: Basil Blackwell.

Pe-Pua, R. Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, 1982

Puyat, J. Aggression and Group Membership: A Social Representations Approach To The Study of Aggression, Philippine Journal of Psychology, Vol. 32, #2, pp. 381-397, 1999

Rizzo and Mark, Why Do Children Join Gangs? Journal of Gang Research, 11(1), 65-Illinois Department of Corrections, Community Services, IL, US Source 75, from APA PsycNET, 2003

Oldmeadow J., Platow M., Foddy M.,: “ Task-group as self-categories: A social Identity Perspective on status generalization” http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Egrpproc/crisp/crisp.10.18.html

Tuckman, Bruce W. (1965) 'Developmental sequence in small groups', Psychological

13

Bulletin, 63, 384-399. The article was reprinted in Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal - Number 3, Spring 2001 and is available as a Word document: http://dennislearningcenter.osu.edu/references/GROUP%20DEV%20ARTICLE.doc.

Predictor of Managerial Potential: The Case of Employees in a Food Industry

Joanne Desiree M. Battung

This study investigated the relationship of Leadership Personality and Leadership Potential for the Successful Selection of Managers for a Food Industry Company using standardized tests. The Gordon Personal Profile Inventory is used to determine the Leadership Personality and another test is used to measure the Leadership Potential Quotient, the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire. Results showed that both genders have different Leadership Personalities but both genders have the same high scores for Leadership Potential Quotient. Although both genders have different personalities they are still have the potential to become good leaders in the near future if trained properly and are able to learn more leadership skills. The results showed the relationship of the respondents Leadership Personalities to their Leadership Potential Quotient.

Everyone can agree that there are a lot of diversities in leadership. Almost everyone agrees that there is a school for leaders but it was never been easy defining the traits and skills necessary to become a good and effective leader. Most of us believe that when we see a person we can easily say whether that person has the quality or the characteristic of an effective leader. But most of the time, we fail to see that this can also lead to great danger if we point to a person whom we think is a n effective leader without any formal assessment.

According to Mark Anderson (1991) a good and effective leader is someone who can manage a group of people and bring out the best in each individual. He realizes the potential of each individual it their teams and put this potential into good use for the benefit of the group. He is both known as a provider of direction and guidance to his subordinates. Other known characteristics known to people who are effective leaders are responsible, have emotional stability and high stability. Responsibility is one keyword everyone knows. Being responsible is being able to stick to job even though the job that they have does not greatly interest them or their team.

That having emotional stability are those who are generally well- balanced person, free from anxieties and nervous tensions and does not get easily frustrated even when working under high pressure. They are able to communicate well and express their feelings. Those people who have high sociability not only like to work with people and are very likable but also take criticisms as constructive to their growth and do not take it personally. Also they are able to say their ideas without being afraid of being rejected and are usually the ones who are able to pint point great ideas among the rest of ideas during brainstorming sessions of the group.

14

These personalities can be seen with people and justified if they are given formal assessment. In line with the leadership potential, having these characteristics, it is much easier for a person to lead a group through thick and thin. We use formal assessments because these are more systematically designed to explore key quality leadership qualities.

In the workplace, managers and supervisors needed key leadership qualities to make sound decisions for their teams. The usual or standard procedures for promotion are that first, managers and supervisors start as trainees and are under the supervision of managers. Their managers are the one who gives the recommendation for them to be promoted on a yearly or annual basis depending on the company policy. Screen interviews are done by the HR department along with personality profile tests but never given with a leadership tests to the candidate. This has been the standard procedure for choosing potential leaders practiced by many companies for so many years here in our country. Problem is that there is no known standardized test for choosing managers that currently used in the food and industry business sector. They choose managers as to what the researcher has stated above.

Although many have immersed leadership tests and interviews to candidates for promotion, it is still not enough since some tests are not actually designed for their type of work. There are some personality profile tests that may fail to asses a person’s personality in relation to leadership potential. The HR departments are only able to track the candidate’s work ethic and relationship once they are promoted and mingling with their colleagues. With the wrong people given the wrong job, it will cause a lot of trouble and tension in the work place causing most companies waste money through lost income and waste time finding the right person to do their job well.


Leadership Potential

Selection of potential effective leaders is usually through resumes and cover letters and decided upon the final interview whether a person is qualified or not. Unfortunately, interviews are highly subjective and easily influenced by appearance, mannerisms, and conversational skills (Anderson, 1991).

Frederick Wendel and colleagues (1992) pointed out that many people are wrongly chosen for their careers through bad decision making. Thus, passing off a person having leadership potential after an interview would costs any company later on, millions of income and opportunities due to traits lacking or presumably not there in the first place, in that person which was not found out about with interviews and resumes. Most schools just choose in the pool of student leaders much like choosing for them a career not actually suited for them. Sometimes it is just a name drop among professors that a certain student of theirs is very responsible in class brushing it off as quality of a potential leader then sending them off to leadership programs.

15

Leadership potential is measured most commonly by tests having open ended questions. Asking the subjects whether he/ she disagree or agree about behaviors or beliefs is usually in a Likert- type tests. Scores are determined by comparing tests with others or a group who took the tests. Having this kind is formal assessment and having checked by a non- biased group would definitely give due rest to future companies about future opportunities.

Leadership tests are mostly partnered with personality tests to pint point the qualities one is expected of a leader. Aside from noting down and identifying people who have been good leaders outside of the job, it is still best for these people to take formal tests (Smith, 1996).

Leadership Traits

The increasing rate of change in today’s business industry has grown great ever since. Psychology has contributed greatly to the field of business by determining the key traits of acknowledged leaders. Many Psychological tests have been used to determine what characteristic are the most common in many successful leaders. List of these characteristics are used by companies to help their supervisors develop their leadership skills.

Nowadays, leaders are not only leader, but also learners and teachers. They are able to do paradigm shifts in order to help change their organization for the better. There are now also visionaries and have a strong sense of work to build integrity in their organizations (Lashway, 1997).

Raymond Cattell has developed the Leadership Potential Equation in 1954 based from the study of military leaders is used today to determine traits that characterizes an effective leader. Traits included are Emotional Stability, Dominance, Enthusiasm, Social Boldness, Self- Assurance, Compulsiveness and Tough- mindedness. (Anderson, 1991)

Leadership traits included are also traits that can help motivate others to work and lead people “out of the box”. They are able to envision the future and convince others the vision is worth working on. These traits are Empathy, charisma, maturity, intuitiveness and team orientation. Most of these traits are called people pleaser traits (Clark & Clark, 1996 cited by Lashway et. al 1997).

Managerial Characteristics and Gender Stereotypes

According to Marger’s Normative Theory of Discrimination (1991) suggests that gender stereotyping is a product of conformity to norms or beliefs that is passed on through socialization. It is a widely shared belief that people have about each gender. Stereotyping can misrepresent any individual’s perception by maximizing the seeming differences between social groups and minimizing the differences within them. Successful manager is often characterized as a masculine role thus the management is regarded as a territory of men. Women are then perceived as inappropriate as a manager. Many companies choose men as managers because they seem to be more effective

16

managers than women as perceived by most. Studies on men and women executives found differences in work assignments. Male executives had more overseas assignments while women had more assignments with non-authority relationships (Lyness & Thompson, 2000). Women can be discouraged to seek higher positions by a corporate climate that alienates them or by counterproductive behavior and harassment from their male colleagues (Woo, 2000). Leadership in the Filipino Context

Even with gender segregation in the country, women in our society enjoyed a higher status than their Asian counterparts. Filipino women have steadily progressed up the business ladder in the modern years but their rise has been slow and difficult and the administrative field is still male-dominated.

With the literature shown the standardized testing will be done in choosing managers in the workplace would hopefully elevate biases that could hinder ones promotion. The formal assessments for both personality and leadership potential now proliferate; the researcher will now make use of these tools to conduct researches on whether a person s personality will affect its leadership quotient potential and its significance with each other. Whether having high scores of the said leadership characteristics will also have the same score or lower score with their leadership potential quotient. Perhaps, his co-relation does not have any effect on either the leadership potential or the personality of the employee. These are some hypothesis the researcher wants to clarify in the current research. This study also aims to use tests to predict personality of candidates in line with leadership qualities explained earlier.

This study aims to examine whether employee’s personality as revealed by the Gordon Personal Profile Interpretation (GPPI), is related to their Leadership Potential which will be revealed by the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ).

In particular, the proposed study seeks to know the personality profile of each respondent, their level of leadership potential quotient, the significance of their scores between the personality and the leadership quotient of male and female respondents, the relationship of their scores in their leadership potential quotient and leadership personality. Furthermore, the researcher hypothesizes that there is a significant difference in the leadership potential quotient of the respondents and significance in the level of scores between male and female respondents.

17


Fig 1. Basis for Successful Managerial Selection

The framework of the study shows that Leadership Personalities such as Responsibility, Emotional Stability, Sociability and Ascendancy that is measured by the Gordon Personal Profile Interpretation and the Leadership Potential measured by the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire are two factors that can affect the Successful Selection of a Manager. If the employee’s score percentages are on the average to high score in their Leadership Personalities and in their Leadership Potential then the rate of Success for choosing a manager is also high to average. Likewise if the employees score percentages are on the low to below average scores in their Leadership Personalities and Leadership Potential then the rate of success for choosing a manager is also low to below average.

A 50th percentile above from the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire is that the employee would most likely become a good leader in the future is properly trained. The test Leadership Opinion Questionnaire plays a vital role for the successful selection of managers due to its validity in giving out potential good leaders that are vital for handling teams or positions in different organizations in the company. Employees or managers who are more responsible, sociable and possess high emotional stability are expected to be better in handling people and are more confident in decision-making. One may not poses these traits as they work but if their HRD or employers can easily learn if they are more geared to working with other people than to be working alone by themselves. These permits the employee to be more equipped in dealing with team tasks in order to help his

18

LEADERSHIP PERSONALITY

LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL

Successful Managerial Selection

or her subordinates become more reliable and much more efficient worker. This in due will open up more opportunities for their careers later on in life.

Furthermore, the level of Leadership Potential and Personalities of the employees will help determine whether they are more of a follower rather then that of a leader.

Method

Participants

A total of 200 managers candidates for promotion, working in a private organization in the field of food and industry based in the Philippines participated in the study. The numbers are equally divided with having a 100 female and 100 male managers. Most of them are with the company for the past five years.


Leadership Potential. To measure the leadership potential of the respondents, the test of Edwin Fleishman, Leadership Opinion Questionnaire was used. It has a reliability of 0.7. The LOQ is a standardized test that consists of 40 item test that indicates situations usually arising from the workplace. The respondent would then mark the choice that indicates what expresses his or her opinion as the most desirable way to act as a supervisor or as a manager. Choices range from always, often, occasionally, seldom and never.

Personality. To measure the leadership personality of the respondents, the Gordon Personal Profile Interpretation is used. This a standardized test with a reliability of 0.8 is a test that predicts the leadership traits Ascendancy, Responsibility, Emotional Stability and Sociability which are personal characteristics of known leaders. GPPI has fifteen (15) groups consisting of four (4) statements that the respondents could choose upon. The respondents is to find one description among the four statements in the group that is most likely him or her and another that is least likely him or her marking it black.

Procedure

The target respondents of the study were employees in the food industry in the Philippines and are candidates for promotion as managers or other high positions in the organization. The criteria for selection were that the respondents have been working with the organization for the past three years, do not have any relatives in the high ranking positions of the company, and have the recommendation from his or her supervisors or managers. Another consideration given by the company HRD was that the candidates have completed 4 training course in the 2-4 year period that they have been with the company. Their ages, social status and marital status does not further affect their selection but are still recorded for study purposes.

19

The selection and training of the candidates were done in an 8-week period starting from the 2nd week of November. The tests were given to the respondents in a 2nd

week after briefing. After examination of the returned tests, a total of 200 usable tests were included in the study. A respondent was dropped from the sample if they were not able to complete the criteria for selection, has answered the tests wrongly or has left 30% of the tests unanswered. All the usable booklets were included in determining their personality and leadership potential.

The 200 respondents re-take the exam on leadership quotient after a 2-week training course on their 6th week. Their training is to familiarize themselves with the position they will be assigned to after they passed all tests and to clearly assess their work performance and interaction with their subordinates and colleagues. If a candidate fails to pass the tests and assessments, he/ she can re-apply and take the exam and assessments again next year is recommended by their supervisors. After the computation of results, the candidates are called in one by one for their debriefing process and see the results of the assessments and tests. The researcher shall then compare the respondents’ test result in their Leadership Potential Test and whether the respondent has been promoted or not.

20

Results

A total of 200 respondents equally divided among gender with 100 (50%) female respondents and 100 (50%) male respondents. Their age ranges from 23- 36 years old 172 (86%) of the respondents are university graduates and Bachelor’s degree holder while 28 (14%) have only finished a 2-year certificate course. There is an almost equal distribution among the male and female respondents with their marital status 68 single, 132 married (34%single, 66% married). The respondent’s years of service in the organization ranged from 3-5 years.

Fig 2. Graphical Representation of Educational Attainment

Fig 3. Graphical Representation of Age Groups of Respondents

21

Leadership Personality

Fig 4. Linear Representation of Leadership Personalities Of Male and Female Respondents

The Personality Test using the Gordon Personal Profile Inventory was found to be significant between the mean ratings of men and women. The results as shown in Figure 4 show that women have scores 0.42% higher in terms of Responsibility and Sociability. Men were found out to be higher in scores by 0.33% than women in terms of Ascendancy and Emotional Stability. There is small percentage of female respondents who have scored low in responsibility and sociability but have high scores in terms of Ascendancy and Emotional Stability. Some male respondents have also scored higher in responsibility and sociability but scored low in ascendancy and emotional stability. 50 (25%) of the respondents (15 female, 10 male) have equal distribution of scores in the four leadership personalities mentioned.

22

LEGEND:R- ResponsibilityA- AscendancyES- Emotional StabilityS- Sociability

Fig 5. Graphical Representation of High and Low Scores of Respondents in each Leadership Personality

Over-all results as shown in Figure 5 that out of the 164 (82%) respondents who have scored high in Responsibility, there are 36 (18%) respondents who have scored low in this category. 150 (75%) respondents have scored low in Emotional Stability but 182 (91%) scored high in Sociability. Their scores in Ascendancy still vary by gender. Only 50% of each gender scored high in this category having 64 (32%) of them are married and 36 (18%) are single respondents.

Female respondents with the ages ranging from 28-36 years old are those who are married and have children scored high in responsibility. Those who have scored high in Sociability have equal proportion between married and single but most are from younger females with ages ranging from 23-26 years old. Sociability in male respondents is above average with the ages of 23-27 years of age and equal distribution among the married and single males. Those males who have high scores in Ascendancy are mostly single male with the ages ranging from 24-27 years of age.

Coefficientsa

3.322 .073 45.334 .000

-1.05E-02 .002 -.215 -5.155 .000

-1.55E-02 .002 -.321 -7.536 .000

-1.88E-02 .002 -.397 -9.558 .000

-1.12E-02 .002 -.235 -5.695 .000

(Constant)

Responsibility

Ascendancy

Emotional Stability

Sociability

Model1

B Std. Error

UnstandardizedCoefficients

Beta

StandardizedCoefficients

t Sig.

Dependent Variable: Promotiona.

Fig 6. Table of Mean Coefficients of Leadership Personality Ratings Between Male and Female Respondents

The Gordon Personality Profile Inventory after Regression shows a positive correlation between predicting the candidates to be promoted irregardless of the gender. It has highly and positively predicted the promotion of the candidates as shown in Figure 6 with a mean of p=<0.1 (0.865).

23


Coefficientsa

3.020 .060 50.052 .000

-1.90E-02 .002 -.450 -10.551 .000

-1.97E-02 .002 -.533 -12.476 .000

(Constant)

Structure

Consideration

Model1

B Std. Error

UnstandardizedCoefficients

Beta

StandardizedCoefficients

t Sig.

Dependent Variable: Promotiona.

Fig 8. Table Representation of Coefficients of Leadership Potential Ratings Between Male and Female Respondents

The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire results as shown in Figure 8 using Regression was found out to be significant and positive correlation between the mean ratings of men and women. The results show that there is a significant correlation between the mean ratings of women (r=.76, p <.01) and between the mean ratings of men (r=.50, p=<.01). This supported the hypothesis that there is a correlation between the leadership potential quotient of male and female respondents.

24

Fig 6. Pie Representation of High Scores for Leadership Potential Test of 200 Respondents

For their scores in Structure, Fifty- three percent (53%) of males has higher scores than females have only 47% who scored high in this category. Sixty-nine percent (69%) of females have higher scores in Consideration while only 31% of males have high score in this category. Of the 200 respondents who and has taken the tests, 104 respondents have high score in Structure and 96 respondents have low score in this category. One hundred fifty-two (152) respondents have high score in Consideration and 48 respondents have low score in this category.

Fig 7. Graphical Representation of Scores in Leadership Opinion

Questionnaire of Promoted Male and Female Respondents

Out of 200 respondents who took the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Test, only 78 respondents have been promoted to a managerial position. Forty- eight (48) of the respondents are female while 35 respondents are male. From the female respondents, 36 respondents have scored high in Consideration while only 12 female respondents have scored higher in Structure. Twenty- four (24) male respondents who are promoted have scored high in Structure while only 11 male respondents have scored higher in Consideration. The rest who were not promoted have low assessments based from their trainer’s assessments and feedbacks, though most knew the processes in their tasks they have less grip of how to communicate with other people and are easily swayed by other people’s opinion thus their decisions delayed them in finishing their tasks. At times, some of these respondents do not follow instructions thus delaying them in finishing there given tasks.

Discussion

The objective of this study was to provide a greater understanding of the differences and equalities of men and women as managers in the Philippine context in the

25

area of food and industry setting through the examination between their personalities and leadership potential quotient.

Leadership Personality

The study found out that only a small difference between the Leadership Personality in males and females. Even if females have higher responsibility and sociability rating the percentage of men having same scores are almost equal. Most females are highly sociable and tend to like to work more with groups. They are much friendlier and approachable in the corporate setting especially with female co-workers. They are also more persevering in doing tasks that are assigned to them and are able to finish much earlier than their male counterparts. Females are more inclined to be tense on their first training but after getting some pointers for their tasks, they are able to do it with minimal supervision.

Males are more ascendant and are more inclined to make decisions on their own rather than asking their group or brainstorming with their group possible choices for a solution. Although men are more assertive on their corporate relationships and may not be as persevering as females, they are more emotionally stable and are more relaxed on finishing their tasks even under pressure.

Most of the candidates who scored high in responsibility are married. The high score in the responsibility area may be due to more demands in having their own family thus giving much more experience in being responsible. Also younger respondents ranging from the ages of 23-27, male and female are those who have high score in sociability. They favor working with teams or groups and brainstorming ideas rather than making their decisions alone. This answers the significant differences in the personality of male and female respondents. The respondents who have equal scores distributed among their Leadership Personalities are mostly younger managers with ages ranging from 23-25 and are mostly single and female. Assessment from these respondents is that they are thinking first of how people would react to what they want to do. They do not think “out of the box” and are mostly afraid to decide by themselves and still wanted to take the consensus of the group even though the last decision is theirs. These respondents are the ones who always go with the majority decision.


There is a resemblance of scores on the leadership potential of both male and female but not much difference on their scores before and after their training. Some differences noted are that most females have higher score in Consideration. They are more thinking of their subordinates more than how their subordinates do their tasks. It matters to female respondents in an average score range how their subordinates do their job but mostly considers more their feelings and how well the work environment it is for their subordinates. These respondents see that their subordinates will be able to work more efficiently if the manager or their leader can be approached concerning personal matters. But even though they are emotionally involved with the work of their

26

subordinates, they are able to follow-up on the tasks at hand and want a through inspection of the tasks done. They expect good job from their subordinates.

The male respondents on the other hand have much higher score on Structure. Male respondents are more into how their subordinates do their job rather than what their subordinates feel. They themselves would rather do overtime work just to get a perfect job done and they expect their subordinates to do the same. They pour over company policies and are very strict in following these rules. Although after a hard work done from their subordinates, they allow light time for them to relax a bit but not vacating their light tasks at hand.

The Leadership Potential Level of both male and female respondents did not have much significance after the training perhaps due to constricted time of applying what they have learned in training. The test must have been given too early to determine if t here was really a big difference with their scores before and after the training. It may be best if the training is given for three (3) weeks while the test shall be given two (2) weeks after the training so that the respondents have rationalized and or digested what they have learned in the training processes. Over-all the training period of the respondents have been very tense and crucial for them which can be another factor why the respondents have not fully assimilated their trainings.

27

References

Anderson, Mark. Principals: How to Train, Recruit, Select, Induct, and Evaluate Leaders for America's Schools. Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 1991.

Fred Smith, LEADERSHIP JOURNAL; Vol. XVII, No. 4, Page 30, 1996

Hursh, B. "Tools for Journals and Debriefing", pp. 80-86 of J. Kendall (ed.) Combining Service and Learning: A Resource Book for Community and Public Service, vol. 2. Raleigh: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education. 1990

Lashway, Larry; JoAnn Mazzarella; and Thomas Grundy. "Portrait of a Leader." In School Leadership: Handbook for Excellence, third edition. Edited by Stuart C. Smith and Philip K. Piele. Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 1997.

Lyness, K.S. & Thompson, D.E., Above the glass ceiling? A comparison of matched samples of female and male executives. Journal of applied Psychology, 82 (3), 359-375, 1997

Lyness, K.S. & Thompson, D.E., Climbing the corporate ladder: Do female and male executives follow the same route. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (1), 86-101, 2000

R.M. Felder, G.N. Felder, and E.J. Dietz, "A Longitudinal Study of Engineering Student Performance and Retention. V. Comparisons with Traditionally-Taught Students" J. Engr. Education, 87(4), 469-480, 1998

Smith, S. and Piele, P., "School Leadership: Handbook for Excellence," third edition. Eugene, Oregon: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 1997

Wendel, Frederick C.; Allan H. Schmidt; and James Loch. Measurements of Personality and Leadership: Some Relationships. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska,. 121 pages, 1992

Woo, D. Glass Ceiling and Asian- Americans: The new face of workplace barriers. California: Altamira Press., 2000

28

Development of a Behavioral Assessment for Highly-Functioning Pre-School Aged Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome

Ma. Celina Angela L. Calvento

The cause of Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome is still unclear up to date. Alarmingly the prevalence rate of this pervasive developmental disorder is escalating. Along with increase in their population is the need for proper intervention, Educational mainstreaming for children with ASD and Asperger Syndrome also rise. With that the researcher of this study aimed to help these children by constructing a Behavioral Assessment tool to predict readiness of these children to enter mainstream schools. Having 10 highly functioning children with ASD and Asperger Syndrome, the researcher computed for the reliability via the inter-rater consistency using the statistical analysis Intraclass Consistency Coefficient. The study projected the reliability coefficient of .993 for single measure and .998 for average measure. The validity of the tool was assessed via correlation method. The Behavioral Assessment tool and Entrance Examination from a mainstream school was correlated and showed a correlation coefficient of .764 using the two-tailed significance level of .010. The results of the computation for the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment tool confirmed that it is a reliable and valid measure of a highly-functioning child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture to a mainstream school.

In the late 1990’s, the Philippines was given a rough estimate of the prevalence of Autism. At that time, the statistics was 1 out of 10,000 Filipino Children were born with this disorder. Alarmingly, in less than 10 years the prevalence rate of Autism in the country has gone up, along with the country’s population. In the late 20 th century, The Autism Society Philippines came up with an estimate. We are now facing the fact that 5-10 out of 10,000 are inflicted with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. They estimated that a total of 300,000 Filipino have Autism at present. Not even 30% of this population are able to have educational intervention. Less than 5% are ready for mainstream schools. Not nearing 1% is given employment.

These statistics are not mere assumptions, but reality to what might become of these children. And what’s damaging about it is, as time progresses the prevalence rate goes up. This study attempted to answer if the Behavioral Assessment tool is a reliable and valid measure of a highly-functioning child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture to a mainstream school. With the tool constructed by the researcher, the aim would be to aid placement and predict readiness of a highly functioning pre-school aged child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome to enter a conventional school rather than being placed in a special school.

29

These children can specifically reach employment stage with equal chances to those people who are normal if they have the right qualifications such as education as well. The aim to be mainstreamed is primarily to have them live normally so as to prepare them for whatever step they would like to pursue here after.


Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome

Autistic Spectrum disorder is a pervasive developmental disability that affects the way a person communicates and relates to people around them. People with autism have the difficulty with social interaction and lacks responsiveness to other people due to the limiting capacity to process information like a normal person. It is also accompanied by learning disabilities which somehow hinder the person to reach their full capacities in terms of cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. Characteristics often include failure to have normal socialization, disturbances in language skills, abnormal response to sensory stimuli and developmental delays, lack of imagination & repetitive behaviors and routines. Asperger Syndrome on the other hand is a type of pervasive developmental disorder and a form of Autism. Traits in both Autism and Asperger are quite the same but milder.

Language deficiency is rarely a problem and Intellectual capacity ranges from average to above average. Discrepancies for Asperger syndrome would then fall on behavioral and social aspects. Difficulty in communication and processing, difficulty to have and maintain social relationships and lack of imagination and creative play are some of the traits associated to Asperger Syndrome. The cause of both Autism and Asperger Syndrome is yet to be discovered. Strong evidence links them to genetics and physical and chemical defects have been found in the brain. Generally it is an Organic and Neurological Disorder. Cure for these disorders are non-existent. Autism and Asperger syndrome is a developmental condition affecting the way the brain processes information Children with Autism and Asperger syndrome carry on with them the disorder until middle to old age. Since one of the traits of highly functioning Autistic children and children with Asperger are with average and above average intellectual capacity, the possibility of normal or mainstreamed schools is at par with other children who are otherwise; because of this many high functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger syndrome enter mainstream school as early as preschool. With time and patience they can be taught to develop the basic skills needed for everyday life, such as how to communicate appropriately with people and behavioral assets that they need for mainstreaming. For one thing, the parents of these children want them to live normal lives as possible. Intervention would play a major role on this.

Intervention for ASD and Asperger Syndrome

30

Early intervention for Autism and Asperger is hard due to no physical deformities and only neurological discrepancies in the brain. Intervention would start for as early as 2 years of age. Prevalence rate is four times greater for boys than girls. With the right support, intervention and encouragement, high functioning children with Autism and Asperger syndrome can develop their intellectual capacity to go on further with their studies in mainstreamed schools and to be employed.

Educational Mainstreaming

The outcome cannot be predicted in the intervention during pre-school years, but that early appropriate intervention makes a big difference. Special schools are rampant right now it offers different approaches but do not fully touch on the intellectual aspect needed to reach their full capacity. Here the need for mainstreaming high functioning children with Autism and Asperger arise. Assessment plays a vital role to ensure and address the queries of the parents. Since they have the intellectual capacity to perform well in school, this study dwells on to other aspects. One important aspect of mainstreaming children is their behavior. Since most of the high functioning children with Autism and Asperger presently have behavioral problems, the construction of a behavioral checklist would help them be assessed with regards to correct placement in either to special schools or normal schools. This study aims to focus on assessing the present behavior which could mirror actual related behavioral tendencies that are needed and vital for mainstream schools. It would somehow reflect the readiness of the child to be mainstreamed. This could allow enhancement of the behavioral manifestations to be developed early on so that the child can be mainstreamed at an early age. The assessment tool was conceptualized to be of help to teachers both in special school and conventional school to pin-point on the behaviors that are lacking or are under-developed for a child to be accepted in a normal school. It is also a way of assurance for parents, to fully understand the present condition of their child in terms of the behavioral aspect. It is a tool designed to further help develop the full capabilities of the child by giving the exact part in which a discrepancy is present. It is also to adjust the individualized programs of the high functioning child with Autism and Asperger based on the specification needed. The study aims to help the betterment of children with Autism and Asperger by giving them choices and opportunities for them to prosper independently. The study believes that the proper educational programs can teach them to capitalize on their own strengths and compensate their weaknesses. Educating high functioning children with Autism and Asperger can lead to them having meaningful lives and productively contributing to the society.

Parents of highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome have been battling the need for proper education system for these children. Special schools available in the Philippines does not carry on it’s shoulder the educational curriculum that a normal school has because of the individualized program that they integrate in their school setting. But still, According to Bowe (1995) “Children with autism and related pervasive developmental disorders are continuing to enter preschool and elementary school settings.”

31

The concept of mainstreaming or inclusion was then introduced to the highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. As stated by the Autism Society in 2000, “Mainstreaming refers to teaching children with special needs in regular classes with other children. Teaching autistic children without the benefit of a specially-trained teacher and classroom tailored for such teaching was first attempted as a matter of necessity in small school systems with too few autistics to make it practical to set up specialized facilities. It was soon observed that autistics in such situations in general did better than autistics in tailored classrooms, and the policy of "mainstreaming" was born.” It was then that it was finalized that children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome were lawfully allowed to be included in normal school given that they pass the assessment tools created for the intellectual capacity measurement depending on the school they were applying to.

Intelligence and Potential of Children with ASD and Asperger Syndrome

Admittedly, highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome have the capacity to do well in a normal environment. Theory has it that separating autistics from a normal environment just exacerbates their problem. Children with special needs must be educated with as little restriction as necessary and school systems have responded by placing autistics in normal classrooms as much as practical. This theory is concurrent to Riddler (1996) that “professionals have long believed that autistics have the potential for average or above-average intelligence. Many autistics posses advanced mental skills, especially in math, music and visual thinking - yet lack the social skills to make the most productive use of these gifts.”

Social and Communication Impairment

Even with the introduction of mainstreaming, it did not cease the battle against pervasive disorders. It is a given fact that it did give progress to highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome but as how Lauren Pierce (2003) put it, “One of the biggest hurdles is that these children are often academically on the same level or more advanced than their peers but have severe social and communication delays.”

One of the major problems of mainstreaming highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome were the behaviors they tend to manifest in school setting. Although they are competent with regards to intellectual capacity at par with other normal children. Behavior and social skills tend to hold them back with their progress. This is being braised factually in accordance with Chris Ridder (1996) “The prognosis is startlingly grim and consistent across a broad range of studies - about 2% will attain normal functioning, with perhaps 30% labeled "high-functioning autistic." These high-functioning autistics generally show some oddities of behavior, have a tough time relating to others.” The same finding goes with Multer (2006) as he presently stated that “Highly functioning Children with Autism and Asperger Syndrome are highly advanced academically. But the behaviors brought

32

about by the disorder prevent them from being able to function in a regular classroom – or even to communicate well with others.”

Development of Assessment Tools

The development of Assessment tools has been in great need for some time now. Although these children are intellectually ready for regular school, behavioral deficits and social immaturity must be dwelled on. A change in views and assessments has been in focus for psychologist but few have given notice other aspects cited here with. This makes the diagnosis inaccurate acceding to Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998) “Unfortunately, many practicing school psychologists have had very little training or supervised experience working with this special population due to its relatively infrequent occurrence in the general population. To make matters even more difficult, the criteria for diagnosing autism and other pervasive developmental disorders have changed in every revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) since 1980. Despite these complications, school psychologists are often the first to see these children, conduct evaluations and make diagnoses. As a result, school psychologists assessing children with pervasive developmental disorders need to be familiar with diagnostic criteria and be prepared to use alternative assessment procedures to compliment traditional standardized testing in order to accurately make a diagnosis.”

The accuracy of assessments means more to it than it is given credit for. It gives us the stature of a person, then knowing what track to pursue after the results of the assessment has been made. Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998) give a clear view on the importance of assessment. “Assessments are typically carried out to assign a diagnostic label or to determine placement eligibility. Domains such as communication, cognitive ability, social skills, and motor development are often of interest to the school psychologist. The ultimate goal of assessment, however, is to provide opportunities for helpful educational planning. In some cases, it may be beneficial to know the child's standard score on a test of intelligence. But it is more likely that descriptive information about developmental levels and specific behavioral and social, adaptive and communication skills will directly stimulate goal-setting.”

Establishment of the Behavioral Assessment

Establishing what type of assessment to use for mainstreaming highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome would dwell on what would be the most beneficial at the moment and a tool that is not yet that rampant amongst standardized test today. In lieu with the concepts of Steven Serrano (2004) “Perhaps the most important component of workup is the behavioral assessment of the child. At some point, the parents become aware of the child’s abnormal behavior and seek evaluation, with either the family physician or representatives of the special education field. By either approach, the child should have or be referred for an initial visit by special education teachers who have worked with autistic children. If the child has demonstrated need for special education services than these should be initiated even while other diagnoses are considered.”

33

Consensus to Lori Fitton and Laurie Ford (1998) “Behavioral examples of each symptom demonstrated how a young child or child with severe impairment might exhibit the symptom as well as how older or less impaired individuals might express the symptom.” The Behavioral assessment tool for mainstreaming highly functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome would be beneficial to parents, teachers of both special and normal schools and special schools and to the child afflicted with the disorder. It would somehow manifest the readiness of the child in terms of behavioral aspect. Behavioral would be the most sufficient means of measuring performance since it is one factor that is inevitable in each individual. Variations per individual are predestined but these changes would somehow depict severity of the disorder as well as the readiness for an individual for their right and accurate placement.

34

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1.0 – Conceptual Paradigm of the Behavioral Assessment for Pre-school Level Mainstreaming of highly functioning Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome.

It is believed that behaviors are inevitable to everyone and it does not exclude children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome in this context. Behavioral manifestations are the vital source of facts for this study. It encompasses the skills and knowledge of each child that was presented both physically and verbally. These behavioral manifestations was categorized into four subsets namely Loco-motor which dealt with control and movement. Comprehension, which included understanding and processing. Speech for verbal communication and expression. Conceptual for specifications and perception. All these subsets comprised the Behavioral assessment checklist which was the primary tool for this study. The line leading to the entrance examination from the Behavioral Assessment indicates the relationship of the two tests. The study used the Entrance Examination as the tool for correlation to establish validity

35

Behavioral Manifestations

Subset 1Loco-motor

Subset 2Comprehension

Subset 3Speech

Subset 4Conceptual

Behavioral Assessment Checklist

Entrance Examination

Readiness for Mainstreaming

for the constructed test. All of which indicates the readiness of the Highly Functioning child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome.

Method

Participants

This study was focused on handling Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. These children would indicate that the child is at par with normal children in terms of intellectual capacity and has moderate to minimal imperfection with regards to social and behavioral aspects. Over all, the children are manageable like normal children and know how to respond with minimal verbal and physical promptings. The researcher limited the scope of the study to Philippine milieu, within areas of Metro Manila. The study directed the focal point on pre-school aged children, with age ranging from four (4) to eight (8) years of age. The researcher has given leeway in the average age the children go to school with regards to both school ages, which is the normal age the children go to school age and the mental age, which is the measurement of the mental capacity of the child.

Estimation and Method of Sampling

Autism Society Philippines gave an estimate that five (5) to ten (10) Filipino children out of 10,000 births are estimated on the average to have Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Out of that number, only two (2) on the average are highly functioning or has Asperger Syndrome. Given these statistics, the researcher aimed to have a minimum of ten (10) Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder of Asperger Syndrome. The children have been specifically assessed medically and have been in any form of professional/medical intervention. This ensured the proper intervention measure with regards to progress and growth of the child with the right supervision. Along side with the selection of the Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder of Asperger Syndrome, the research also had the participation of the Occupational Therapist, Developmental Pediatrician, Speech Therapist and Teachers of the child. The thorough selection of the participants in the study made the researcher use a Quota Sampling method for the research.

All those who participated in the study are free-willed and are under a strict confidentiality agreement with the researcher. All results will only be opened with proper consent from the parents/guardian of the children.


36

In an effort to further help the children with Autism and Asperger Syndrome, the researcher came up with the formulated test to be able to aid placement and further understand specific variables for them. In the last two decades the interest in the psychosocial development of young children has increased considerably. Not only have new theories and fields of research on the social and emotional development emerged also behavioral and emotional problems specific to this age range have received more attention than before according to the study of Verhulst and Boosma (1997).

Test Construction

Following these notions on behavioral dimensions, the researcher jumbled different concepts and came up with Four Subsets: LOCO-MOTOR, COMPREHENSION, SPEECH and CONCEPTUAL. These four subsets comprised the Behavioral Assessment Checklist. Each subset was composed of minimum of five (5) items. Each item is carefully designed to cater children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome. The test was aimed to have at least 20 items in total with a three (3) multiple choice coding of Excellent, Fair and Poor following a point system of two (2), one (1), zero (0) as follows.

Establishing Subsets

Loco-motor dealt with precision movements and skills that can be used accordingly in a school setting, like writing, sitting, walking and the likes. Comprehension focused on the intellectual capacity translated to behaviors like following the right command, pinpointing of objects, assertiveness and grouping or chunking. Speech on the other hand dealt with verbal communication such as expression, recitation and repetition. Conceptual dealt with basic information, identification and specifications. All these subsets entailed careful observation and reports of a certified professional such as a Developmental Pediatrician, Occupational therapist or a Teacher.

Scoring

The scoring was based on the panels rating on each child. Excellent was given a score of three (3) which described that the child did the task with no or very minimal verbal promptings, with no mistake. Average was given a score of two (2) to the child with minimal to moderate verbal and physical promptings, who got one (1) mistake for the task given. Fair would be rated as one (1) which would sum to a child who performed the task with continuous verbal and physical promptings. Poor on the other hand was given a score of zero (0) which meant that the child did not at all perform the task with any aid of physical and verbal promptings whatsoever. Total score defined the readiness of the child, which was based on the rating scale of the Behavioral Assessment.

Rubrics and Rating Scale

37

To ensure consistency between the raters of the respondents, the researcher came up with a specific Rubric that was used to guide the rater for proper scoring. After such, the scores were tallied and were compared to the rating scale also created by the researcher. There were four (4) ratings on the said scale. This included Exemplary, Middling, Conditional, and Needs Progress. Exemplary guaranteed at least 85% in the Behavioral Assessment Checklist was performed by the child. Middling performed at least at least 70% in the total score. Conditional meant that the child excelled to only a specific part of the test and would need progress hereafter. The child must get at least 50% of the task well. 49% below was given a Needs Progress. The rating scale is based on a 20-item Behavioral Assessment.

Research Design

The design of the study is test construction. Development of the tool meant careful treatment of facts to ensure reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment. The test results were tallied and the researcher computed for the reliability was computed by inter-item consistency using the Intraclass Consistency Coefficient statistical analysis and validity was computed via correlation method between the Behavioral Assessment and Entrance Examination that of which a mainstream school uses. Also, the observation is vital for proper handling of facts gathered. The researcher focused on the behavioral manifestations of 10 random pre-school aged children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome with regards to the consistency and predictive tendencies. Through this study the researcher was able to investigate on Autism more closely and what are the underlying effects to their progress and development. With these procedures, the researcher had enough means to check reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment. The computation of the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment was the last procedure for the study.

Procedure

Behavioral Assessment: Construction

The researcher designed the Behavioral Assessment as an aid to the ever growing needs of Autism with regards to mainstreaming as according to Bowe (1995) and other more researches in putting these children in a conventional school. The researcher carefully mastered through behavioral manifestations very prominent to that of preschool aged children via interviews and research mostly to Philippine based preschools and daycares.

Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Aspeger Syndrome: Screening

After construction of the Behavioral Assessment, screening was the next step of this research. The researcher limited the scope of the study to Pre-school aged Highly Functioning children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome. Next was the background study of the educational intervention of each child.

38

Test Administration

All the children underwent the administration of the Behavioral Assessment by the researcher. The researcher conducted the study individually per child. This was to control the environment and the extraneous variables that would affect the results and the behaviors of the child. Each child was asked to perform a series of talks all depending on the Behavioral Assessment.

Panel of Raters

A panel of raters was chosen and answered the Behavioral Assessment. It was advised that the rater must be a professional like a Developmental Pediatrician or an Occupational Therapist, thus ensuring that they have correct and in-lined background with the special needs and considerations for the children and also proper handling of data to be put in the material. After which, they assessed each child based on the behaviors as to how well they did via the Rubrics and the Rating Scale designed specifically by the researcher for the Behavioral Assessment.

Panelists of the Behavioral Assessment

Table 1.0 – Table of Qualifications of the Panelist for the Behavioral Assessment Panelists Qualifications Practice

Panelists1

Dr. A

Developmental Pediatrician

Specializes in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder

Doctor-on-call of a Special School for Autism.

Does curriculum and individualized programs for Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder

Has been a Developmental Pediatrician for almost 23 years

Has been specializing in Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit Hyper-activity Disorder for 17 years

Has been in the School for Autism for 11 years

Panelist2

Graduate of De La Salle University

Bachelor of Science in PsychologyMajor in Behavioral Science

Currently taking up Masteral Degree

Went under training for 6 months

Attended Autism convention in Malaysia

39

Ms. BTraining to handle children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder

Teacher in a Special School For Autism

Has been teaching for 3 years in a Special School for Autism

Specializes in Individualized Programs

Panelist3

Mr. C

Graduate of University of Santo Tomas

Occupational and Speech therapist of Special School for Autism

Has been handling motor skills and Speech Therapy sessions of the children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder in the Special School for Autism for 7 years

Data Analysis

Reliability

The researcher analyzed the reliability and validity of the Behavioral Assessment constructed for the use of this study. Reliability was measured through careful observation of the behaviors of the children. The consistency of predictive behaviors amongst the children would measure up to a high reliability of the tool. The data for the reliability was measured by the inter-rater reliability. It is the extent to which two or more individual rater agrees. Inter-rater reliability addressed the consistency of the implementation of a rating system known as the Rubrics for the Behavioral Assessment.

Validity

For the validity, the study used correlation for the validity by comparing the Behavioral Assessment to the Entrance Examination the children took to enter the mainstream schooling. The composition of the Behavioral Assessment was specifically designed to pinpoint behaviors that can predict future readiness of the child in terms of present stature in behaviors. With this, the study would compare the scores from the Entrance Examination and the Behavioral Assessment if they were interrelated in some way. By correlating the two tests, the researcher would be able to establish validity for the Behavioral Assessment.

40

Results

Demographic Profile

The demographic profile of each child was used by the researcher for the indications of to whom the results and test scores belongs. Due to the request of the parents and guardians of the participants, the names of the children are withheld. Along with the Behavioral Assessment was a waiver form attached for the confidentiality agreement which the parents and guardians of the participants signed. Age of assessment included in the demographic profile would sum up to the age the child was assessed by a professional consult to have Autistic Spectrum Disorder or Asperger Syndrome. Age of Entry would interpret the child’s age when educational intervention was introduced.

Table 2.0 - Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Preschooler Gender Age Age of assessment Age of Entry

1 Male 6 2.3 years 3.7 years


3 Female 6 1.11 years 2.5 years








41

Reliability of the Behavioral Assessment

The reliability of the Behavioral Assessment was measured by the researcher via the inter-rater consistency. This type of measurement compares how similar or how close are the scores given by each panel to the same child with regards to the rubrics also constructed by the researcher. It would assess the over all components of the Behavioral Assessment for the reliability would analyze not only the items of the tool but also the rubrics of the scoring system.

Table 3.0 - Intraclass Correlation Coefficient

Intraclass

Correlation 95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper BoundSingle Measures .993 .981 .998

Average Measures .998 .994 .999

Using the statistical software SPSS version 12, the researcher projected a .993 coefficient for single measure and .998 for average measure for correlating the scores given of the panelists to all 10 participants. The researcher used the intra-class correlation coefficient because to specifically caters to small sample size and it is used to assess reliability for two or more raters. Single measures constitute individual ratings and average measures uses the mean as unit of analysis. The coefficients projected high reliability thus strengthening the purpose of the study to construct a reliable Behavioral Assessment.

Validity of the Behavioral Assessment

The validity of the Behavioral Assessment was produced via correlation statistics also using the statistical software SPSS. The researcher constructed the rating scale for the said test. By using the rating scale of the behavioral assessment the researcher was able to bracket the scores of the participants. The entrance examination on the other hand was given two types of rating which was passed and failed, with that the researcher assigned a numeric value as follows; passed being 1 and failed being 0. The rating scale

42

for the Behavioral Assessment was comprised of 4 ratings, to level it at par with the numeric system of the entrance examination, the researcher assigned the top 2 ratings as 1 and last two ratings as 0.

Table 4.0 – Validity statistics of Correlation of Behavioral Assessment and Entrance Examination

Correlations

VAR00001

VAR00002

VAR00001 Pearson Correlation

1 .764

Sig. (2-tailed) . .010N 10 10

VAR00002 Pearson Correlation

.764 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .010 .N 10 10

The correlation coefficient equaled to .764 using the Pearson correlation coefficient method. Given the high correlation coefficient, the researcher has proven that the Behavioral Assessment is a valid tool to measure the readiness of a child with ASD and Asperger to enter mainstream school.

Discussion

The researcher primarily focused on developing a test that would aid majority of the people who deal with children with Autistic Spectrum disorder and Asperger syndrome. The Behavioral Assessment was constructed to measure a child’s readiness to enter mainstream school. For this study, the researcher explored and interpreted behaviors elicited from the tasks they performed and the data gathered was then computed to exhibit the reliability and validity coefficient of the Behavioral Assessment.

The researcher specifically chose 10 highly functioning pre-school aged children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger syndrome as respondents for this study. It is with those kinds of children that the study would gain more knowledge due to less complex behavioral abnormalities with younger children with ASD and Asperger. But since one major deficiency of the children inflicted with this developmental disability is behavior, it is expected that some children would not respond to the researcher’s promptings right away. Because of this hindrance, the researcher needed to reschedule

43

meetings with the child and their parents to exclude any other extraneous variables that might affect the outcome.

The main objective of this study is to prove that the self-constructed Behavioral Assessment is a reliable and valid tool to measure readiness to enter in mainstream schools. The researcher has put great effort and passion in order to achieve the outcome herewith.

The reliability would refer basically on the consistency of the test scores given by three individual panels. The Behavioral Assessment was tested for reliability by using the correlation method of Intraclass Correlation Coefficient. It was preferred over Pearson for the reason that the sample size is small and the statistical tool was designed for sample size less than 15. Basing on a perfect 1.0 correlation and having a ICC coefficient of .993 and .998 respectively, the researcher can say that the Behavioral assessment is a reliable tool

Validity on the other hand would fall on how well a specific tool tends to measure what it’s supposed to measure. To elicit such data, the researcher correlated the score of each child with the Behavioral Assessment to the entrance examination they took to a mainstream school. Basing also on a perfect 1.0 correlation coefficient, the study projected a .764 validity coefficient for the tool using Pearson’s Correlation. Validity is set to be low most of the time, but the value of the validity coefficient of the Behavioral Assessment is high that it ensures that the tool is in fact valid, and can measure a child’s readiness for mainstreaming.

Conclusion

With the data gathered by the researcher, the following findings can be projected that the Behavioral Assessment is a reliable and valid measure of a child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture into mainstreamed schools. This is strengthened by the high reliability and validity coefficient which is statistically significant basing the projections on a 1.0 perfect correlation scale. Reliability coefficient of .993 and .998 via the inter-rater consistency estimated by the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient. Along side with this, the high value of the validity coefficient predicted via the Pearson Correlation which was .764 also proves that the Behavioral Assessment is indeed a valid measure.

From these findings, the researcher arrived at the conclusion that the self constructed Behavioral Assessment is a reliable and valid measure of a child with Autistic Spectrum Disorder/ Asperger Syndrome’s readiness to venture to mainstream school for the reason that it elicited a high coefficient value for both the reliability and validity. Through this tool, it would be easier to interpret and predict the readiness of the child to be put in a mainstreamed school which could also increase the chances of proper intervention and more opportunities for their progress.

44

References

Allik H., Larsson J., Smedje, H.; Insomnia in school-age children with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism; Karolinska Institutet, Dept. of Woman and Child Health, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Unit, Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, SE-171 76 Stockholm, Sweden, 2006

Autism Society Articles from www.vaporia.com/autism/autism.faq.full.html, 2000

Baird G, Charman T, Baron-Cohen S, Cox A, Swettenham J, Wheelwright S, Drew A; A screening instrument for autism at 18 months of age: a 6-year follow-up study. JAMA Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 2001

Bowe, F, Early Childhood Special Education, USA, June 1995

Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E; Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children: confirmation of high prevalence. Am J Psychiatry, 2005

Dawson G, Carver L, Meltzoff AN, Panagiotides H, McPartland J, Webb SJ; Neural correlates of face and object recognition in young children with autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and typical development. Child Development, 2002

Edelson, S.; Learning Styles and Autism; Center for the Study of Autism from http://www.autism.org/styles.html, 2003

Fitton L. and Ford L., from www.kcsec.org/cr_autism.htm, 1998

Fombonne E: The prevalence of autism. JAMA, 2003

Hultman CM, Sparen P, Cnattingius S. Perinatal; Risk factors for infantile autism. Epidemiology, 2002

McCarroll, M.; A Study of Autism- Mainstreaming Children with Special Needs; Independent Inquiry Project ; Master of Teaching Program, 2004

Multer from www.uwm.edu/Library/guides/theses/bf9999.html, 2006

45

National Research Council: Educating Children With Autism. Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 2001

Pierce L., from www.bu.edu/anatneuro/dcn/ ... /publications/fusiform_gyrus.pdf, 2003

Rau, J., Is it Autism? from Find Articles. http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0BGH/4_20/100805857/p1/article.jhtml?term=autism, 2003

Riddler, C. from www.questia.com/search/teaching-autistic-children, 1996

Serrano S. from www.l ists.repec.org/pipermail/nep-all/2004-November/000401.html, 2004

Scott JF, Baron-Cohen S, Bolton P, Brayne C, Brief report on the Prevalence of autism spectrum conditions in children aged 5–11 years in Cambridgeshire, UK, 2002

Suniti C. M.D., F.R.C.P.C.H., M.R.C.P. and Fombonne, E. M.D., F.R.C.Psych; Pervasive Developmental Disorders in Preschool Children: Confirmation of High Prevalence, 2003

* Journal Articles mostly found on PubMed.com

46

Application of Krumboltz’s Theory of Social learning approach to career decision making: Attraction of Nursing course as a second degree

Edel R. Domingo

The study is about what are the common answers of people to take up nursing course as their second degree. There where six females and four male respondents ranging from 21 to 50 years old. Questionnaire research method was used. Questionnaire was prepared in order to gather more information. The participants were either interviewed one by one or by groups. During the process participants were relaxed and comfortable and answered the questions confidently. Nevertheless, almost all the participants have the same answer. The reasons why they took up nursing course were to have a stable high paying job, to go abroad and for the welfare of the Family.

Every time we go to the mall, one see a student wearing their white uniforms. First thing that comes into the mind is that they are nursing students. Nursing is a very popular course here in the Philippines. That is why students who graduated from high school are taking it up. This course has a large number of enrollees, many universities and colleges are now offering a course in nursing. According to CHED (Commission on Higher Education) about 20,000 nursing students graduated from 350 schools as of 2005. Not only newly graduate students are taking up this course, also individuals who are now working and already graduated from their first course are taking up a nursing as their second degree course, just like in the article written in a known newspaper because when you are a nurse we can easily apply for a job, get a high payment and can even go to abroad where in the payment is much more higher. As they say, Nursing is your passport in going abroad; in other countries they hire numerous amounts of nurses (The Sunday Times, 2006).

Many employees are now taking up nursing because they want to improve their lives and to go to abroad. Their age are ranging up to 23-65 years old according to former Health Secretary Dr. Jaime Galvez-Tan. Board of nursing of the PRC statistics, since 2004 a total of 273 graduates of business administration, accountancy and commerce have gone into nursing (Department of Education, 2005). Francis Cueto wrote in an article, Many second degree takers are now a student of nursing, their first choice of course which they have already finished not even related to nursing an example of this is computer science, economics, journalism, political science and theology. Even doctors are making a switch. Their years of practice as a physicians are ranging from 0 to 38 years. According to PRC (Professional Regulatory Commission) 4000 doctors are now turned into nurses and have already left the country. About 4000 more are studying nursing and it still depends if they would pass the board exams for nurses. Age is not a

47

hindrance to work abroad as long as you are able to work there is no problem (The Sunday Times, 2006).

What are the factors linked to individuals why did they take up this nursing course as there 2nd degree? According to one theory called the Existence, Relatedness, and Growth theory (ERG), it is similar to the theory of Hierarchy of Needs with the difference that if one need is not yet satisfied you can go back to the need that is lacking without going down level by level. One can go back to the need every time you feel that it is not enough. We all know that we human beings have a need to satisfy for us to be contented (NetMBA, 2006).

One can also consider the theory of career counseling of an individual before he/she chooses a course in entering the tertiary level. In this social learning, decision making has a great impact in choosing a career. It examines every detail of your decision to find out what will be the output of your decisions. An example of which is an environmental conditions and events. Under this Environmental Conditions and Events are some unplanned and planned influences that affect a person’s decision. It may be the number and nature of job opportunities, training opportunities, rate of return for various occupations, labor laws and union rule, physical events, availability of and demand for natural resources, technological developments, change in social organizations, family training experiences and resources, educational system and neighborhood and community influences are some factors that affects a persons sudden turn choosing nursing as there 2nd degree course. However it may still depend on the individual the outcome of these factors. The social learning theory of career decision made by Krumboltz, allows us to know why people enter that course or occupation and why did they shift to another course and change occupation. This theory attempts to know what is the impact of decision making made by an individual through his decision making. This theory has 3 factors, the antecedents, behavior and the consequences. The antecedents are the physical appearance of the person; his skills and abilities, the action he takes and the task or problem he is going to encounter in making that decision. Behavior it is the act by the person who makes the decision. The consequences are the action taken by an individual to support his behavior having a result in doing so, the response that an individual will make and upon doing so what are the impact of that decision that he had taken to his significant others (Career Choice and Development, Second Edition, 1990).

This paper aims to find out what are the reasons behind taking up nursing especially those who are working and already graduated are getting a 2nd degree and what are their common answers why they took up nursing as their second degree course. The researcher with the use of the qualitative approach hopes to find a deeper explanation as to what underlying forces drive people to enter into another or 2nd degree, more specifically nursing.


Everybody can say that nursing is a trendy course today; there is a demand for many nurses around the world and many people here in the Philippines are now enrolling

48

and are trying to pass the board exam. Not only students are getting this course but almost half of the population, even people with jobs and also the unemployed are already hooked in this course called Nursing.

Their ages are ranging from 23-65 years old. They say that if they graduated from a nursing school they have a 100% chance in getting a job. Because of the demand in this course many schools offering nursing courses but in the Study of DEPED and CHED there are only 200 schools as of 2004 are accredited to operate and the other school of nursing that don’t meant the requirements would be shut down. And in the last 10 years we are exporting many nurses and it is closed for about 90,000 nurses who are now working for abroad. Those who are nurses already still need to go to school for them to have a higher learning or for them to get a degree (The Sunday Times, 2006). In the article of Leonard (2003) that nurses still return to school for personal satisfaction, to fulfill requirements for certification and advanced their career as a nurse.

Wooten (2005) said that in choosing a career one has to be interested in becoming a nurse. How do they get into the field? First of all, they need to assess your basic interest. Why do they want to get into nursing? Are they getting ready to graduate from high school and always wanted to be a nurse? Do they want to go into nursing, because a relative is in the profession or your family has a tradition of graduating nurses, and it seems like the right thing to do? Nursing seems like a nice secure profession-the pay attracts you? You've always liked helping others and you care a lot? Have you worked in another career field and want a change for various reasons? Does the "nursing shortage" make you feel like you need to be a part of the "gold rush," because you have read and heard about all of the wonderful sign on bonuses? Thorough research still needs to be done, before the decision is made to embark upon a nursing career. It can be also joined with what Jooste (2005) said about having a career, in nursing, purposeful career planning is essential if nurse practitioners want to make the right decisions about their work in order to strive towards and accomplish a meaningful quality of working life. Nurses should identify their career goals to be able to investigate their different career opportunities in their field of interest and direct their work according to a work strategy for years ahead.

According to James (2005) the population of students interested in studying professional nursing has become increasingly diverse with a significant increase in the number of men, people of color, and individuals with diverse ethnic backgrounds. There is also an increased number of students who are choosing nursing as a second career, resulting in an older population of students with disparate academic preparation.

But why is it that many people are still studying nursing, are they not interested in their first choice or did they did it because of some factors and needs that they still want to achieve. Here in the Philippines ages ranging from 23-65 years old are taking up nursing as there second career. There first course is not even related to nursing and yet they still pursue this course. There are some factors why people are trying there best to become a nurse. Many unemployed or employed and students are now taking up nursing as there second career, not only employees are taking up this course but also doctors are

49

now switching to become a nurse. There are many possible reasons and factors why people are taking up this course.

According to Sczekan (1995) it said that “The occupational characteristics which have drawn aspirants to nursing still characterize the discipline. A study done in 1973 questioned students regarding their reasons for choosing to study nursing. Responses included: a chance to help people, variety of job options, opportunities for advancement, job security, working with people rather than "things" and, being a member of a respected occupation.” It can also include that in the ERG theory of Clayton Alderfer this would fall under the social need of a person where in he/she would have a stable job. In fact this is true that we need to have a stable job in order to for us to have security in our life.

Here are some more examples what causes people to take up nursing. Like in the article of Nehring (1997) is said that “The shortage of nurses in the profession is tantamount to a crisis” and Magner (1989), writing in The Chronicle of Higher Education states: "The nursing shortage varies in severity from city to city, but is a nation wide problem...On average, about 15 percent of the nursing positions budgeted by hospitals are now vacant,". Another article according to Rupured (2001) there are 3 broad categories why people are studying nursing. One is for financial and in-kind support to prevent crises and economic instability. Information and skills to better manage the demands of work and family and lastly is education or training that will lead to a better job. In his article we can see that people need stability to have security. Maybe that’s one factor why Filipino people are leaving the country to have a stable job.

According to Krumboltz (1990) in his theory the Social Learning Approach to Career Decision Making, is designed to address the question of why people enter a particular educational programs or occupations, why educational programs or occupation at selected points in their lives and why they may express various preference for different occupational activities at selected points in their lives. In addressing these questions, the theory examines the impact on the career decision- making process of such factors as genetic predisposition, environmental conditions and performance responses and skills. It is posited that each of these factors plays a part in all career decisions that are mad, but the different combinations of interactions of the factor produce the multitude of different career choices that different individuals make. Social Learning theory is concerned not only with how the environment affects individuals but also with how individuals affect their environment. Just as large social change efforts have been successful in modifying the behavior of organizations with regard to the recruitment, selection and promotion of employees, so may they be effective in improving the quality of working environments (Career Choice and Development, 1990).

Maineiro & Sullivan (2002) their articles talks about career shifting, that an individual’s needs for challenge, career advancement, and self-worth in contrast against a family’s need for balance, relationships, and caregiving, intersected by the person’s need to say, “What about me?” “How can I be authentic, true to myself and make genuine decisions for myself in my life?” and it also says that as people grow older, their priorities shift. For women, the desire for challenge remains but is pushed into the

50

backdrop to be replaced by a new parameter—the need for balance. For men, the desire for challenge remains longer and, arguably, stronger—but the quest for authenticity shares center stage. While women worry about whether they should start a new business to achieve flexibility and balance, men are concerned about developing a style that is all their own. Men continue to seek work challenges while the more prominent pattern for married mothers is to request reduced work schedules and sublimate their needs for challenge elsewhere. By restricting their work hours, these married mothers are usually removed from consideration for more challenging work assignments that might require travel to adventurous locations away from their families or require more face time at night and weekends. When men and women reach their thirties, and even into the forties, there is a fork in the road. Men continue to pursue work challenges, while most women back off to make room for the more relational aspects of their lives. Their article is all about being unsatisfied from their present careers that’s why they changed or shift courses to fulfill there needs. They also talked about as you grow older the priorities on an individual change that’s why they also have the urge to shift to a better course because they fill that there old ways are not connected to their new priorities (Sikolohiyang Pilipino Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, 1982).

All in all, the articles are about nursing and career shifting mention that almost all of the individuals are now taking up nursing because of the fact that almost all of the countries are in need of nurses. Doctors and even employed individuals are now taking up nursing because they have now the opportunity to go abroad. Not only because they want to go to abroad but also it says that as you grow older you’re priorities have changed and you look for a new challenges in you’re life. That’s why many people are grabbing the opportunity to study nursing because of the fact that other countries are looking and hiring nurses because they have a shortage of manpower and if you work abroad you have a high salary which then you can say that I am secured. What is the use of having a career orientation before an individual chooses his/her future career in the first place if he/she wants to become a nurse after finishing his/her first course? There fore this study is about what are the common motivators behind people who are getting nursing as their second choice of career.

51

Framework

Fig.1 Krumboltz Instrumental Learning Experiences, General Model.

The framework is represented by an H-shaped figure. Antecedents include genetic endowment, special abilities, environmental conditions; events previously happened and the characteristics of a particular task or problem. Behavioral Responses as to Instrumental learning includes cognitive and emotional responses, and observable behaviors. Last are the consequences, and can be immediate or delayed impact to other person who is involved and cognitive and emotional responses from individuals who experienced when they received these consequences as there behavior. A person’s interest in choosing and selecting his choice of career is based upon his past learning experience. In Instrumental Learning Experience, a person acts according to his environment and the result is to generate his own consequences. Environmental events in a person’s life are not controllable by an individual. Some of the events in the environment may be positive or negative. Genetic endowment and special abilities are inherited qualities that can set limits on educational and occupational preferences; this can be included in the environmental events in life. In Social Learning theory of career decision, generalizations and ability of a person is the result of his experiences that lead

52

Antecedents Behavior Consequences

Genetic EndowmentSpecial Abilities and Skills

Planned and unplanned environmental conditions or events

Task or Problem

Covert and Overt actions

Directly Observable results of action

Covert reactions to consequences (cognitive and emotional responses)

Impact on significant others

him to choose a career and actions applying for a specific job. It also stated that a person choose to enroll in a course is because if that individual has recently expressed a liking for that course or employment.

Fig2. Example

Applying the learning theory of career decision shown in figure 2 is an example of an individual that took up nursing as her 2nd degree course. Under the factor of the antecedent is a girl named Marie with a genetic endowment of being tall and with fair complexion, she has the skills of being fluent in speaking in English and Tagalog. She has a good memory and she is quite observant. She decided that she will take IT has her course in college. After graduating from college, she gets a job that fits her course but she is unsatisfied because of having low compensation. She decided to resign to her job and go back to school to take another course which is nursing. As the consequence of her behavior, she finishes her 2nd degree course and gets an offer to go abroad to work there. She accepts the offer and gets a good job there having high compensation plus with benefits she can now help her family she left behind. The outcome of her decision making is that her family that she left behind is now economically stable. By following the theory of social learning one can see the step by step action taken by an individual for his decision has a great impact in our decision making.

53

Antecedents Behavior Consequences

Marie, tall with fair complexion, eloquent speaker in Tagalog and English, good memory, observant,

Went to college specializing in IT

Graduated IT course. Gets a job but with inadequate compensation.

Resigns and decides to go back to college to take up nursing as her 2nd degree course.

Graduated from Nursing and gets a job offer from aboard.

Goes aboard and works in as a nurse and finally gets a good benefit from her work and also helps her family financially.

Family becomes more economically stable.

Method

Participants

The students who are getting their second degree course which is nursing are the participants. Ages 21 years old and above is the target age of participants, coming form an Institution from the south, a class of 30 students, 10 of which are second degree takers. They where chosen because they where available during afternoon at the same time the researchers free time.


The instrument the researcher used is set of guide questions. This method is the most effective means to gather, having clearer and better insights of the data needed for the problem at hand. The instrument asked the participants demographic information such as age, gender, school, etc. and the test focused more on the question why they took up nursing as there 2nd degree choice. The researcher used a video cam or a voice recorder for the focus group discussion.

Research Design

The researcher used qualitative method in getting the needed information. Qualitative measurements are variables that cannot be counted it can only be described. The researcher has a set of guide questions to gather the needed information. It is a spontaneous conversation without time limit. The researcher and the participants will have a focus group discussion; it can be a group of 3-5 individuals. The researcher has a set of guide interview questions to follow in having a spontaneous conversation among the participants.

Procedure

The researcher first identified the participants needed for this focus group discussion; the students were from an Institution located in the South of Manila. The researcher used a set of interview guide to get the information needed. The interview was done during the afternoon because some of the students do not have classes and it is the perfect time to start the conversations because it’s not that hot and not to cold for the participants to fall asleep during the discussions. It was done in the classroom or at the house of one of the participants so they would feel comfortable. Next is the researcher asked the participants if they would like to record the conversations; if the participants’ won’t allow it, the researcher will respect there decision. After which the researcher asked the group their names, age, 1st course for demographic information, after that the

54

researcher followed the prepared guide questions, it’s a spontaneous conversation between the researcher and the participants. The interview has no time limit so that the researcher can obtain all the necessary information. Once the researcher gets the information needed, the data will be generalized so that the common answer to the conversations that was conducted can be identified. Data Analysis

The gathered information was aimed at identifying the most common answers of the participants. Based from the guide questions and answer, the data was analyzed and generalized into the most common answers. From there, the researcher knows the reasons why the participants take up nursing as their second degree course.

55


Table 1 Demographic Information of the Participants

Student Age Status Gender 1st course Previous Work

A 41 Married F Tourism FA PALB 28 Single M Med Tech. Med Rep.C 28 Married F ----------- HousewifeD 35 Married F Business

ManagementEquitable Bank Makati

E 22 Single M BSA, CPA Newly graduated, None

F 29 Married M Tourism FAG 25 Married M Tourism FAH 23 Single F BSA NoneI 34 Married F BS Biology HousewifeJ 28 Married F Public Health Housewife

The participants all come from a big university of the south. Their ages are ranging from 22-41 years old. Six of them are Females and 4 of them are Males. Seven of the ten participants are already married. Five of them don’t have any work. Three of them are Flight Attendants while the other two remaining are Med. Rep and a Teller at a bank.

In Krumboltz Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making, according to him this theory answers the question why people enter a particular course or work in a particular point in their lives. Under this theory is the Instrumental Learning Experience General Model an H-shaped figure that represents instrumental learning experience. This learning experience model is composed of 3 major components. The antecedent, behavior and the consequences.

Antecedents: Genetic Endowment

Under the Antecedent are the genetic endowment, Special Abilities and Skills, Planned and Unplanned environmental conditions and events and task or problem. In the genetic endowment, special abilities and skills these are inherited or may be obtain in their exposure to environmental events. These inherited qualities may set limits on educational and occupational preferences. This is supported by a study conducted by Tremblay and Gagne (2001) in which it was stated that genetic influences account for a

56

large proportion of the difference in cognitive abilities among youth and adult populations The significant impact of genes on human abilities is now recognized by a large majority of measurement experts in psychology and education (Plomin, DeFries, & McClearn, 1990; Snyderman & Rothman, 1987 stated in Tremblay and Gagne, 2001).

For the participants the genetic endowment is negligible for them in entering nursing as their second degree course. Student A answered “Kahit na 41 years old na ako, mukha parin akong bata, nakakabata kase ang mag aral ulit. Super Confident ako sa sarili ko kaya ako nag aral ulit.Hindi dapat pinoproblema ang appearance and characteristics.” (Even though Im already 41 years old, I still look young, studying makes me look young again. I’m super confident with myself that is why I studied again. Appreance and characteristics is not a problem). Similar to her answer is Student E “hindi ako nag second thought sa pag nursing dahil matangakad naman ako tsaka bata pa ako kaya wala akong problema pag dating sa mga kaya kong gawin” (I did not have any second thoughts upon taking up nursing because I’m tall and still young, so I don’t have any problems when it comes to tasks). But as for Student H she answered that “payat kase ako kaya naisip ko minsan na mahihirapan ako sa buhat buhat pag ililipat yung mga patient sa ibang kama pero kase sa ospital naman tulong tulong naman doon kaya ako nag go sa pagiging nurse ko.” (I’m quite thin so I thought that I may have a hard time transferring patients from one bed to another but inside the hospital, people always work together so I continued on taking up nursing.). This was supported by Student I and F who happens to be the same as Student H “ maliit ako, 5 flat lang ako kase, naiisip ko na mahihirapan ako sa mga ganoong bagay tulad ng pagsabit ng IV at sa mga buhat pero nung nakita ko na may mas maliit pa pala sakin na naging nurse, nag pursige na din ako mag nursing dahil may mas maliit pa pala sakin eh.” (I’m only 5 feet, so I thought that I will have a hard time with tasks like the placement of the IV and carrying of patients but I saw someone that was smaller than me so I went on ahead in taking nursing.) parallel to the answers of H and I, Student F also answered “Medyo maliit ako, kaya nag dadalawang isip ako, eh since na natanggap naman ako sa pagiging isang FA, siguro naman sa pagiging nurse eh pasok ako sa qualifications nila.” (I’m quite small so I had second thoughts but since I was accepted to become a flight attendant, I thought why not?) Like Student A and E, Student B, C, D, G and J share also the same answers “Hindi naman appearance ang hinahanap pag nag nursing ka, basta kaya mo gawin lahat ang mga pinapagawa ok ka para maging nurse.” (Appearances don’t really count when it comes to nursing as long as you can do what is asked of you.) “sa Schedule lang ang nagkakaconflict hindi sa physical appearance” (The only conflict present is the scheduling of shifts not the physical appearance.) “Lahat naman kase kami matatangkad kaya wala naman akong nakitang problema para hindi ako mag nursing” (We all have tall statures so I saw no hindrance if I took up nursing.) “Wala naman diprensya sa akin, bakit ko naman proproblemahin yung appearance ko, age lang pinoproblema hindi yung appearance ko.” (I have no problems with my looks, the only thing that concerns me is my age.) And “Kahit na medyo matanda na ako, kaya ko pa naman gawin yung mga task na dapat ipagawa. Age lang naman ang problema ko dahil baka pag graduate ko eh matanda na ko baka hindi ko na siya magamit” (Eventhough I’m fairly aging, I can still do the tasks given to me. I worry about my age because by the time I graduate, I may not be able to use it.) Based on there answers, all of the participants agreed that genetic endowment is an unimportant factor in becoming a nurse.

57

Antecedents: Special Abilities and Skills

Special Abilities and Skill may be inherited or may be obtained thru exposure in some events in life. In the early discussion, three of the participants are Flight Attendants. As we all know being an FA, they undergo training such as carrying heavy things and attending to the needs of the passengers. The three FA’s answered “Sanay kami sa mga buhat buhat dahil kasama yan sa pagiging FA namin, kasama yun sa training at pagiging FA namin. Kasama yan talaga sa trabaho naman, wala naman kaming magiging problema sa mga buhat buhat ng mga pesenyte dahil kayang kaya namin yan. Magaling din kami makipag communicate whether in English or tagalog dahil kasama din yan sa trabaho namin. Kami nag aatend sa mga kelangan nila sa loob ng eroplano.” (We are all too familiar with work that involves lifting because being an FA, it is also part of our job. Lifting and transferring of patients won’t be much of a bother because we are able to do it. We are also skilled in the English and Tagalog languages because it’s already been a part of our jobs.) Like the three FA’s Student B is a Med. Rep shares the same answer “may background naman na ko sa mga gamot kaya hindi ako mahihirapan pag naging nurse man ako” (I have a background on medicine, that’s why being a nurse won’t become a problem.) while the remaining participants, most of them are housewives since they all have kids they too have a background on how to take care of people.

Antecedents: Planned and Unplanned Environmental Conditions or Events

Planned and Unplanned environmental conditions or events, these factors are generally outside the control of ones individual. This can be supported by the answer of Student A “My dream before was to travel to different places, but being an FA becomes boring and since asa ibang lugar kami parati and asa airplane, life is always at risk. Life here becomes harder here in the Philippines, I want to have a good life in the states for my children” (My dream before was to travel to different places, but being an FA becomes boring and since I’m always away and on the airplane, my life is constantly at risk. Life becomes harder here in the Philippines, I want to have a good life in the states for my children.) not only Student A answered but it was supported by Students F and G “Dream din naming na makapagtravel sa ibat ibang bansa kaya nga lang nakakapagod at mababa din yung sweldo, naging immigrant kase ang parent ko sa states at doon na sila nakatira kaya gusto ko na din mag settle doon kasama nila” (Our dream is also to travel but it takes too much effort and is a low source of income, my parents became immigrants in the states so I also want to settle down there with them.) as for Student G “Hindi kase sapat sa family ko yung kinikita ko tsaka gusto mabigay lahat ng kailangan nila at kung ano mas ikabubuti ng buhay naming, financial talaga ang reason ko kaya ako nag nursing.” (My income is not enough to support my family and I want to give them everything they need. I really want our life to be better. My reason for taking up nursing is purely financial.) Like Student D also share the same answer “Mababa lang kase ang sweldo talaga dito, gusto ko kase mabigyan ng magandang future mga anak ko

58

tsaka immigrant na family ko sa states and RN sila doon. Wala naman akong maisip na ibang paraan kung hindi magnursing para makasunod kami ng mga anak ko doon” (The source of income here is very low and I want to give my children a better future also my family is in the states and are RN. I can’t think of any other way rather than nursing so I can go there with my children.) Student E answered a bit like the those who are already mentioned “Nag punta akong states and I saw kung ano ang buhay ng mga Filipino RN doon. Gusto ko maging lawyer kaya hindi ko alam kung aasenso pa ba ko kung hangang ngayon ay mag aaral pa ako ng law, sa states kase nurses ang madaling makakuha ng work, wala naman siguro sa atin na gusto ng simpleng buhay diba?” (When I went to the States, I saw the life of the Filipino RN there. I want to become a lawyer but I don’t know if I would still be able to succeed if up to now I am still studying law, in the US, nurses can easily get jobs. Why would anyone want a simple life?) Like Student E, Student H also has no work at present times, “Ate ko kase andun na sa states, pinipilit niya ako mag nursing para makapunta din ako doon, kaya ako nag nursing dahil para magkaroon na ko ng work at para andun na kami lahat sa states mag settle.” (My older sister is already there abroad, and she forced me to take up nursing so I can follow, I also took up nursing so that I could easily land a job there at to be with my family.) Unlike Student J their whole family is already in the states, they only came home here to study nursing because “Madaming work sa states kaya nga lang hindi ganoon kaganda yung nakukuha kong work, hindi kase ako satisfied sa buhay ko doon kaya ako umuwi dito para mag aral ng nursing baka sakaling palarin ako sa pag kuha ng magandang work doon sa states" (There are many jobs abroad but I keep landing the ones I don’t like and I’m not satisfied with my life there, so I went back to the Philippines to study nursing so that I can be able to get a good job back abroad.)

Antecedents: Task or Problem

The last box in the Antecedent is the Task or problem, this are the difficulties that the students encountered From Student A up to J they all took up nursing, some of them are still working and answered “Pinagsabay naming yung work at ng pag aaral kaya mahirap din minsan at nagkakagulo ang schedule namin” (We simultaneously took up nursing and our jobs that’s why sometimes our schedule gets mixed up.) but as for those who doesn’t have any work “Wala naman mahirap sa schedule naming kase wala naman ibang kasabay yung school wala din naman kaming trabaho pa, kaya madali lang ayusin yung schedule” (We don’t have problems with our schedule because we don’t have any work so it’s easier to fix our time.)

Behaviors: Covert and Overt Actions

Behaviors are the covert and emotional responses as well as observable behaviors. These are the actions taken by an individual in response to their problem at hand, like the answer of Student B he took nursing as his second degree course because “Nursing nalang kase mahirap parin pag ibang course din ang kukunin ko” (I chose Nursing because it would still be as hard as the other courses.) Student C agreed “Wala ng ibang course na mapapagkakitaan ng malaki.” (No other course gives out a large income.) “Nursing is the easiest way I can think of” Student F said.

59

Consequences: Directly Observable results of Action

Now the Consequences, it may be immediate and delayed effect produced by the behavior. Under this are the directly observable result or action, Covert reactions to the consequences and Impact on significant others.

Directly observable result or action, these are the action taken by the individual in which there are certain outcomes, it may be positive or negative outcomes. Like for those participants who are working and at the same time studying, the only thing that is hard for them is fixing there schedule because sometimes they have a conflict of time in work and in school, but still manage to go to school even if they have work. But for those participants who are housewives and doesn’t have any work they have no problem in going and in fixing their schedules. We can see that there action to their consequences is that even though they have work they still manage to go to school. Like what Student C had answered “Schedule lang naman ang nagkakaconflict” (The only conflict is the schedule.) but still they find time in working and in studying. Consequences: Covert Reactions to Consequences (cognitive and emotional response)

Covert reactions to consequences this is were the responses of the individuals experience when they are the recipients of these consequences as the result of their behavior. Like for example the response of the Student J she that “Madaming work sa states kaya nga lang hindi ganoon kaganda yung nakukuha kong work, hindi kase ako satisfied sa buhay ko doon kaya ako umuwi dito para mag aral ng nursing baka sakaling palarin ako sa pag kuha ng magandang work doon sa states” (There are many jobs abroad but I keep landing the ones I don’t like and I’m not satisfied with my life there, so I went back to the Philippines to study nursing so that I can be able to get a good job back abroad.) she even went home to study here, so when she come back to the states maybe she will find a better job if she finishes and passed in being a nurse.

Consequences: Impact on Significant Others

The last box in the Consequences is the Impact on significant others. As stated by Hairston (2000), other factors that influence career choice processes, family members, particularly parents, are the most influential determinant of career plans, occupational aspirations, and occupational expectations (Hines, 1997; Lee, 1984; Leong, 1995; Parham & Austin, 1994 stated in Hairston, 2000 ) Student H said that “Ate ko kase andun na sa states, pinipilit niya ako mag nursing para makapunta din ako doon, kaya ako nag nursing dahil para magkaroon na ko ng work at para andun na kami lahat sa states mag settle.” (My older sister is already there abroad, and she forced me to take up nursing so I can follow, I also took up nursing so that I could easily land a job there at to be with my

60

family.) Her sister influenced her to become a nurse to so she can go tot the state with the rest of their family. Resembling to the answer of Student H, Student E shares that “Dad ko kase asa states na and siya and other relatives and kakilala ang nag pumilit na mag nursing ako para makapunta nako doon and doon na din mag settle.” (My dad and my other relatives forced me into taking up nursing so that I can go abroad and settle down with them.) Like this two students the other remaining students would like to settle their whole family there so they can have a better future in the states.

As you read this page you can see that frequent answers from them were, they are immigrants from the states and that there job there isn’t related to the course that they finished here in the Philippines. They also said that its hard to get a job in the states, the easiest way to get a job there is to be a nurse. Family and their children are the ones that motivated them in taking up this course. They want to have a good future for their family and children. They want to have a stable job that pays a high amount of money that’s why they took up nursing because in the states nurses are very in demand. They also want to go abroad and lived there with there family. Some of them want also wants to help there family here in the Philippines so they can have a better life also. In general they all answered that they all took up nursing because of financial problems, they want to go abroad and to bring there family there to have a better life.

Implication

The study was able to discover the reasons why Filipino people are attracted to take up nursing as a second degree course. Based from the answers of the ten participants, the main reason why they took up nursing was to have a high paying job and to provide a bright future for their families.

Family is important in the Philippine society. It is part of the culture that families are treasured more than silver and gold. Members of the family are willing to sacrifice for the welfare of the family. They get strength and stability from their family. A typical Filipino family consists of a mother and father with their children. The foundation of Filipino families is to strive first and foremost for their families then for themselves. Filipino people’s main concern is the well being and happiness of each family member. Most especially parents they go abroad to endure long years of labor, hardships and homesickness just to give their families a little more welfare and comfort Examples of this are three participants who are professionals and still took up nursing as a second degree course. Most of their attention is mainly focused on their families rather than on themselves

The researcher recommends that not only 2nd degree takers should be the participants. They should also include newly graduates from high school who are entering college who will take up nursing too as to prevent immediate claims that Filipinos always have that band-wagon mentality and to give due respect to those who really are fascinated by the world of nursing..

61

References

Brown, Duane., Brooks, Linda and Associates. Career Choice and Development. Second Edition. 1990.

Buchan, J, Jobanputra, R, Gough, P., and Hutt, R., Internationally recruited nurses in London a survey of career paths and plans June 26, 2006

Gagne, F., Tremblay, T., Beliefs of Students Talented in Academics, Music and Dance Concerning the Heritability of Human Abilities in These Fields, Roeper Review, Volume 23 from www.questia.com, 2001

Hairston, J., How Parents Influence African American Students’ Decisions to Prepare for Vocational Teaching Careers, Journal of Career and Technical Education, Volume 16, Number 2, 2000 from http://scholar.lib.rt.edu/ejournals/JCTE/v16n2/hairston.html

Hsieh, M., Identity Development of East Asian Female International Students with Implications for Second-language Higher Education

Jooste, K. The Career goals of nurses in some health care settings in Gauteng. University of Johannesberg. 2005

Leonard, Teresa. RN to BSN- Advice on returning to school. AORN Journal. March 2003

Mainiero, L., Sullivan, S., The ABCs of the Career Kaleidoscope

Maze, Claire Denise Martino. Willingness to Serve Underserved and Disfranchised Populations: The Influence of Registered Nurses Demographic and Educational Characteristics and Values. Barry University. 2004.

Mcmanus, IC., Livingstone, G. and Cornelius Kartona, C., Attraction of medicine the generic motivations of medical school applicants in relation to demography personality and achievement Feb 21, 2006

Mitchell R, E. PA-C, The Internet Journal of Academic Physician Assistants 2004, Volume 4 number 1, Evaluating the clinical preparation of phsycian assistant versus nurse Practioner student and the Characteristics of their Preceptors, 2004

Nehring, Wendy M. RN, PhD, FAAN, FAAMR. Directions for the Future of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities as a Nursing Specialty. 1997.

62

NetMBA, ERG Theory, from http://www.netmba.com, 2006

Pe Pua, R., Sikolohiyang Pilipino Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, 1982Rupured, Michael. Koonce, Joan. Bales, Diane. Moving the Working Poor to Financial

Self Sufficiency. University of Georgia. 2001

Sczekan, M., Caring for the care givers health promotion or nursing students, 1995

The Sunday Times, Nursing: open season for other professions, from http://www.manilatimes.net, 2006

The Sunday Times, Nurses going abroad: We train, they gain, from http://www.manilatimes.net, 2006

Throne, Sally. RN, PHD. Data analysis in qualitative research. University of British Columbia Canada. 2003.

63

Effects of Conflict During Parent-Separation on the Adolescent’s Self-Esteem

Juan Antonio A. Garrovillo

Family structures in the Filipino society have been changing. The trend of the single-parent is growing more so by the day. This study focused on the effects of parental-conflict surrounding the event of separation on the adolescent’s self-esteem. This study used a two-part test survey consisting of a parental-conflict questionnaire and a self-esteem test, which was administered to thirty participants. All respondents are children of separated parents, both of male and female gender. All of the participant’s parents had separated during their adolescent years. This study is on the effects of these conflicts on the self-esteem during this developmental stage. It concludes that parental-conflict during separation does indeed affect the child who had experienced it. This study will show that the self-esteem levels are lower for the respondents who had experienced more parental-conflict between their parents.

The family is the very basic structure in the society. It is in ones family where a child is brought up. Here, the child will gain or miss the mental, emotional, physical, and spiritual stability needed to live in a society. A child’s self-esteem is developed depending upon their upbringing at home. Family structures are always changing now. Even before the turn of the millennium, families have dealt with change brought upon by parent-separation or divorce. Now there are so many people, so many friends who have separated parents. This change in the home must have its effects on the child’s self-esteem, eventually affecting the child’s behavior in society.

Conflict in families is normal. This is how children learn to deal with conflict in the world outside. Depending on what happens in their family, they can learn to deal with conflict well. On the other hand children may learn negative ways to manage conflict or learn to avoid it altogether. Children are very sensitive to conflict between their parents and they can be badly affected by conflict which continues after separation. Intense conflict is inevitably detrimental to the children's emotional well-being and needs to be understood if it is to be reduced.

The purpose of this paper is to first determine whether conflict amongst separated parents affects the adolescent’s self-esteem.

The Filipino family is breaking down at an ever increasing rate and the fact that chronic and intense inter-parental conflict is the usual outcome for separated parents should be a cause of concern. This study is significant because it will help the Filipino family understand the consequences of conflict in the family, and for Filipino parents to understand that they need to maintain a positive outlook to help their children develop a good self-esteem. This study will put into perspective in the San Beda community the

64

importance of having a strong bond within the family, a bond without hate and fear for a better future for children.


By the time children turn 18, approximately 50 to 60 percent of all children in the United States have been affected by divorce (Furstenberg, 1990). Unlike some other stressors, divorce-related problems (e.g., visitation, child support, parental custody) can be ongoing sources of stress to children, even up to 8 years after the initial separation (Grych & Fincham, 1997).

Both parental marital status and the parent-adolescent relationship have been found to be related to adolescent well-being (Forehand, Middleton, & Long, 1987; Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dornbusch 1991). Parental acceptance, interest, warmth, respect, and closeness have been noted to be positively associated with children's and adolescents' self-esteem (Bachman, 1970; Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dombusch, 1991).

According to research reviews (Amato & Keith, 1991; Grych & Fincham, 1992,1997; Kelly, 1993), children of divorce, when compared to children from dual-parent families, exhibit more "acting-out" behaviors (e.g., aggression, conflict with school authorities) as well as maladaptive, internally directed behaviors (e.g., depression, anxiety, and withdrawal). Children of divorce also are more likely to perform less well academically, have a lower academic self-concept (but not lower self-esteem) and are less motivated to achieve. These adjustment difficulties are sometimes directly divorce related, and sometimes due more to problems in parents' functioning.

Studies have shown though that parent separation is not necessarily the reason affecting the child’s self-esteem but more of the conflict experienced by them (Dacey & Travers 2002). It is not so much the event of the parents separating, but more of the conflicts experienced before, during and after the separation. Such conflicts include child custody, child support, finance of the child, time sharing, responsibilities, etc.

Although the differences in outcomes are clear, it cannot be assumed that parental separation is their underlying cause. The complexity of factors that impinge on families before, during and after separation indicates a process, rather than a single event, that merits careful examination. Much of the confusion seen in media coverage, and even academic debate about 'the effects of divorce on children' reflects a failure to distinguish between separation as a process and separation as an event (www.jrf.org.uk).

The level and intensity of parental conflict is the most potent factor in children’s post-divorce adjustment. Even expressions of anger between parents negatively affect children’s emotions and behaviors. Research findings indicate that children exposed to anger showed increased negative behaviors and effect. Exposure to conflict led to more aggressive responses in boys and more withdrawal in girls (Brandt, 1998).

65

Research shows quite clearly that conflict between parents is the most critical factor which affects children's adjustment after separation. Children who feel that they are 'the meat in the sandwich' are the ones who are the most seriously affected by the conflict.

If the conflict between parents continues, children may become distressed every time they go from one parent to the other. Children may feel pressure to take sides. The children may have ongoing problems at school, and, at worst, their development may be seriously hampered.

Children who witness intense conflict or violence between parents are at risk of developing long-term emotional problems. The effect on children of seeing or hearing a parent being hurt is similar to the child being hurt himself (Hannum & Dvorak, 2004).

The negative effects of parental divorce upon children depend upon many factors, including the age and sex of the child at the time of the marital dissolution, the amount of conflict within the family unit, and the degree of cooperation between the divorced or separated parents (Dacey & Travers, 2002). Each of these factors, alone and in interaction with each other, influences the psychological health of the child and the ability of the child to do well at school.

The manner by which parents interact with each other, both before and after the divorce, may have a far greater impact on children than the actual divorce itself (Hetherington, Stanley-Hagan & Anderson, 1989). Indeed, it is often difficult to separate the effects of divorce from the effects of a conflicted family relationship. In this manner, the negative effects of divorce may stem from pre-existing differences in the family unit prior to the divorce itself, and these negative effects may be more related to the emotional separation that precedes the legal divorce.

In general, children who have recently experienced a family dissolution have a more difficult time with academic and social expectations at school than children from intact families or established single-parent or blended families (Carlson, 1995). However, there is much variability in children's adjustment to parental divorce. Under some circumstances, children of divorce show only small negative effects that are limited in time; and in a few circumstances, children show resilience in adjusting to the effects of parental divorce. Indeed, children who thrive well in family dissolution are more likely to report living in homes characterized by family support and parental control (Dacey & Travers, 2002).

What are the circumstances of children's successful adjustment to parental divorce? Children do better when parents provide consistent and coordinated co-parenting in which they monitor their children and provide them with nurturance and discipline (Carlson, 1995). Such co-parenting requires a problem-solving approach in which the separated parents hide their own conflicts from children and avoid putting children in the middle of parental disagreements. After the divorce, effective co-

66

parenting requires a business-like relationship in which parents avoid criticizing each other in front of their children.

In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth refers to a person’s subjective appraisal of himself/herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree. Self-esteem involves both self-relevant beliefs (“I am competent / incompetent”, “I am liked / disliked”) and associated self-relevant emotions (triumph / despair, pride / shame). It also finds expression in behavior (assertiveness / timorousness, confidence / caution). In addition, self-esteem can be construed as an enduring personality characteristic (trait self-esteem) or as a temporary psychological condition (state self-esteem). Finally, self-esteem can be specific to a particular dimension (“I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular”) or global in extent (“I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general”) (Sedikides & Gregg, 2003).

Many factors are related to self-esteem development in adolescence; previous research has focused on academic ability, social acceptance, body image, gender differences, school environment, media influences, socioeconomic status, relationship with family, age, ethnicity (Mecca, Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997).

An adolescent’s school can have a significant influence on self-esteem development (Chubb, 1997). An adolescent’s self-esteem development may be disrupted by transition to a new school (Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). This finding related to the interruption of student’s social networks at a time when friends and peers are important to adolescent development.

Age, as a predictor of self-esteem, has yielded many different findings. Several studies (Bergman & Scott, 2001; Block & Robins, 1993; Chubb, 1997; Wade, Thompson, Tashakkori, & Valente, 1989) found that self-esteem levels remained constant with increased age. Other researches indicated a gradual increase in self-esteem across adolescence (Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987; Jones & Meredith, 1996; O’Malley & Bachman, 1983; Wigfield, 1991). Conversely, other studies have shown self-esteem decrease over time during adolescence (Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005) reported self-esteem as highest during childhood, dropping significantly during adolescence, and increasing again into adulthood.

Previous research on gender and self-esteem has been consistent. Majority of these have found that during adolescence, females have lower self-esteem, and greater depressive moods as compared to males (Cairns, 1990; Chubb, 1997; Martinez & Dukes, 1991; Quatman & Watson, 2001). Maehr and Nicholls (1980) suggested thou that gender differences might be due to response bias, in that girls tend to be more modest than boys.

67


Karen Horney’s primary concept of basic anxiety is defined as the feeling a child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world. A wide range of adverse factors in the environment can produce this insecurity in a child: direct or indirect domination, indifference, erratic behavior, lack of respect for the child’s individual needs, lack of real guidance, disparaging attitudes, too much admiration or the absence of it, lack of reliable warmth, having to take sides in parental disagreements, too much or too little responsibility, overprotection, isolation from other children, injustice, discrimination, un-kept promises, hostile atmosphere, etc (www.wikipedia.org).

The child’s exposure to his/her parental-conflict affects the child’s concept of his/her environment. During these years of turmoil in the family, the child experiences these factors. If the conflict causes lack of guidance and responsibility for the child, the child learns a life without guidance and without responsibility. A child who never received affection from his/her parents would have trouble recognizing affection when he/she receives it from another person. Lack of reliable warmth from parents can lead to lack of trust or faith on others. Un-kept promises from parents can teach a child to no longer believe in others again.

Figure 1 Relationship of Parental-Conflict on the Adolescent’s Self-Esteem

In this diagram, the researcher viewed the parental conflict of the students as an independent variable. It is independent because there could be multiple forms of conflict between the parents. Also, the parental-conflict between the parents affects the union between parents directly, thus affecting the child’s self-esteem indirectly.

Adolescents Self-Esteem Parental-

SeparationParental-Conflict

68

Method

Participants

The participants of the test were thirty-nine college students, out of school adults, and working adults with ages ranging from 18 to 30 years of age. The researcher chose this age range because it is in the time period from the late adolescent stage and continuing through to middle adulthood. All of the participant’s parents must have legally separated during their adolescent years of 13 to 17 years of age. Purposive sampling was used in determining the qualified participant’s.


The first part of the test is the Parental-Conflict Questionnaire which the researcher formulated. There are 18 items to this questionnaire. Here, the respondents were asked questions concerning the family history, the time of the parents separating, and the different conflicts between parents that the child had experienced. This has been tested using Cronbach’s reliability test, and has a score of .658.

The second part of the test is the Self-Esteem Test, also formulated by the researcher. The self-esteem test consists of 20 questions, all of which are true or false items. The questions touched on self-image, self-concept, and self-confidence. This too had been tested using Cronbach’s reliability test and has a score of .664.

Research Design

For this study, the researcher used a quantitative method of research in the form of a survey. A two-part test was administered. The first part is a questionnaire asking on respondent’s background of parental-conflicts, asking which conflicts he/she had experienced. The second part is a self-esteem test, focusing on the respondent’s self-image and self-worth.

Procedure

Before anything else, the researcher had to gather a number of participant’s with parents who have separated. In doing this, the researcher had taken into consideration that all participants’ personal information will be confidential at their request. The researcher gathered all respondents from the researchers own personal network.

Once the researcher had the number of willing participants, the researcher then facilitated the testing by email/messaging or hand-written tests.

69

Datal Analysis

The data gathered was interpreted individually, before the results were interpreted as a whole. Once both tests results were interpreted, participants were divided into groups. They were grouped according to the number of conflicts shared between participants. Once they were grouped, and the tests were interpreted, then the researcher was able to see the differences in self-esteem that conflict puts on a child.

Data gathered by the researcher using the parental-conflict questionnaire and the self-esteem test was then analyzed and interpreted using the correlation method.

70


Figure 2 Average # of Conflicts by Gender

From figure 2, the researcher shows the number of respondents and the average number of conflicts experienced. From the thirty-nine respondents, there were only twelve male respondents. The researcher found it difficult finding male respondents. Females are more responsive and more willing to participate in social experiments of a sensitive nature.

71

Figure 3 Average Self-Esteem Points by Gender

From figure 3, you will see that the female respondents have slightly lower self-esteem score averages as opposed to the male respondents. Although this could be explained simply by the known fact that females (especially traditional Filipino women) are usually modest compared to males, also the female respondents in this survey had experienced more conflicts than the male respondents in their family. While the male respondent had experienced on average three conflicts between his parents, the females were exposed to over six conflicts between their parents.

Figure 4 Average Self-Esteem Points by Conflicts Experienced

From figure 4, the researcher shows the differences in self-esteem between respondents with less parental-conflict as opposed to those with a lot of parental-

72

conflicts. Fortunately most of the respondents were not exposed to too many conflicts between their parents. Respondents under the nine and below conflicts range had an average of only 3.2 conflicts experienced between parents. For the other 23%, was exposed to on average 13 conflicts between their parents. Comparing the two groups, there is a significant difference in self-esteem levels for the respondents. The group exposed to more conflicts had lower self-esteem.

0

5

10

15

20

25

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Series1

Figure 5 Data Scatter Chart

Figure 5 is a representation of the respondents data scatter chart. The x-axis represents the number of conflict experienced, and the y-axis represents the self-esteem points the participant had. The data of all respondents have a correlation value of -0.35.

Comparing the different test results of the respondents, a few common conflicts came about. The most common conflicts experienced by the respondents were of verbal abuse. All respondents agreed to questions # 2 and # 4 and majority of the respondents had been experienced conflict # 13 as well.

# 2 One/both of my parents tend to bad-mouth the other. # 4 I have experienced one of my parents verbally abuse the other. # 13 One/both of my parents tend to bad-mouth people the other is seeing.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The results show clear signs of the effects of these conflicts on the children. The participants that had experienced more conflict between their parents had significantly

73

lower self-esteem scores than the participants with less conflicts experienced. It may seem to be small arguments and petty qualms at the time, but these have long lasting effects on the child’s mental, emotional, and psychological development. These are long lasting effects, which stays in the memory and the subconscious for years on end.

As for recommendations for further studies, a qualitative approach could be more informative. The researcher could focus on fewer respondents. The conflict questionnaire could be more elaborate with a qualitative approach. The conflict questionnaire could have more choices instead of the basic yes or no choice. Perhaps with every question, respondents could have more choices differentiate the intensity of every conflict.

If we now know the differences discretion and over-exposure brings about, the parents must be cautious of the path they take on should they decide to separate. It is essential to reach a level of civility in front of the people you care for the most. It would be good even to have a business–like approach when handling these matters of family. Head it with the right objectives in mind, putting the developmental needs of the children first. Hold your own emotional instability in exchange for a better and healthier future for your family.

74

References

Aldridge, J., Self-Esteem: Loving Yourself at Every Age

Amato, P.R. & Keith, B., Consequences of Parental-Divorce for the Well-being of Children, Psychological Bulletin

Bachman, J. G., Youth in transition. Vol. II: The impact of family background and intelligence on tenth-grade boys. Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan

Bergman & Scott, 2001; Block & Robins, 1993; Chubb, 1997; Wade, Thompson, Tashakkori, & Valente, 1989 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Buchanan, C. M., Maccoby, E. E., & Dornbusch, S., Caught between parents: Adolescents' experience in divorced homes

Cairns, 1990; Chubb, 1997; Martinez & Dukes, 1991; Quatman & Watson, 2001 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M., 2004

Carlson, C. Working with single-parent and stepfamily systems. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists

Chubb, 1997 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Connor, J. & Poyrazli, S. & Ferrer-Wreder, Laura & Grahame, Dacey, J, & Travers, J. Human development across the lifespan

75

Divorce and the American Family, Annual Review of Sociology

Doaj.org

Findarticles.com

Forehand, R., Middleton, K., & Long, N. Adolescent functioning as a consequence of recent parental divorce and the parent-adolescent relationship, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology

Furstenberg FF Jr. & Nord CW, Parenting Apart: Patterns of Childrearing After Marital Disruption, Journal of Marriage and the Family , No. 47

Grych, J.H. & Fincham F.D. Interventions for Children of Divorce, Children’s Adaptation to Divorce

Hannum, James W. & Dvorak, Dawn M. Effects of Family Conflict, Divorce, and Attachment Patterns on the Psychological Distress and Social Adjustment of College Freshmen, Journal of College Student Development

Hetherington, E. M., Stanley-Hagan, M., & Anderson, E. R. Marital transitions: A child's perspective: American Psychologist

Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987; Jones & Meredith, 1996; O’Malley & Bachman, 1983; Wigfield, 1991 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

jrf.org.uk

Kelly, J.B. Current Research on Children’s Post-Divorce Adjustment, Family and Conciliation Courts

Mecca, Phinney, Cantu, Kurtz 1997 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Robins, R.W., Trzesniewski, K.H. Self-Esteem Development Across the Life Span

rcpsych.ac.uk

Sedikides & Gregg found in www.wikipedia.org, 2003

Wikipedia.org

76

Wigfield, Eccles, Mac Iver, Reuman, & Midgley, 1991 found in The Relation of Age, Religion, Ethnicity, and Risk Behaviors on Self-Esteem among Students in Nonmainstream Schools, by Connor, J.M., Poyrazli, S., Ferrer-Wreder, L., Grahame, K.M. 2004

Perspective on Leadership of Daughters of Political Figures

May Ann C. Lardizabal

Politics and leadership have always been closely associated. Politicians lead people in their communities furthermore they are also parents who lead their families. The study wanted to understand the views of leadership among the daughters of political figures. Before gender made the partition between leadership but aside from this barrier, female began to evolve in terms of leadership and the factors with it could be from within the issues of family. Political parents influence their offspring and adapt their skills especially focusing daughters to be shared by four female respondents who are under the age bracket of 15 to 30 year old, all whom have political parent as well as exposed in political arena through their parent's commitments. The researcher used qualitative method in trying to understand the factors related to leadership perspective of daughters of political figures. Children of politician view leadership as an ability of one individual to influence others and have power to guide all toward their common goal.

One of the most difficult jobs in the world is to be a good parent - to raise kids and help them develop so that they grow up into happy, emotionally healthy, responsible and intelligent adults who can contribute effectively to the world. Leadership too, is one of the most difficult jobs. In the workplace, it is the job of leaders to help develop employees, to assist them in growing and building their skills so that they can be fulfilled in their work and be responsible and intelligent contributors to the organization.

As a leader and a parent one needs to know when to give an order and lay down the law holding employees and kids accountable for their actions and when to be collaborative and come to consensus about decisions and actions. As a parent and a leader one will need to allow kids and employees to grow at their own speed, to make choices themselves, and to make mistakes from which they can learn. But sometimes it is also important for the kids and employees to simply follow the rules and orders whether they want to or not. It is ones job to be decisive and to determinate which method is at any given time, to project confidence in your choice, and to make sure your actions back up your choice.

“Leadership is the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals”. (Poach & Behling, 1984). In this study, the researcher will find out the opinion or perception of daughters of politicians regarding leadership and also

77

their experiences having a politician parent. The researcher also wants to find out if the child’s capacity to lead is taught by his/her parents or they just imitate it. Or their parents forced them to act as a leader or being a leader is a choice on each every one.

Through the result of this study we may learn how huge factor the environment maybe in waking up one’s ability to lead. We will know the effect of the parents to their children when it comes to leadership if they are only influencing their child to lead or to act as a leader or the child just want to follow the step of their parent.

There are certain numbers of political families in history of politics here in our country. Just like the Marcoses for example. Former president Ferdinand Marcos whose daughter Imee Marcos Manotoc is now a Congresswoman. Another example is the former president Diosdado Macapagal and his daughter Gloria Macapagal Arroyo who is the current president of the Philippines. Another example is Senator Rene Cayetano and his daughter Senator Pia Cayetano.

Political dynasties within Philippine Politics are very rampant. Most of the Filipino voters rather vote known personalities as compared to less known candidates. Carrying the name of known politician is a very good advantage. The goodness and work quality of the successful politician parent becomes the shadow of their offspring as a promising leader as recognized by the people. They are expecting the same or even greater from the offspring of the leaders they admire most.

Female politicians started to capture space at Philippine politics when former President Aquino stepped to rule the Philippines after the Marcos Regime. That was the first time that a female leader started to run a powerful position as the leader of the Philippines. Although there were female leaders elected as government official’s way before former President Aquino, it is not very easy for them to just run and capture the trust of people that they could perform the responsibility as leaders because the concept of male politicians reflected as a strong from all leadership angles. Female leaders did not fail to project their strength and courage as male leaders. From that, the acceptance of a female leader became part of the Philippine politics.

The concept of leadership among children of politician is formed primarily based on their perception of their own parents leadership style (Cruz, 1999) Being female does not become a hindrance for them to aspire for public office notably, the number of female law students has risen through the years even as more and more of them have excelled in the bar examinations and, later, in practice. The law profession is no longer considered the private reserve of the male apprentices who, after training by their mentors were accepted and allowed to join their new colleagues at the bar. The bar is now open to the ladies (Cruz, 1999) Television interviews of some female political figures that have parents that are also successful politicians were encouraged by their constituents to run for public office. These people believe that they will be as good as their parents.

Philippine politics is known by many as a dirty game. Many politicians live has been ended by ravish and greed political rivals. It is not beyond our knowledge that there

78

were so many graft and corruption within politicians' ruling. As most of the Filipinos wishing changes, they rather choose female leaders for a change, as what had happened to former President Aquino; former president Aquino won the Snap Election for a change from the dictatorship of Marcos.

The study is centered on the perspective on Leadership of daughters of political figures. The research is focused and it involved female daughters of politicians. With the purpose of observing the respondents whose parents are currently serving our country. An area in Manila is chosen since there was convenience to the respondents and since the researcher also is a resident of the area covered by the study.

In order to obtain sufficient and reliable information about the respondent’s profile, a structured interview guide was made and used accordingly. The respondent’s profile included age, highest educational attainment, civil status, number of siblings/ birth order.

Generally, the study intended to find out the perspectives on leadership. The researcher aimed to answer the following questions:1. What are the different perspectives and opinions of the daughters of politicians regarding leadership?2. Being a politician’s daughter, what are the different experiences they had on having a politician parent?


Leadership

Some common definitions of leadership include the following: “The creative and directive force of morale” (Munson, 1921 in Gedney 1999). “The process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner” (Bennis, 1959 in Gedney 1999). Yet another definition is as follows, “The presence of a particular influence relationship between two or more persons” (Hollander & Julian, 1969 in Gedney 1999). Still another reads, “Directing and coordinating the work of group members” (Fiedler, 1967 in Mitchell 1998). Leadership is also, “An interpersonal relation in which others complies because they want to, not because they have to” (Merton, 1969 in Gedney 1999). “Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be attained and articulating for the followers, the ways to attain those goals” (Bass, 1985; Tichy & Devanna, 1986 in Gedney 1999). And lastly, leadership is “Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities” (Campbell, 1991 in Gedney 1999).

The most common definition of leadership is for a leader being a model for his/her followers. Leaders are the pattern of the followers. The success of all starts from the good leadership because the leader maximized each follower towards their goal. The leader gives the right directions as per perfect timings. The leader should focus of how to

79

handle his/her follower as well as to be responsible for influencing all of them towards their common goal. Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership defined as the underlying needs structure of the individual which motivates his behavior in various leadership situations (Luthans, 2005). It is based on Adler’s definition of lifestyle as an integrating goal or dominant purpose which determines the individual’s behavior. He believes that leadership effectiveness depends on both the leader’s personality and the situation. Certain leaders are effective in one situation but not in others (Luthans, 2005).

Parenting Style

Effects of perceived parental attitudes in childhood on the onset of adult psychopathology are well studied fields (Kitamura, Sugawara, Shima 1998 et.al.). Within a family system, children adopt roles to fit into the family (Alford, 1998). Parental substance imparts the normal role definition within the family constellation (Alford, 1998). Parental attitudes and orchestration of the situation have also been suggested important factors (Bischoff and Tingstrom, 1991). He conceptualized parenting as a type of leadership that had significant influences on the total family’s group interactions and that shaped the personality development of all the children (Dreikurs 1995). Given the significance of a democratic style in the way parents are leaders and educators of their children, it is surprising that few empirical studies exist that have investigated the functional dynamics of these three parenting leadership styles in contemporary society. Whereas studies in the parenting literature have tended to focus on methods of discipline, the leadership processes described by (Lewin, Lippitt, and White 1939 in Hagaman 2000) and Dreikurs (1995) consider discipline at home as only part of broader considerations that focus on family styles of decision-making and governance. Birth Order

Empirical evidence suggests that the amount of process or outcome feedback an individual receives may be associated with birth order status. This implies that birth order based differences in parental feedback may contribute to personality and behavioral differences that have been linked to ordinal positions of birth (Claxton, 1994 in Baaco 2006).

Process feedback involves information concerning how an individual implements a strategy while outcome feedback concerns judgment of performance (Earley et al. 1990 in Claxton, 1994 in Baaco 2006). Process feedback has a direct effect on the development, quality and use of task and coping strategies. Parents take the time to explain to a first-born everything he needs to know and they have more time to make sure that the child sorts out the knowledge at his own pace. Parents need to be more patient and understanding when giving process feedback. Process feedback is more time

80

consuming to give than outcome feedback, as it is more detailed and in structured (Claxton, 1994 in Baaco 2006). It relies on the child learning things as he goes along. First borns, above all else, want to forge ahead (Groce, 1998). According to (Adler 1932 in Uy 2005), first-born children are subjected to excessive attention from their parents and thus to pampering. However, this pampering is short lived. With the arrival of the second child, first-born is “dethroned”. Now the attention must be shared with, if not relinquished to, the newest member of the family. The first-born’s perception of inferiority is likely to be strong (Burger, 1999)

Environment

In an environment where learning is transmitted from parent to child, and parents have fewer demands created by a single child than several children perhaps first born may be exposed to more process feedback (Bohmer and Sitton, 1993 in Baaco 2006).

Gender

Such a state of affairs is hardly surprising, considering the different treatment and behavioral expectations for girls and boys, which start at birth. The motivation of girls and the limitation of their choice to the traditional roles of mothers, homemakers and consumers are set by society. Girls are held closer to home and socialized to assume these roles while boys are encouraged to take initiative and act independently (Bem and Bem, 1971 in Uy 2005). Sex specific behavioral expectations are carried on into adulthood with established roles for men and women.

81


The concept of leadership remains largely elusive and enigmatic. Critics have made them aware of a range of scientific deficiencies that have plagued relevant theories and research, citing poor methodology, conceptual problems, definitional ambiguities, inappropriate focus, and lack of coherence. and so on (e.g., Bennis, 1959 in Gedney 1999). Others have told that leadership is best construed as a mere substitute for and, thus, is functionally equivalent to other, more mundane organizational arrangements and processes (e.g., Kerr and Jermier, 1978). Still others confront with disturbing evidence that their assumptions about the direct instrumental potency of leadership on organizational outcomes have vastly outstripped reality (e.g., Lieberson and O’Conor, 1972). Finally, there are persuasive arguments that cause one to suspect that the greater relevance of leadership as a concept for organizational science is that it is a phenomenological important aspect of how observers and participants understand, interpret, and otherwise give meaning to organizational activities and outcomes (Calder, 1977; Salancik, 1978 et al.). Despite these assaults on traditional views, it appears that the concept of leadership is a permanently entrenched part of the socially constructed reality that we bring to bear in our analysis of organizations. And there is every sign that the obsessions with and celebrations of it will persist. The purpose of this analysis is to shed some light on this collective commitment to leadership.

Lewin and colleagues (Lewin, 1948; Lippitt, & White, 1939 in Hagaman 2000) described three types of groups according to their leadership styles, social climates, and interpersonal dynamics, Lewin and colleagues studied experimentally created groups that differed according to these three types of styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire. The impact of their work was far-reaching and for many years influenced research on leadership in adult groups (e.g., Peterson, 1997). The democratic style, built on mutual respect. This style of interaction provides for freedom and order. However, in many families, schools, workplaces, and affairs of government, the methods of interaction and problem solving continue to follow two other processes. One is authoritarian, built upon obedience, in which interactions provide order without freedom. Another style involves laissez-faire processes, built on neglect and/or indulgence, in which interactions provide freedom without order. (Ferguson (2004).

82

The environmental conditions and events are usually beyond the control of a person. This contains social, cultural, political, and economic considerations. Changes in society have had an enormous outcome on the available career selections. Social conditions also affect the availability of and the demand for educational resources. The accessibility of education is manipulated by both social and personal factors, such as, the extent to which a person’s parents assess better education and have the capacity to provide financial support. The ability to obtain the essential education to undertake a career is just one of numerous work-related considerations. There are a number of factors affecting jobs and the job market over which persons have slight control.

Alfred Adler first introduced the subject of birth order. He used birth order “as a basis for predicting characteristic behavior of individual” who fell into the categories of either “eldest, middle, youngest or only child” (Greenberg et al., 1963). Birth order has been found to be “an important and complex variable in personality development” (Gates et al., 1988 in Baaco 2006). Usually, first-born often found as political leaders from their early siblings and early experiences of exercising authority and leadership. This means that they also undertake more responsibility than their younger siblings. Another study found birth order could affect your career. Early environment enhanced competitiveness predicts future attainment.

According to a reference in a study by Andeweg and Van Den Berg (2003). Singletons and firstborns are the most over represented birth order positions in politics. This fact applies to U.S presidents, congress, and state governors, British and Australian Prime Ministers, and all offices of the Netherlands’ government as well as other countries. This cross-culture achievement and leadership of singletons has a multitude of empirically supported data to conclude that only children, in fact, have a consistent advantage over other birth order positions, especially later born children with multiple older siblings, (Roberts and Blanton, 2001).

This paper examines the literature on birth order, sex of siblings, and parent-daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders- also hold for female ones. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are over presented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than would be expected to occur in a larger sample population. (Steinberg 1989)

Despite mounting evidence that first-born children are overrepresented among incumbents in political office, there is no consensus about the cause of this overrepresentation. Some stress the impact of differential parenting, arguing that the first-born receive a larger share of parental resources and have a greater need to live up to parental expectations. Others emphasize the interaction among siblings, arguing that first-born children are better prepared for power struggles, having experience both as followers and as leaders within the family. This study, using birth-order data for nearly 1,200 incumbents in various offices in local and national politics in the Netherlands, found more support for the parental impact perspective. Singletons were also

83

overrepresented among incumbents, whereas middle-born children were underrepresented. The data suggest that this birth-order effect is weaker among younger generations and is more pronounced among women (Rudy B. Andeweg and Steef B. Van Den Berg (2003)

Throughout history, many have come to believe that leadership is a traditionally masculine activity. Judith A. Kolb (1997) talked about this in her article when she stated that “Kanter observed that if women in organizations are to emerge as leaders, it is important that they be perceived as individuals who can influence or motive others. A look at research on this dating back to the1970’s indicated that there was a tremendous amount of gender bias regarding women’s achievements in the business sector. More frightening is that as late as 1991, much of this gender bias still exists as seen by the following. A study conducted in 1991 by Shimanoff and Jenkins revealed the following; “when we reviewed this literature we were struck by the prejudice against women. Research has demonstrated that there are far more similarities than differences in the leadership behaviors of women and men, and that they are equally effective. Still, women are less likely to be pre-selected as leaders, and the same leadership behavior is often evaluated more positively when attributed to a male than to female.

Bunyi and Andrews (1985) found that when males were in the majority, they emerged as leaders 100% of the time. When females were in the majority, females did emerge as leaders but not beyond the expectations one would have on the basis of chance.

84


Figure 1. Diagram of the factors affecting Leadership

METHOD

This chapter discussed the research design applied, the participants involved and the instrumentation regarding the research, the procedure to get the research done, and plan of analysis.

85

LEADERSHIP

ENVIRONMENT

BIRTH ORDER

GENDER

PARENTING STYLE

Method

Participants

The participants were four female respondents, ages 15 to 30 years old. The researcher chose the range age, of 15 to 30 years old because at this age, people decide their career paths. As of the15 year’s olds, being in Junior/Senior High School, students at this stage decides for their courses in college to pursue as a preparation for their career goal. If one of these students chose to follow the path of their parents as politicians, most of them take Law, Political Science or other political related courses. Although some politicians were late bloomers in terms of politics, there are still many politicians who started young in entering the world of Politics?

Materials/Instrument

The researcher conducted an interview with the use of a tape recorder. Interview guidelines were taken into account and dealt primarily on the characteristics of the respondents. The nature of the research topic called for an interview where the questions themselves encouraged free-flowing conversations.

Research Design

The descriptive design was used in this particular study. It emphasized more on the explanatory approach on the specific topic. The research design applied enabled the researcher to illustrate, express, give details concerning the topic discussed, and clarify the conditions for data collection and analysis. Procedures

The researcher prepared and secured a formal letter to each respondent, asking permission from them for an “in-depth interview”. Also, the researcher assured that utmost confidentiality would be observed in order to protect the privacy of the respondents.

86

The place and time of the interviews are scheduled according to the preference of the respondents so as not to interfere their daily activities. The interview occurred in their respected houses. The interview was recorded via tape recorder for an allotted time of 30-45 minutes to finish off the whole session of the interview in order to get the substantial data.

The responses acquired were transcribed, analyzed and interpreted to ascertain the different perspectives, opinions and experiences of the respondents regarding leadership. The analyzed results and discussion of the whole study were stated further in the research paper.

Data Analysis

The data gathered from the in depth interview of the female respondents were analyzed with the use of descriptive statistics. The answers of the respondent to the various queries in the interview guideline were examined. The researcher identified the perception on the daughters of political figures on leadership.

87

Results

Demographic Profile:

Respondent # 1: Ms. A Age: 22 years old Educational Attainment: College Student BA Psychology Civil Status: Married Number of Siblings/ Birth order: 1 / Eldest

Respondent # 2: Ms. B Age: 20 years old Educational Attainment: College Student BS Accountancy Civil Status: Single Birth order: Only Child

Respondent # 3: Ms. C Age: 15 years old Educational Attainment: High School Student Civil Status: Single Birth Order: Middle

Respondent # 4: Ms. D Age: 24 years old Educational Attainment: Graduate of Hotel and Restaurant Management Civil Status: Married Number of Siblings/ Birth order: 1 / Middle

Basically two out of four respondents are college students. The other is a College graduate and the other one is a High School student. The first respondent is taking up Bachelor of Arts in Psychology while the second respondent is taking up Bachelor of Science in Accountancy. Two among them are married and have children. The third respondent is still undecided on what course she would take while the last respondent is a

88

College Graduate in Hotel and Restaurant Management. Ms. A’s father is a Political Adviser of former President Fidel Ramos while Ms. B’s father is a councilor of District 1 Las Pinas City for 12 years and Ms. C’s father is a councilor of Muntinlupa City for 3 years while Ms. D’s father is a former Mayor in Kalawan for 24 years.

Discussion

Leadership

According to Poach and Behling, (1984), “Leadership is the process of influencing an organized group toward accomplishing its goals”. And for Fiedler, (1967), “Leadership is directing and coordinating the work of group members”. Just like respondent Ms. A, respondent Ms. B, and respondent Ms. C’s perceptions regarding leadership who happened to agree with the definitions of leadership by Poach and Behling as well as Fiedler’s. The respondents believed and stated that "leaders should be able to guide, direct, responsible and can influence their people, and can able to understand various situations of different kinds of people." It is agreeable that the leader should be able to handle people in despite of their differences whether they are rich or poor, literate or illiterate, political allies or political rivals etc. Their understandings and views should be wider and their prospective should agree to the majority toward the goal and for the common good. Leaders must turn their backs to greediness. If they follow their own interest, they are definitely stray into their purpose thus beginning to stray the rest of their people.

All of the respondents also agreed with Bennis, (1959) which stated leadership as the process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner . As for the leaders who direct their subordinates toward the right and effective path through their goal, they should be able to mold their subordinates to behave in a desired manner in order to achieve their goal at a right tract, right manner and in a right place. That is one of the important roles of the leader; they should not just leave to their subordinates their own roles but to allow them to understand and be guided to execute their responsibilities effectively.

Respondent Ms. A stated that "a good leader should focus into desirable things and projects for the purpose of common good and opportunities for the community". One of the set platforms of the leaders should be of how should they stick with and implement rules as means for guide toward the common good and equal opportunities to all. Respondent’s answer agreed with Bass and Avolio, (1993); Tichy & Devanna, (1986) who stated that “Transforming followers, creating visions of the goals that may be attained and articulating for the followers, the ways to attain those goals” Through the leader, the followers will be grabbed toward their goal into a strategic way through the skills of their qualified leader. Respondent Ms. A stressed that “Leader should also be just, know how to deal with different persons' level and have an ability to understand them". Being a daughter of a politician, it is an advantage to engage at politics because we are already exposed at the system of our country's politics."

89

Respondent Ms. B pointed out that" a good leader should be responsible for they will guide, direct and influence their subordinates. They have the ability to answer and attend the needs of their subordinates who are relying to them".

Respondent Ms. D believed that a leader should not just direct people but a leader should also love and know exactly what they are doing. And for her, a good factor of a leader is to have a “word of honor”, have faith in God and have “always put feet on the ground”. Respondent Ms. D also agrees with Merton, (1969) which states that an interpersonal relation in which others complies because they want to, not because they have to. But for respondent Ms. A, the important factor of a leader is approachable, and can understand the situation of the different kinds of people whether rich or poor. While for respondent Ms. B it is important that a leader should have a lot of patience, and should always smile at people. And for respondent Ms. C a leader should be a risk taker and down to earth.

Parenting Style

According to Lewin and Collegues (Lewin, 1948; Lewin, Lippit, and White, 1939) there are three types of groups according to their leadership styles, social climates, and interpersonal dynamics. Lewin and Collegues studied experimentally created groups that differed according to these three types of styles: autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire. According to Merton’s Theory (1969), “Leadership is also an interpersonal relation in which other complies because they want to not because they have to”. Like for respondent Ms. A, Ms. C and respondent Ms. D, their parents support what ever decisions they make and respects the things they want to do through their parents also give advices and listens to their personal opinions especially when it comes to politics. Their parents are not forcing them to enter politics that’s why their parents are considered democratic. Since their parents used democratic type of leadership style, they most probably are democratic as politicians. Nurture influences on how the individual reflects on how one fees what is right and what is wrong.

Respondent A quoted that "my parents wanted us to become a politician, he even requested that one of us from the siblings to be engaged in politics. He even suggested us to take Law in college, but the final decision is within us. We decide for what we want. There were times that our decisions are different, but my father was there to guide or just to give opinions, the decision is still up with me". Being a daughter of a politician, we already witnessed the routines and adapt their roles as well. We were advised and do limited lifestyle as a part of a family who is engaged in politics." Respondent A agrees with Dreikurs (1995), in which he conceptualized parenting as a type of leadership that had significant influences on the total family’s group interactions and that shaped the personality development of all the children. Her father influences her family group interactions including interactions within the community as well as their personality. It seems that they act as politicians as their parent in many ways.

Respondent Ms. B “I don’t have the chance to choose my own career just like my course I don’t want to take up accountancy but my dad want me to take up that course

90

even though interior design is the course that I wanted, well, I don’t have any choice he’s my dad” so that respondent Ms. B’s parent is considered authoritarian because her dad did not gave her a chance to speak and to listen to her opinions.

Environment

According to Bohmer and Sitton, (1993), in an environment where learning is transmitted from parent to child, and parent have fewer demand created by single child than several children perhaps first born may be exposed to more process feedback. For respondent Ms. A and respondent B they don’t believe that leadership runs in the blood because for Ms. A “I came from family of farmers and my dad is the only one whose in politics so that I don’t believe that leadership runs in the blood”. Same as respondent Ms. B she doesn’t believe that leadership runs in the blood “we have so many relatives whose in public service but I think my dad was just only influenced by our relatives who’s into politics.” While respondent C and respondent D believes that leadership runs in the blood because almost all of their relatives are connected in public office.

The researcher asked the respondents if they want to follow the footsteps of their politician parent. Respondent Ms. A still undecided if she would run in politics but respondent Ms. B and respondent Ms. C decided not to pursue a career in politics because according to them “public service is so complicated and you don’t have privacy; your life is open to public.” and also for Respondent Ms. B “I’m not friendly and I don’t have patience”. In contrast to respondent Ms. D she wants to follow the footsteps of her dad in politics. “Because just like my dad I also want to help many people and since I was a kid I want to be the first governor in Laguna.” When it comes to decision making the researcher asked the respondents on how their politician parent influenced their decisions. For respondent Ms. A, Ms. C, and Ms. D they have the chance to follow their own decision with the support and guidance of their parent. While respondent Ms. B’s decision making are greatly influenced by her politician parent because according Ms. B her dad is so strict because she is only child.

The respondent’s experiences on having a politician parent are having a comparison just like they experienced having a special treatment wherever they go, popularity, exempted to traffic, but being a politician’s daughter it also has disadvantages just like they can’t go out alone or without body guard and yaya and according to the four respondents being popular is also a disadvantage in their lives.

Gender

According to Bem and Bem (1971), such a state of affairs is hardly surprising, considering the different treatment and behavioral expectations for girls and boys, which start at birth. The motivation of girls and the limitation of their choice to the traditional roles of mothers, homemakers and consumers are set by society. Girls are held closer to home and socialized to assume these roles while boys are encouraged to take initiative and act independently. Sex specific behavioral expectations are carried on into adulthood with established roles for men and women. In contrast to respondent Ms. A, Ms. B, and

91

Ms. C’s opinions regarding women leaders are women is much responsible than men now a days and people tend to respect women than men. While according to Ms. D gender doesn’t matter in politics because “as a leader it is important that you know what you are doing and you are interested.”

Respondent A quoted that "the advantage of female politicians, the padrino system is lesser for women as compared to male politicians. The respect for women is greater, and the friction between it correspondents or people is not that intense as of for male politicians".

Birth Order

According to Steinberg (1960-1989) the literature on birth order, sex of siblings, and parent-daughter dynamics to see whether the findings for male political leaders. Also hold for female ones. The findings suggest that first-born women, like first-born men, are over presented among female political leaders as compared with their numbers in a larger sample population; and that fewer female political leaders have an older brother than would expect to occur in a larger sample population. In contrast to four respondents opinions, just like for Ms. A, she’s the eldest among them but her father did not force her to be a politician, while respondent Ms. B is an only child her politician parent doesn’t want her to be in politics even “SK”(Sangguniang Kabataan) he doesn’t want her to be involved. While respondent Ms. C is middle her politician parent respects their decision regarding politics and according to her no one among her sisters wants to be involved in politics and their parents too. While respondent Ms. D is middle also. “For me birth order is not important in politics even you are the youngest there’s no problem about it as long as you know and you understand what you are doing.”

Conclusion

Many of our politicians today here in the Philippines are the sons and daughters of our senior politicians. Based on the respondents, they were still given options of what tract to choose weather entering the arena of politics or not, parents are just there to support them while some are just discouraging them. Their parents are not forcing them to serve as one of the leaders of the country. Not all politician parents do agree to follow their footsteps as two of the respondents shared. Their parents do not encourage them to be politicians like them. But another two from the respondents are being encouraged to enter politics. This is how political dynasty is being formed. Family has a big influence toward each member. According to all of the respondents, they almost live as politician as they witness the services and commitments of their parents. They already see the advantages, disadvantages and consequences. It is how the siblings will affect their decisions toward politics.

Gender nowadays is not a hindrance in fulfilling government leader appointments. The respondents are all female sharing out for their ideas of being politicians

92

daughters. In the Philippine political tradition, male run the leadership of many offices of the government, but many female politicians starting to come up in the list. Our current President Gloria Arroyo, Representative Imee Marcos and Pia Cayetano, are examples of high ranking female politicians with the bloodline of leaders. They provide successful image as female leaders. They prove that women could be good leaders too. Leadership does not come with males only. All of the respondents admitted that female aspiring politicians could be good leaders as our female leaders are now showing.

Children of politicians seems to view leadership as an ability of one person to influence his people and have power to guide all toward their common goal.

Implication

Leadership is important in guiding and influencing people. A leader could be male or female. Gender is not a factor in defining good leader. Aspiring leaders who refuse to go openly because of being a female should go out and face the challenges of being a leader. Our President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo who happens to be the daughter of our late President Diosdado Macapagal proved that even the highest rank official of the country could be run by a female. Discrimination among women should be stopped.

Voters should also watch out and vote wisely by assessing their candidate through their qualities and capabilities and not by popularity only. All of the respondents admitted that if a daughter of a politician tried to run for specific government office, there is an advantage of being a daughter of a politician for their names are already well known to the voters and carrying that name will enable them to be a mirror image of their parents.

93

References

Adler, A. The practice and theory of individual psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & world 1932

Alford, Leadership and Parenting Style. New York: NY free press., 1998

Andeweg, R, and Steef B. Van Den Berg: Linking Birth order to PoliticalLleadership: the impact of parents to sibling interaction., 2003

Baaco, F. L, The Relationship of Birth Order in Leadership potential and skills among female college students of San Beda College Alabang, 2006

Bass & Avolio, Socialized Charismatic Leadership, Values Congruence and deviance in Work Groups, 1993

Bem, S., & Bem, D. The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162, 1971

Bennis. Definitions of Leadership, Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1959

Bohmer, P., & Sitton, S. The influence of birth order and family size on notable American women’s selection of careers. Psychological record, 43, 375-380, 1993

Bunyi and Andrews, Leadership and Gender Perspectives, 1985

Burger, M. J., Personality 5th Edition New York: Mc. Graw Hills Inc., 1999

Calder, (1977); Pfeffer and Salancik, Defining leadership. Definition between Leadership and other social influences, 1978

Campbell, Leadership characteristics and gender, 1991

94

Claxton, R.P., Empirical Relationships between birth order and two types of Parental feedback. Psychological record, 1994

Cruz, I.A., Selections from the Philippines Daily Inquirer column from 1995 to 1996, on the constitution, Law, Order, Politics, Culture, Holidays, Reminiscences and other topics, 1999

Dreikurs, R., Algerian analysis of interaction. Group of psychotherapy. 8,298-307, 1995

Fiedler, FE, A theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York, NY: McGraw, 1967

Ferguson, E. D.. (20 concepts. Journal of Individual Psychology, 60, 3-24.04). The 2003 H. L. an Democratic relationships: Key to Adlerian d R. R, d R. R. Ansbacher memorial address:, 2003

Gates, L., Birth Order and its relationship to depression, anxiety and self-concept test scores in children. Journal of genetic psychology, 149 (1), 29-34, 1998

Gedney, The Leadership Factor. New York, NY: Praeger, 1999

Greenberg, H, Guerino, R, Lashen, M., Mayer, D., & Pikowski, D., Order of Birth as determinant of personality and attitudinal characteristics. The JournalOf Social Psychology, 1963

Grose, Relationships between Birth Category, Achievement, and Interpersonal orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 41(1).121-131, 1998

Hagaman, From Leadership to Parenthood: the applicability of leadership styles to parenting styles, 2000

Hollander & Julian, Definitions of leadership, 1969

Kerr and Jermier, Transformational leadership, initiating structure and substitutes For leadership, 1978

Kolb, J. A.,. Are we still stereotyping leadership. Vol.28 No.3, 1997

Lewin, K., Resolving social conflicts. New York: Harper & Row, 1948

Lewin, K., Lippit, R., & White, R. K., Patterns of aggressive behavior in Experimentally created & lsquo: social climates. ’ Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-299, 1939

95

Lieberson and 0’Conor, Management and leadership seem to have substantial Effect on how organizational outcomes, 1972

Luthans, F., Organizational Behavior 10th Edition New York: Mc. Graw Hills Inc., 2005

Merton, Definitions of leadership. Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1969

Munson, Concepts of leadership. Sample text for Bass and Stogdills handbook of leadership, 1921

Peterson, R. S., A directive leadership style in group decision making can be both virtue and vice; evidence from elite and experimental groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 110-1121, 1997

Poach and Behling, Leadership effectiveness and Gender, 1984

Steinberg B., The Making of Female Presidents and Prime Ministers: The impact of Birth Order, Sex, of Siblings, and father-daughter dynamics, 1960-1989

Tichy and Devanna, The nature and implications of contextual influences on transformational leadership. Vol. 22, No.1. 80-109, 1986

Uy, J,. V., Social Learning model of career decision of selected female corporate executives implications on development, 2005

96

Canadian Immigration: The Influence of Positive and Negative advertisements on Skilled Workers’ Attitudes

Christian O. Lim

The construction of this research was aimed at identifying if positive and/or negative print Canadian advertisements had a significant effect on Skilled Workers’ immigration attitudes. The research was established because of the recent work experience of the author wherein there was continuous exposure to print advertisements regarding Canadian Immigration. Forty skilled workers from the vicinity of Parañaque, Muntinlupa and Las Piñas consisting and composed of 16 males and 24 females with ages ranging from 20-60 years old were chosen as respondents for the study. A survey of the participants’ initial attitude provided the division for the two main groups: Pro-immigration and Anti-immigration. After the initial grouping, the participants were divided according to the treatment they will be receiving whether positive or negative advertisements. Both Group A (Pro-immigration; Positive Ads) and Group B (Pro-immigration; Negative Ads) contained 14 members each while Group C (Anti-immigration; Positive Ads) and Group D (Anti-immigration; Negative Ads) contained 6 members each. After exposure, a second survey was conducted to verify any changes in immigration attitudes. The t test was used to test the relationship of the variables; and was found to be significant for the Pro-immigration group (t=1.800, and 27df, p > .05) and insignificant for the Anti-immigration group because the standard error of the difference is 0. Then, Graphical analysis was used for the two groups regardless of treatment, where it yielded a significant change showing that there is a possible relationship between the variables. The researcher concludes that negative advertisements pose a significant effect on attitude but this only evident to some extent and that beliefs and/or attitudes that are deeply rooted are almost impossible to alter.

Upon waking up in the morning, after all the grunts and sighs, you get up and begin your day with a hearty breakfast; maybe some cereal, toasted bread, jams, milk/chocolate and coffee. Then you go to the bathroom, wash up and finally dress up. In that situation alone, we can already name at least a dozen products that we have seen being advertised on the TV, radio, or on establishments and billboards seen on our streets.

These advertisements are the messages projected on/in the television, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, posters, on the internet, and even through face to face communication in way of stories and they influence everyday attitudes towards the

97

seemingly unimportant (e.g. junk food) to the most complex paradigm that shape differences of lifestyle (e.g. clothing). But how does this combination of dazzling lights, sounds and pictures bring about this change in attitude?

Attitudes are the positive and negative reactions of individuals to various persons, objects, and ideas. There are two ways on how attitude is defined by social psychologists. One definition is by the tricomponent approach wherein attitudes are a combination of the affective component (positive, negative or mixed feeling towards something), behavioral component (tendency to act in a certain manner toward an object) and the cognitive component (evaluation of an object based on relevant beliefs, images, and memories) (Judd et al., 1991 stated in Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., 1996) and the second one is the single-component definition, an attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of an object, expressed at some level of intensity (Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., 1996).

There are always two sides to a story, a positive and a negative view and how we react to it depends on which view has a stronger influence. This effect takes place when a process of persuasion occurs.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model by Petty and Cacioppo states that there are two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change (Adroson, E., Wilson, T. and Akert, R., 1994); one of which is the central route to persuasion, it is the process wherein a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strengths of its arguments or simply put, the communication process takes a logical and comprehensive approach. The peripheral route to persuasion on the other hand, is this process in which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues. Any of the two routes can be followed but this will all depend on 3 factors, the message, the source and the audience (Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., 1996).

Taking Brehm and Kassin’s as an example, a car salesman (the source) induces a couple (audience) to buy a car; if the salesman gives the car’s specifications and performance (message) to the couple, the processing strategy takes the central route since the argument is logically processed, but if the salesman boasts about how flashy, popular and how the car fits the current trend (message), then the processing strategy takes the peripheral route since the audience was only wooed by superficial cues.

Nowadays, one popular form of persuasive communication comes in the package of immigration. Why immigration? Mainly because as we slowly progress into the future, one can’t help but notice that most of the time, what is done to meet the standards of living isn’t enough, thus people constantly look for other ways in which it is believed that it will be better for them and their family. Immigration gives this choice. It gives us the option to leave what we usually have for something better. But not everyone regards immigration as a one-way ticket to paradise; some see it as a form of abandonment to one’s homeland and some see it as a way of helping the country by giving assistance from abroad. This causes a great divide, the Filipinos who are for immigration and those who are not for immigration.

98

Because of this division, this research works with the hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the attitudes of finance employees about immigration when exposed for a certain amount of time with positive and negative immigration ads.

This research will test whether exposure to positive then to negative ads (and vice-versa) will pose significant differences with the employees’ attitudes in immigrating. It will make a comparison on to which kind of advertisement will establish a stronger influence on an individual.


Attitude components

As mentioned earlier attitudes are the positive and/or negative responses of an individual towards people, objects and ideas. But then how does one come up with those positive and/or negative responses? This is possible because attitudes are comprised of different components, (Breckler, 1984; McGuire, 1985 stated in Adroson, Wilson, and Akert, 1994). Specifically, the affective component, which comprises of the emotions and feelings that are associated with a person, idea or object; the cognitive component, consists of the beliefs about the person, idea or object; and the behavioral component, are the actions that are taken into account toward the person, idea or object.

Earlier studies on attitude change reviewed

In 1999, Kocher reviewed psychological studies on mental attitude change, wherein the experimental method successfully produced changes in people's attitudes under scientifically monitored conditions. In most of the experiments that attempts to program into people a different set of attitudes, opinions, or values, were rather limited in duration--mainly because it's hard to get volunteers to cooperate for long periods in scientific studies. Yet the experimenters were successful and changes in personal attitude were evident. They weren't always large changes present in the experiment, but they were there, and they were measurable. Certainly, there were people serving as experimental subjects who did not show any attitude changes under the experimental conditions, and under certain conditions a few people rebelled against the communications, changing their attitudes contrary to the direction urged. On the average, most of the attempts to produce changes in personal values or attitudes, crude and limited as they were--were successful (http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/attitude.htm).

In l957, Hovland, Harvy, and Sherif did an experiment that studied the effect of propaganda on people deeply committed to issues. They found out that communications did produce shifts in attitudes along the lines urged. Although the participants were

99

highly committed (e.g. W.C.T.U. members are not renowned for being the easiest people, in the world to approach on the subject of drinking), they changed their views to some degree even though the exposure to the propaganda was brief (http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/attitude.htm).

Changing Attitudes thru Persuasive Communication

Persuasive communication takes place when people change their attitudes when exposed towards a certain appeal made for the person, object or idea. How are persuasive communications formed? The Yale Attitude Change Approach by Hovland, Janis and Kelly deals with such, stating that people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages by the product of three factors: the source, the message/the communication itself and the audience/the nature of the audience. But how will we know when to stress the best factor? This is answered by the Elaboration Likelihood Model by Petty and Cacioppo (1986) wherein there are two routes that are taken in changing attitudes. The central route to persuasion is the logical and comprehensive approach toward the communication given and the peripheral route to persuasion is when a person is only influenced by insignificant cues. (Adroson, Wilson, and Akert, 1994). Given the two routes, advertisers can then decide which of the three factors they can give the most stress to.

Keep in mind that of the two routes, the central route is longer lasting and has a probable permanent effect because it deals with logical thinking rather than the peripheral route wherein the attitude change only exists as long as the cues remain present (Reyes, and Ymson, 2004).

Exposure of Advertisements

In persuading consumers to buy a product or service, advertisers create product or service recognition (trademarks, slogans, etc.); product or service differentiation (selling propositions); product or service participation (promises made by the ads) and redundant messages as to ensure that consumers will remember what was advertised (Jamieson, and Campbell, 2001).

In experimental studies about attitude change, it states that there are two ways by which messages are presented: active and passive exposure. Active exposure involves in engaging the participant to be active in the presentation of the message. While passive exposure only involves the participant’s reading or listening skills (Reyes, and Ymson, 2004).

In an earlier study by Hovland, his colleagues, Janice and King, they found out that active exposure had a more superior effect than passive exposure. There were many explanations as to why active exposure was more efficient than passive exposure, but in relation to the current study, the researcher will be using the passive mode of exposure because of the fact that most advertisements today are passively accessed (Reyes, and Ymson, 2004).

100

Skilled Workers

In 2006, Canada experienced a vast employment growth by 345,000 jobs, marking the 14th consecutive year of increased employment. The national employment dropped to a rate of 6.1% which matches a 30 year low. In response to the demand of skilled immigrant workers, the Canadian government will be increasing their funds for immigrant settlement programs by $307 million for the next two years (CANADAVISA.com, 2007). Each year Canada sets target ranges for each year, rather than exact figures.

In 2007 Canada plans to admit between 240 000 to 265 000 permanent residents, up from a range of 225 000 to 250 000 this calendar year (CANADAVISA.com, 2007). In the Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration, 2006, the target range of 240,000 and 265,000 admissions for immigrants is mainly composed of the skilled workers category with the lower range falling at 90,000 and with an upper range of 100, 500 (CIC Canada., 2007).

CIC Canada defines skilled workers as “people who can become permanent residents because they have the ability to become economically established in Canada”. (CIC Canada., 2007). The following are the minimum work experience requirements to be eligible to apply as a skilled worker:

You must have at least one continuous year of full-time paid work experience or the equivalent in part-time continuous employment.

Your work experience must be in the category of Skill Type 0, or Skill Level A or B on the Canadian National Occupational Classification (NOC).

You must have had this experience within the last 10 years.

Initial Attitude

According to previous studies, it is shown that initial attitude plays an important role in identifying how the Elaboration Likelihood Model will affect the participants (Reyes, and Ymson, 2004). Initial attitude is described as the original attitude of a person toward the topic, object, etc. this is whether that person agrees or disagrees with the belief of the subject. This means that initial attitude will serve as a way of knowing whether after exposure to the persuasive communication process, if the individual’s behavior will be totally or partially affected.

Canadian Immigration Attitudes

Most Filipinos want to migrate because they want to work (Baquero, 2003), and due to the increasing unemployment rate that is running at about 11 percent and rising and, with 700,000 new college students every year, the country cannot create enough skilled jobs to accommodate them. Filipinos who leave the country are in search of temporary but higher-paying jobs (Workpermit.com, 2005).

101

But why Canada? According to Atty. Abesamis in an article in the Manila Bulletin in 2004, he stated that "Canada continues to be a favorite immigration destination for Filipinos. They are attracted to the quality of life and the opportunities for personal advancement offered by this country."

Given the following observations, the study will then test the current attitudinal position of the participants, given the scenario that they have the chance to work abroad with the same line of work, whether they will shift their views/beliefs when presented with two different forms of advertisements, positive and negative, that mirror their possible future.

The research is designed to study the effect of positive and negative immigration print advertisements on the attitudes of Skilled Workers. The study aims to bring resolution to the following queries:

1. Is there a significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to negative immigration advertisements?

2. Is there a significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive immigration advertisements?

3. After being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements, which of the two kinds of advertisements had a greater influence on Skilled Workers’ attitude towards immigration?

Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis1: There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements.

Null Hypothesis2: There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements.

Null Hypothesis3: There is no significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and final attitude towards immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration advertisements.

Alternate Hypothesis: There is a significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and final attitude towards immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration advertisements.

102

Framework

Figure 1.1 Elaboration Likelihood Model (Theoretical)

103

Positive Attitude Negative Attitude

Initial Attitude

Negative Stimuli Positive Stimuli

Persuasive CommunicationThru

Passive/Active Mode of ExposureOn Participants

Cognitive Processing

New Cognition Old Cognition

Attitude Change Attitude Unchanged

The Elaboration Likelihood Model, explains how persuasive communication changes the attitude of a person, whether the effect is permanent or temporary. The model begins with the identification of the initial attitude of the audience then followed by the persuasive communication in positive and negative forms presented in either Active or Passive Mode of Exposure. After which Cognitive Processing begins, this is where Old or New Cognition/s will be strengthened/formed then the resulting attitude change will depend on what route, Central Route Process or Peripheral Route Process, was chosen.

Figure 1.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model (Conceptual)

104

Pro-immigration Anti-immigration

Initial Attitude

Negative Immigration Advertisements

Positive Immigration Advertisements

Persuasive CommunicationThru

Passive Mode of ExposureOn Skilled Workers

Cognitive Processing

New Cognition Old Cognition

Skilled Worker Attitude Change

Skilled Worker Attitude Unchanged

The framework depicts how the Elaboration Likelihood Model is used in the case of the current research; upon determining the initial attitude of the local employees, they will be divided into two groups, one group favoring immigration and the other group, not in favor of immigration, then both groups will receive different treatments that they will be receiving (e.g. Group A – Pro-immigration – Positive Ads, Group B – Pro-immigration – Negative Ads, etc.). The treatment involves the print ads presented in the passive mode of exposure. After the treatment, all groups are to undergo the processing of the communication where cognitions are formed and they choose which route to take, whether the Central or Peripheral Route. The solid arrows indicate the theoretically expected response of the respondents while the broken arrows indicate the possibilities that over time other factors can play a role in attitude change.

Method

Participants

The participants for the research are 40 Skilled workers located in the South of Manila, within the vicinity of Parañaque, Muntinlupa and Las Piñas City with ages ranging from 20-60 years old and composed of 16 males and 24 females.

The Canadian Embassy defines Skilled Workers as people who can become permanent residents because they have the ability to become economically established in Canada while possessing the following minimum qualifications:

You must have at least one continuous year of full-time paid work experience or the equivalent in part-time continuous employment.

Your work experience must be in the category of Skill Type 0, or Skill Level A or B on the Canadian National Occupational Classification (see Appendix A).

You must have had this experience within the last 10 years.

Materials/Insruments

The research used a form that includes the demographic information (e.g. Gender, Marital status, etc.) and a question that will identify their initial attitude towards immigration. The research used the information from Canada’s Immigration Plan for 2007 (see Appendix A) together with print positive and negative immigration advertisements regarding Canada. The positive ads contain subjects that positively reinforces Canada’s image and the negative ads contain subjects that degrades Canada. All articles/subjects are constructed in a simple sentence structure and the subject matter that was used was retrieved from various sources (e.g. Immigration agencies, Newspapers, etc.)

The negative advertisements (see Appendix C) used in the research are made by the researcher. Taking into consideration that negative advertisements are not common; the researcher used news headlines from Canadian news and fuse them with pictures that

105

depict the caption while the positive advertisements (see Appendix B) used in the research are taken from the Canadian Immigration Consultancy in the Philippines. The advertisements from the consultancy are open to the public and free for downloading.

Validation of Advertisements

In order to confirm the message presented by the advertisements, the researcher asked 10 random participants coming from the skilled workers class, who are and had been employed to examine the message presented and give their initial judgment if the positive advertisements projected positive messages and if the negative advertisements projected negative messages.

10 out of the 10 participants have assessed and verified that the advertisements projected the message they were designed to give.Question assessment for the Identification of Initial and Final Attitude

The question used is directed at the thought that being an observer, does the participant support or not support the idea of Filipinos migrating to Canada regardless of the reason.

6 out of 10 random participants chose the question, “Are you in favor of Filipinos migrating to Canada? Yes or No? over “What is your stand on Filipinos migrating to Canada? Favor or Not in Favor”, in order to identify the initial and final attitude of the main participants of the study for the sole reason that the first question proved to be more direct to the point thus eliminating reasoning out.

Design and Procedures

The research makes use of the Quasi-experimental design. This design makes use of groups that have already been identified thus removing the susceptibility of random assignments of condition/s. The design is further identified as the Pretest-Posttest Design wherein it establishes a baseline prior to the treatment. This will give the researcher a point of comparison in determining the before and after effect of the treatment.

The participants are briefed about the general procedures and the general nature of the research. The general procedure takes about 5-10 minutes or less of the participants’ time. Briefing should take less than 10 minutes, while retrieval of initial data (initial attitude) and application of stimuli (advertisements) take the rest of the time. To begin the data gathering procedures, the researcher gives out a form to be answered; this identifies the participants’ initial attitude group (Positive or Negative Attitude).

After determining to which group the participants belong to, they are further divided according to the treatment they are to receive, (e.g. Positive group – Positive Ads, Positive Group – Negative Ads, etc.). Once the treatment groups are clearly divided, they are first asked to read Canada’s Immigration Plan for 2007 then they are given their

106

assigned stimuli and will have 1day (minimum) or 3 days (maximum) of exposure. The length of exposure depends on the participants’ and the researcher’s availability

The advertisements are to be handed out in the form of a hard copy to each participant. Finally, after exposure, participants are asked again to fill out the form to determine any attitude change and their respective advertisements will be retrieved.

Data Analysis

In accordance to the recommendations given by the previous study of Reyes and Ymson (2004), the current research will be using the t-test to prove the strength of relationships of the variables involved in the study instead of the chi-square test. The t-test was computed by using SPSS for Windows Version 11.0.0

Furthermore, the current research makes use of graphical analysis as to evaluate the data gathered from the respondents’ initial and final attitude.

107

Results

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 respectively contains the summary of the respondents’ responses according to their demographic profile.

Table 1.1 Summary of responses for Gender Versus Immigration PreferenceMale

Initial Preference

Final Preference

Male Male Change in AttitudePro-immigration 10 100% 7 70% 3 30%Anti-immigration 6 100% 6 100% 0 0%Total 16 13 3

FemaleInitial Preference

Final Preference

Female

Female Change in Attitude

Pro-immigration 18 100% 18 100% 0 0%Anti-immigration 6 100% 6 100% 0 0%Total 24 24 0 0%

Figure 1.3 Gender: Male Preference Versus Immigration Preference

108

Male Preference Versus Immigration Preference

10

76

9

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Initial Final

Male Pro-immigration

Male Anti-Immigration

Figure 1.4 Gender: Female Preference Versus Immigration Preference

Female Preference Versus Immigration Preference

18 18

6 6

0

5

10

15

20

Initial Final

Female Pro-immigration

Female Anti-Immigration

Table 1.1 records the responses according to Gender, the males, specifically the Pro-immigrants lost 30% of its members, indicating attitude change, although this is very minimal while the Anti-immigration males and females (both pro and anti) showed a 0% shift in attitude. Figure 1.3 and 1.4 illustrates the change in attitude in terms of the number of respondents from initial to final preference.

109

Table 1.2 Summary of responses for Marital Status Versus Immigration PreferenceMarital Status Versus Immigration Preference

Initial Preference Final PreferencePro-

ImmigrationAnti-Immigration

Pro-Immigration

Anti-Immigration

Single 7 4 5 6Married 20 7 19 8Widowed 0 1 0 1Separated 1 0 1 0Total 28 12 25 15

Table 1.2 shows the responses according to Marital Status where for the Single and Married groups, there was an evidence of attitude change as seen by the difference of the members from Pro to Anti – immigration preference. While among the Widowed and the Separated, there was also no attitude change as seen by the consistent number of the group members.

Table 1.3 Summary of Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration GroupChange in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group

Treatment Group Initial Preference Final Preference Change in AttitudeGroup A Positive Ads 14 (100%) 14 (100%) 0 (0%)Group B Negative Ads 14 (100%) 11 (79%) 3 (21%)Total 28 25 3

Figure 1.5 Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group

110

Change in Immigration Attitude in the Pro-Immigration Group

100%

79%

100% 100%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Initial PreferenceFinal Preference

% o

f S

kille

d W

orke

rs

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Group B NegativeAds

Group A PositiveAds

Table 1.3 shows a definite attitude change among the Pro-immigration Groups, wherein among 28 Pro-immigrants, 3 shifted their attitude to Anti-immigrants after being treated with negative advertisements. Though Figure 1.5 thru graphical analysis shows minimal change, t test results (t=1.800, and 27df, p > .05) show that there is a significant effect between Pro-immigration attitudes and exposure to advertisements.

Table 1.4 Summary of Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group

Treatment Group Initial Preference Final Preference Change in AttitudeGroup C Positive Ads 6 (100%) 6 (100%) 0 (0%)Group D Negative Ads 6 (100%) 6 (100%) 0 (0%)Total 12 12

Figure 1.6 Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group

111

Change in Immigration Attitude in the Anti-Immigration Group

100% 100%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Initial PreferenceFinal Preference

% o

f S

kille

d W

orke

rs

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Group C PositiveAds

Group D NegativeAds

Table 1.4 clearly shows that no attitude change was apparent, as seen by a 0% attitude shift. This is supported by the graphical analysis in Figure 1.6 of the Anti-immigration Groups, it can be clearly seen that no attitude change was apparent. T test results were not computed because the standard error of the difference is 0, meaning that there is an insignificant effect between Anti-immigration attitudes and exposure to advertisements.

Table 1.5 Summary of Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

Initial

PreferenceFinal

PreferenceChange in attitude

Pro-Immigration, Negative Ad 14 11 3 Anti-Immigration, Positive Ad 6 6 0

Figure 1.7 Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

112

Change in Immigration attitude According to Treatment

14

11

6 6

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

InitialPreference

FinalPreference

Num

ber

of P

artic

ipan

ts

Pro-Immigration,Negative Ad

Anti-Immigration,Positive Ad

Table 1.5 shows the attitude change that was observed based on the treatment received by the respondents. It can be seen that 3 Pro-immigration respondents shifted their attitude after being exposed to negative advertisements while those Anti-immigration respondents remained constant even though treated with positive advertisements. Figure 1.7 projects the attitude change as shown by the difference in number of respondents from initial to final preference. According to t test results (t=-1.831, and 19df, p > .05) the change showed by the respondents is considered to be significant.

Table 1.6 Summary of Initial and Final Immigration PreferenceSummary of Initial and Final Immigration Preference

Initial Preference % Final Preference % TotalPro-Immigration 28 70% 25 63% 53Anti-Immigration 12 30% 15 37% 27Total 40 40 80

Figure 1.8 Initial and Final Immigration Preference

113

Summary of Initial and Final Immigration Preference

70%63%

30%37%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Initial Preference Final Preference

% o

f S

kille

d W

orke

rs

Pro-Immigration

Anti-Immigration

Table 1.6 shows the change in number of participants from initial to final preference. Pro-immigration groups lost 3 or 63% of its members after exposure to advertisements thus increasing the number of the Anti-immigration group. Figure 1.8 shows the graphical analysis used to portray the attitude change that can be observed form the respondents’ responses. The attitude shift between the Pro and Anti groups, though minimal can be observed quite clearly.

Discussion

Using the demographic information particularly these of gender and attitude (see Table1.1 and Figure 1.3.), it can be seen that only the males exhibited attitude change. According to Slates and Bates in 1955 which was stated in Reyes and Ymson, 2004, theoretically, gender dictates how open to a person is in changing attitudes, that females are generally more prone to change their minds because they are emotional and sensitive to others and the environment. In contrast, males are mostly logical, firm and non-emotional. Because of such a statement, it is normally believed that females can be more easily persuaded than males but in the case of the current study, the males showed a more prominent change in attitude than the females. The current findings also disapprove the claims of an earlier study by Reyes and Ymson (2004) which state that females most often than not, has the tendency to be easily persuaded or dissuaded than males. Taking into consideration that the findings of the earlier study were based on voting attitudes, the findings of the current study cannot generalize who really among the two genders are more easily persuaded or dissuaded because of the fact that the subject (immigration) that is dealt with demands a much more in depth and lengthy time of assessment before coming to a decision.

In comparing Marital Status to Immigration Attitudes (see Table 1.2), there was an evident shift among the single and married groups. Most likely this shift in attitude

114

was triggered by the negative message presented to the participants who instead of just receiving negative information instead receive a threat that was indirectly seen.

The results of the t-test supported the following hypothesis; there is a significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ favorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements as seen in the attitude shift by the Pro-immigration group. There is no significant effect in the Skilled Workers’ unfavorable attitude towards immigration after being exposed to positive and negative immigration advertisements as seen by the constant attitude preference exhibited by the Anti-Immigration Group regardless of treatment.

While graphical analysis (see Figure 1.8) rejects the null hypothesis that there is no significant effect between Skilled Workers’ initial and final attitude towards immigration after exposure to positive and negative immigration advertisements. This can clearly be observed by the upward shift of Anti-immigration respondents and the downward shift of the Pro-immigration respondents.

Between the two forms of advertisements, the negative form was responsible for the attitude shift that was observed. This supports earlier conclusions of Reyes and Ymson (2004) wherein they stated that if the message is presented in its negative nature there is an indirect but considerable effect.

Besides the given data, the researcher was able to receive feedback from the respondents which can help in explaining why there was only minimal attitude change present. Most of the participants who were in favor of immigration had their mind set that the Philippines is going to the dogs, that no matter what they do or no matter how hard they try, all their efforts would end up in vain, unlike in other countries, in this case Canada, for them, immigration does offer that chance of starting a new and better life, regardless of the negative information they had received. They believe that they would still be better off there than here. On the other hand, those not in favor of immigration possess a strong, a very strong sense of nationalism, where they believe that since one can already see that there is something wrong within the country. Why abandon it? Rather, help it be healed. Regardless of the positive treatment they received, for them, being happy does not mean only being financially stable but rather being where they truly belong.

The behavior exhibited by the respondents can also be explained by the Belief Perseverance Effect stated in Reyes and Ymson (2004), wherein once we have decided that we believe something, we will tend to keep on believing it, even in the face of disconfirming evidence.

The results of the experiment are also consistent with the claims of Kocher (1999) and Hovland, et.al (1957) that communications did produce shifts in attitudes although there weren't always large changes, but changes are present nonetheless.


115

In the previous study by Reyes and Ymson in 2004, it was stated that “print advertisements can be or may be effective if the information is presented is negative in nature”, the current research does support this claim but only to some extent. One factor that can be attributed to why it does not support earlier claims may be due to the fact that the subject being studied (immigration) greatly involves the decision of a lifetime which cannot be undone easily unlike in the earlier study done (voting), where in such a decision can easily be manipulated.

Also, based from the feedback that was shared by the participants, such intangible things like hope, luck, and nationalism come into play when making a decision even though it is just about preference, that such beliefs greatly affect the inclination of whether or not they should change their attitudes.

For any future studies, the researcher recommends that the study should be continuously studied in the experimental setting wherein contamination should be greatly diminished.

Also the current study only tackles one class that is considered for immigration, thus it is not applicable for the other classes accepted for immigration (e.g. Provincial nominees, Live-in Caregivers, etc.) and the results are only applicable for the year 2007.

If the study is to be replicated, the researcher suggests the following: All future studies should take into consideration the plans of the Canadian

Embassy for immigrants. Any future and/or similar studies should be continued under the experimental

setting as to fully control experimental variables, especially the extraneous variables.

The availability of the respondents and the researcher/s should compliment one another as to fully maximize exposure time.

If possible, achieve equal population for the main groups (Pro and Anti).

References

Adroson, E., Wilson, T. and Akert, R., Chapter 8: Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings from Social Psychology The Heart and The Mind, 1994

Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration, CIC Canada, from http://www.cic.gc.ca. 2006

116

Baquero, E., Sun.Star Cebu: POEA wary of influx of consultancy firms from www.sunstar.com.ph, April 2003

Brehm, S. and Kassin, S., Part III Social Influence, Chapter 10:Attitudes from Social Psychology Third Edition, 1996

Citizenship and Immigration Canada to Increase Settlement Funding, from CANADAVISA.com, 2007

Government to Raise Immigration Target for 2007, from CANADAVISA.com, 2007

Jamieson, K. and Campbell K., The Interplay of Influence, Chapter 7: Persuasion through Advertising, 2001

Kocher, R., Attitude Channeling and Brainwashing, The Laissez Faire City Times, Vol 3, No 17, from http://members.mountain.net/theanalyticpapers/attitude.htm, April 1999

Reyes, P. and Ymson, P., Changing Voter Attitude through Print Media: The Role of Negative and Positive Political Advertisements, 2004

Skilled Immigrants in High Demand as Unemployment Matches 30-Year Low, from CANADAVISA.com, 2007

The Manila Bulletin Online, More Pinoys migrating to Canada, says lawyer, from http://www.mb.com.ph, 2004

Workpermit.com, New, Canada News, Many Filipinos immigrating to Canada for better future 13 form http://workpermit.com, May 2005

TV Ads Exposure and Attitude towards Use of Alcohol among College Students

Maria Fe Miave

117

http://www.sunstar.com.ph/

The study aimed to know if exposure to TV advertisements of alcoholic drinks influences the attitudes towards alcohol use among college students and if the exposure to advertisements of alcoholic drinks on TV has an association in the level of understanding or knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks among college students. The research design used was descriptive survey or a survey questionnaire that used to determine the amount or number of hours the respondents was exposed to advertisements of alcoholic drinks during prime time schedule of the two major television networks in the Philippines (GMA and ABS-CBN). Alcohol Quiz and What do you know about Alcohol test was used to measure the attitude and knowledge of the respondents regarding alcohol use and alcoholic drinks. This study made used of thirty respondents, 14 males and 16 females, ranging from 16-21 years of age. The respondents of this study were gathered through purposive sampling. General linear model of univariate analysis of variance is used to treat the data; and was found that exposure has the only significant factor having a value less than 0.05 which is 0.46 that is considered having a small significance value but statistically significant. The other factor used was attitude wherein it was the dependent variable and the fixed factors was knowledge and the interaction of exposure and knowledge. Appropriate frequency and percentage was also used for further analysis of data. The researcher recommends further study must be conducted with a more thorough analysis of data and variables; moreover using a more appropriate statistical test in analyzing the data are also recommended.

College freshmen are particularly engaging to a different world or atmosphere due

to the new social contextual factors that characterize the transitional period of freshmen year. Most adults and school administrators expect college students to be matured enough in which the students would meet their attainable growth and development as an individual and to learn things formally because of the setting and the kind of environment the school offers. But students, specifically college freshmen in this study, are particularly at risk of engaging to drink alcoholic beverages and on some college campuses students use alcohol to signify their emerging adulthood, to enhance social gatherings, and to cope with the new societal environment.

One of the strongest influences of personal drinking for college students has been found to be their perceived drinking behaviors of their peers. This peer group influence is especially powerful in determining students' experiences with alcohol. For example, entering students who join fraternities are more likely to abuse alcohol than those who do not (Cashin et al., 1998). It seems to be considered that peer pressure in school is very normal in the context of the social norm in a school setting because students want to be accepted by their co-students or a certain group of students. That is why they try to socialize and be one with them in a way they want to become and how the medium of television could influence their social well being.

Most college students think of alcohol as that cheap high they get to obtain on the weekends at social events called parties. It is the time wherein they socialize and try to get along with others but does not know exactly what consequences they might get or experience from it. Knowing what alcohol really is and what exactly it can do to the body in excessive amounts over time and in any one sitting is one of the main problems with why college students abuse alcohol. The social norm of binge or excessive drinking in college is prevailing over the social fact of what alcohol really is and what it can do to a person’s health. The actual definition of alcohol is a “liquid distilled product of fermented fruits, grains, and vegetables used as a solvent, antiseptic and sedative” (McKenzie, 2000)

118

The alcohol use among college students has a direct correlation to socialization

(Mendelson, 2000). Students who go to college believe that drinking (alcohol) is a social norm. That when they go off to college it's time to not only get a degree, but also a time to drink and socialize at parties. In the end, alcohol is glamorized and often enough abused. Ultimately alcohol becomes so much of a social norm that students do not realize how and when alcohol becomes abusive; most students perceive a more liberal norm when a more moderate one actually exists (Berkowitz and Perkins, 1986). That is, students have relatively conservative personal attitudes toward drinking, but believe the general attitude to be quite liberal. Part of this is due to the lack of knowledge that college students have about alcohol use in general and that college students really do not know when and how alcohol is abusive to their own well being to the fact that drinking alcohol is the socially acceptable cool thing to do in college, which causes more people to abuse alcohol on a regular basis (Mendelson, 2000). One of the most prevalent things is how cheap it is for college students to obtain alcohol in college and how much the media exposes college students to the idea that drinking alcohol is a social norm (Marcus, 2000).

Parents and peers have a large impact on youth decisions to drink. However, research clearly indicates that alcohol advertising and marketing also have a significant impact by influencing the attitudes of parents and peers and helping to create an environment that promotes underage drinking to college students. Advertisers of alcoholic drinks use the power and influence of media to convey a positive message for their products. Alcohol advertisements glamorize drinking and play directly into the needs of teen-agers by promising fun, popularity, relaxation and escape. That is how advertising works, it attracts people or its target market to try and use the products it endorses. Television advertisements of alcoholic drinks often portray the products being enjoyed in the most appealing settings and by the most popular and attractive people like any other advertisements do. That normalcy of advertisements of alcoholic drinks helps demystify the product, which turns to be a good place to begin encouraging realistic, moderate, and responsible attitudes about it or in the same way to let the viewers or consumers know what the product or the alcoholic drinks

The researcher chose freshmen college students because they were the ones who have much expectation to what will happen in their college lives and they have tendencies to be excited in it. Giving more independence for the first time in school, many freshmen college students try to test their limits of independence. That is why they try and experiment different or new things that they are aware of but can not do before because they lack the freedom to do it. One good example of that is drinking alcohol, and one of the factors that influence them to try it is acceptance in a new social group (Weitzman and Wechsler, 2000) and they are aware of it because of the media and the television in particular, since majority of us are exposed to it.

119

Other studies suggest college students who drink in a more social atmosphere with the intention of getting drunk seems to indicate a more recreational and perhaps an experimental approach to alcohol use by the college students (Beck and Summons, 1985).

This topic was chosen because the researcher intends to find out the reasons if 1. Exposure to TV advertisements affects the attitude of college students towards alcohol use? The researcher also wants to find out if the 2. Exposure to television advertisements has significant effect in regards to the level of understanding and knowledge about alcoholic drinks of college students.


Sales pitches for alcoholic beverages are everywhere: at the grocery store, in magazines, on television, and at concession stands. Students can not avoid them even though alcohol advertisements are supposedly aimed at adults. Researchers have long suspected a connection between alcohol advertisements and underage drinking, but positive correlations to date may have been due to other factors like peer and family influences that affect both drinking and advertisement exposure. Researchers with the Research and Development (RAND) Corporation have now made a much stronger connection, taking a new look at alcohol advertisements and youth drinking with studies designed to avoid the pitfalls of earlier ones. Furthermore, they tested to see if participation in a school-based drug prevention program can counteract the impact of alcohol advertisements. Their key findings: For adolescents, exposure to alcohol advertisements is directly linked to subsequent drinking, but different kinds of advertisements have different influences depending on a youngster’s prior alcohol use. Even in elementary school, young people recognize certain alcohol advertisements. School drug prevention programs can help blunt the impact of alcohol advertisements on youth.

For two different studies, the Research and Development (RAND) researchers analyzed data from thousands of Midwestern students participating in a large-scale field trial of drug prevention curricula known as Project ALERT (for middle schools) and ALERT Plus (for middle schools and high schools). The curricula were developed by the RAND Corporation.

The two different studies are focused on beer advertisements because beer advertisements are more pervasive than those for other kinds of alcohol and the advertisements are more likely to appear where young people might see them.

In the study, the Research and Development (RAND) researchers found some evidence that viewing beer advertisements on TV encourages the non-drinkers to start drinking. However, the link was not as strong as that for advertising in magazines, at concession stands, and with in-store displays. “It may be that the real effect of television advertising only shows up after repeated exposure over many years. And elementary school children may be more vulnerable to the persuasive appeals of TV advertisements than adolescents,” according to the Research and Development (RAND) researchers.

120

(Collins et al., 1998) The possibility of a delayed effect of TV alcohol advertisements on youth drinking ties in with results from a second Research and Development (RAND) study on alcohol advertising and its impact on youth. For this study, Collins and Ellickson in 2005 assessed survey responses from fifteen hundred 9th grade students taking part in the ALERT Plus field test and two thousand 4th grade students from elementary schools in the same districts. The Research and Development (RAND) team found that younger children watch a lot of TV and see lots of alcohol advertisements. In this study, 4th graders were exposed to an average of 376 TV beer advertisements over a seven-month period, while the older teenagers were exposed to 286. This difference reflected that the elementary school children watched nearly twice as many televised professional sports programs, where beer is heavily advertised, than did their teen counterparts. One way to learn whether children actually pay attention to advertisements that they see on TV is to measure advertisment awareness or recognition. The Research and Development (RAND) researchers did this, finding that young people recognize specific beer advertisements on TV at an early age, at least as young as age nine.

“It appears that a combination of drinking experience and venue influences adolescent responses to advertising.” “Advertising that links alcohol with everyday life, such as supermarket displays, appears to have more influence on drinking initiation. On the other hand, young people who are already drinkers appear to pay more attention to advertisements in more-sophisticated venues like at sports and music events or in magazines like Playboy and Rolling StoneM.” (Ellickson et al., 2005)

Children and teens already view far too many commercial messages in the broadcast media that glamorize and encourage drinking. Young people view approximately 20,000 commercials each year, of which nearly 2,000 are for beer and wine. (Strasburger& Donnerstein, 1999)

Young people ages 12-17 spend significantly more time watching television during "prime time" hours than any other time of the day. On average each week young people watch 5:59 hours of prime time television (Monday-Saturday from 8:00-11:00 P.M. and Sunday from 7:00-11:00 P.M.) (Nielsen Media Research, 1999)

On the average, young people begin drinking at 13.1 years of age. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, those who begin by age 15 are four times as likely to become alcohol dependent than those who wait until age 21. (Grant& Dawson, 1997)

Research reports show that exposure to alcohol advertising shapes young adolescents’ attitudes toward alcohol, their intentions to drink, and underage drinking behavior. (Martin et al., 2002)

A University of Texas study of alcohol advertising over a 21-year period found that the amount of money spent on alcohol advertisements had little relationship with total consumption in the population. (Wilcox et al. 1994)

121

A research suggests that students routinely overestimate their peers' alcohol drinking levels. The social norms approach attempts to correct this misperception through normative feedback of actual alcohol consumption of students. This study assessed the effectiveness of a social norms media campaign on decreasing drinking levels of incoming freshmen. Data were collected on two years of incoming freshmen from summer, 1999 through spring, 2001. The incoming freshmen's drinking behaviors were assessed during summer orientation prior to their university attendance and again in the second semester (spring) of their freshmen year. Results indicated that the majority of freshmen consumed 0-5 drinks at each sitting and consistently overestimated their peers' drinking levels. Incoming freshmen (summer assessment) had higher levels of drinking than previous year's freshmen. The social norms intervention did not significantly decrease drinking rates.

Alcohol is shown on prime-time television programs far more than any other drink or food, and actors, including those portraying adolescents, are shown consuming alcohol on more than 40 percent of network shows, according to a Cornell study.

"Particularly disturbing, however, is that when a character is actually shown with alcohol, an adolescent character is almost twice as likely to drink it compared with older characters," "However, one encouraging finding is that although characters who are portrayed consuming alcohol have, on average, positive personality characteristics (such as smart, admirable and powerful), adolescents on prime-time TV who drink tend to have negative personality traits (stupid or powerless)."

"How teen-age viewers assimilate these contrasting messages and how these messages influence behavior are intriguing questions that need further analysis."

The researcher and his colleagues analyzed the frequency, nature and meanings of alcohol messages on 276 prime-time television programs on the four largest networks during two non-consecutive weeks, a total of 224 hours of television viewing. Overall they found alcohol was consumed 555 times in the 224 hours of prime time. About twice a program and 2.5 times an hour. Non-alcoholic beverages, such as sodas and coffee, were the next most frequently portrayed food or beverage, shown being consumed 415 times.

Teen-agers between 13 and 18 years of age accounted for 7 percent of all scenes involving alcohol, about the same as their representation in all food and beverage portrayals. "In other words, it's just as common for an adolescent to be portrayed with alcohol as any other food or drink," "This is of concern because teen viewers may get the impression that other teens drink (alcohol) as commonly as they eat or drink other beverages." (Mathios, 1998)

A study concludes that greater exposure to alcohol advertising contributes to an increase in drinking among underage youth. Specifically, for each additional advertisement a young person saw above the average for youth, he or she was 1% more

122

likely to drink. For each additional dollar spent per capita on alcohol advertising in a local market, young people drank 3% more. (Snyder et al. 2006)

Results from one study indicate that beer advertisements are a significant predictor of an adolescent's knowledge, preference, and loyalty for beer brands, as well as current drinking behavior and intentions to drink (Gentile, 2001).

A federally-funded study of 1,000 young people found that exposure to and liking of alcohol advertisements affects whether young people will drink alcohol. (Grube, 2003)

An economic analysis assessed the effects of alcohol advertising on youth drinking behaviors by comparing federally reported levels of youth drinking with detailed reports on alcohol advertising in local markets during the same years. The analysis concluded that a complete ban on alcohol advertising could reduce monthly levels of youth drinking by 24% and youth binge drinking by about 42%. (Saffer and Dave, 2003)

A study found that, among a group of 2,250 middle-school students, those who viewed more television programs containing alcohol commercials while in the seventh grade were more likely in the eighth grade to drink beer, wine/liquor, or to drink three or more drinks on at least one occasion during the month prior to the follow-up survey. (Stacy et al., 2004)

Alongside of these, “the schools are not as powerful anymore.” “It is the media that has the biggest influence on them.” It could be true. The McCann study shows that Filipinos under 20 watch television or listen to the radio for leisure after school. There is also “an emergence and prominence of technology-related activities like usage of cellphones and the Internet,” especially on weekends. (Guerrero, 2002)

Television is part of the emergence and prominence of media today, and plays a big role in the way of living, thinking and socializing of young people. It is often considered that others are easily influenced from what they have watched or seen, one good example is fashion; when people see celebrities and stars that they idolize they tend to imitate the way celebrities dress and just want to be like them or they just simply like the sense of fashion of the celebrities.

Method

Participants

123

The participants in this particular study are 30 college students ages 16-23. Fourteen were males and 16 were females. Purposive sampling was the procedure used to gather each respondent because respondents are particularly college students those coming from BS Accountancy and BALM, they we’re the most accommodating and accessible. Possible respondents are asked beforehand if they are willing to answer the survey questionnaire. Names of the respondents are not asked to maintain the confidentiality of the respondents in this study.


Survey Questionnaire

A survey questionnaire drafted by the researcher is handed out at the first part of the research. The survey questionnaire was used to know the demographic profile of the respondents like age and gender and to know the television viewing patterns of the respondents during primetime schedule (6:00-10:00 PM) and what particular television advertisements of alcoholic drinks they usually see that appear on primetime television schedule. The researcher stated only the two local major television networks (ABS-CBN and GMA) to gain more control in the study. The researcher used face validity to validate the survey questionnaire, the researcher pilot tested first the survey questionnaire before handed out to the participants to know if all information that the researcher needed is measured or asked in the survey questionnaire.

The survey questionnaire also stated a question that asks the respondents if they have tried drinking alcoholic drinks, if the respondent answered “yes” he/she will be asked to answer 2 tests; one is the Alcohol quiz and What do you know about alcohol test. If the respondent have answered “no” he/she will be answering the What do you know about alcohol test only. Alcohol quiz is a self- assessment test used to identify a person’s attitude regarding alcohol use. It was from Palo Alto Medical Foundation (PAMF). The What do you know about alcohol test is from Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies that conducts, coordinates, and promote basic and clinical research on the causes, prevention, and treatment of alcoholism and alcoholic disease.

The choices for the amount of exposure of advertisements of alcoholic drinks in a day are 4 hours which is the approximate number of hours of primetime shows, 2-3 hours and don’t watch at all to 1 hour. 4 hours of watching primetime shows is equivalent to 4-4.5 minute’s approximate airing time of advertisements of alcoholic drinks categorized by the researcher while 2-3.5 minutes was categorized to respondents who watch 2-3 hours and 0-1.5 minutes was categorized for respondents who watch 1 hour and for those who don’t watch at all.

The result of the alcohol quiz is divided into three (3) categories or factors; one is, respondents that has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and the other factor is, respondents that drink alcohol but don’t drink alcoholic drinks in

124

ways that are harmful and the last factor is the respondents who haven’t tried drinking alcoholic drinks at all.

Research Design

The researcher utilized the study by using the research design of descriptive survey in which the questions asked are about the respondents’ demographic profile, and their television viewing patterns of how many hours in primetime schedule of the 2 local major television network and what television advertisements of alcoholic drinks they usually see by choosing among the listed alcoholic drinks and liquor in the survey questionnaire.

The survey questionnaire consists of 5 questions. The researcher also used the Alcohol quiz and what do you know about alcohol test. Alcohol quiz consists of 17 questions that measure the attitude of the respondents regarding alcohol use; the quiz is answerable by “yes” or “no”. The test on what do you know about alcohol consists of 20 questions that measures the literacy and awareness of the respondents about alcohol and alcoholic drinks. Like the alcohol quiz, the test on what do you know about alcohol is answerable by “yes” or “no” also. The 2 test are given to the respondents for further data analysis

Procedure

The researcher began to gather data by asking possible respondents if they are willing to answer the survey. After that, respondents were asked to answer the survey questionnaire, what do you know about alcohol test and alcohol quiz. But alcohol quiz is for respondents who have answered in the survey questionnaire that they have tried drinking alcoholic drinks, respondents who have answered that they have not tried drinking alcoholic drinks need not to answer the alcohol quiz because it would not be applicable or in use in the study simply because alcohol quiz tends to measure the alcohol drinking patterns of the respondent and his/her attitude regarding alcohol use. While what do you know about alcohol test aims to measure the respondents awareness and knowledge on alcohol use and about alcoholic drinks.

Demographic profile of the respondents was also asked in the survey questionnaire. Once the respondents have answered the survey questionnaire and tests were collected, the surveys and tests will be tabulated and the categories for each factor will then analyzed. First, data was analyzed by the amount of exposure of the respondents to TV ads of alcoholic drinks into how many hours they watch television on primetime schedule and dividing it to three categories, one is non-exposure or 0 minutes to 1.5 minutes of exposure, second approximately 2-3.5 minutes of exposure and lastly, 4-4.5 minutes exposure to TV advertisements of alcoholic drinks on primetime schedule of the two television networks (GMA and ABS-CBN).

The television viewing patterns of the respondents is measured by answering the question of how many hours in a day they watch primetime television shows in the two television networks (ABS-CBN and GMA) and categorized by three choices, each

125

choices has an equivalent of how many minutes of television advertisements of alcoholic drinks is shown or exposed, but for the respondents who answered that they do not watch primetime shows at all the equivalent time of exposure to advertisements of alcoholic drinks is categorized from 0 to 1.5 minutes. The equivalent number of minutes to the remaining 2 choices of how many hours in primetime schedule respondents watch is: For 2 –3 hours the airtime of advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 2 -3.5 minutes. For 4 hours the equivalent airtime of advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 4- 4.5 minutes.

If the respondents have answered that they watch primetime shows, there is a question on what specific television shows on primetime schedule they usually watch and from their observation, about how many advertisements or commercials they usually see in one television program in primetime schedule.

The result of the amount of exposure of the respondents was used to analyze the data of the answers on alcohol quiz and what do you know about alcohol test of the respondents.

Data Analysis

In getting the necessary data for this study, the means or average for each factor is then computed and would be used to tabulate the data from the Alcohol quiz and what do you know about alcohol test. General linear model of univariate analysis of variance is used to treat the data using SPSS. Appropriate frequency and percentage are also used for further analysis of data.

Results

The results presented at this part of the study are as follows:

126

Table 1. Distribution of the Respondents’ Gender

Gender F %

Male 14 47

Female 16 53

Total 30 100

Table 1 show that out of the 30 freshmen college respondents, 53% or 16 were females and the remaining 47% or 14 were males.

Table 2. Distribution of the Respondents’ Age Range

Age Range F %

16 11 37

17 14 47

18 4 13

21 1 3

Total 30 100

Table 2 shows that out of the 30 respondents who contributed in the study, 47%

or 14 of the respondents is 17 years old, while 37% or 11 respondents are 16 years old and 13% or 4 were 18 years old and the least is 21 years old that is equivalent to 3% or 1 respondent only.

Table 3. Respondents’ distribution list of exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks in a day

127

Amount expose Frequency Percentage

0 – 1.5 minutes 13 43%

2 -3.5 minutes 6 20%

4- 4.5 minutes 11 37%

Total 30 100

The table above shows, the result of the survey questionnaire that aims to measure

how much time the respondents are expose to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks by answering how many hours in a day they watch primetime schedule (6:00-10:00 PM) shows of the two (2) major local television networks (ABS-CBN and GMA).Out of the 30 respondents; 11 or 37% of the respondents answered that they watch 4 hours in primetime schedule and is exposed between 4-4.5 minutes. Six or 20% of the respondents were exposed between 2 – 3.5 minutes of advertisements of alcoholic drinks, 13 or 43% were not exposed to 1.5 minutes exposure. The percentages of distribution of the respondents are also shown in the table above

Table 4. Alcohol Quiz scores distribution list in relation to exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks in a day

128

Amount expose

No. of Responde

nts

Has tendency of drinking

alcoholic drinks in a harmful way

Don’t drink alcoholic drinks in

ways that are harmful

Haven’t tried drinking

alcoholic drinks

F % F % F %

0 – 1.5 minutes 13 8 28 4 13 1 3

2 -3.5 minutes 6 1 3 2 7 3 10

4- 4.5 minutes 11 3 10 7 23 1 3

30 100% 12 41% 13 43% 5 16%

Table 4 shows the results from the alcohol quiz the frequency and percentage of the respondents categorized on how many minutes of exposure of television advertisements of alcoholic drinks the respondents have watched. The result of the alcohol quiz of respondents that doesn’t have enough or the least amount of exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks is 13, 8 of them has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in a harmful way, 4 respondents don’t drink alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and 1 respondent haven’t tried drinking alcoholic drinks at all. The result of the 6 respondents who are exposed to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks in between 2- 3 minutes and 30 seconds is, 1 of the 6 respondents has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and 2 don’t drink in ways that are harmful and the 3 remaining respondents haven’t tried drinking alcoholic drinks. The results of the alcohol quiz of the 11 respondents who had most exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks, 3 out of the 11 respondents has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful or in the wrong manner and 7 don’t have the tendency to drink alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and 1 respondent haven’t tried drinking at all.

Result shows from Table 4 that out of the 30 respondents, 41% or 12 out of the 30 respondents has tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful while 43% or 13 respondents does not drink alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and the remaining 16% or 5 out of the 30 respondents have not tried drinking alcoholic drinks or beverages.

Table 5. Distribution list of what do you know about alcohol test scores of the respondents in relation to exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks in a day

129

Amount exposeNo. of

Respondents

Has enough knowledge on

alcohol use and alcoholic drinks

Don’t have enough knowledge on alcohol use &

alcoholic drinks

F % F %

0- 1.5 minutes 13 9 30 4 13

2 -3.5 minutes 6 4 13 2 7

4- 4.5 minutes 11 6 20 5 17

30 100% 19

63 % 11

37%

The result of Table 5 shows the amount of literacy or knowledge of the

respondents regarding alcohol and alcoholic drinks by answering the What do you know about alcohol test. The result is that, 9 respondents of non- exposure or 0 minutes to 1.5 minutes exposure to advertisements of alcoholic drinks has enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks and the 4 respondents don’t have much knowledge about the said topic. Six respondents who are approximately exposed to advertisements of alcoholic drinks between 2-2.5 minutes have the majority of the respondents that has enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks. Two respondents don’t have sufficient knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks based on the test. Six respondents that is most expose to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has enough knowledge on alcohol use and alcoholic drinks and 5 out of the 11 respondents that has much exposure do not have enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks.

Result shows that 63% or 19 out of the 30 respondents have enough knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks while the remaining 37% or 11 respondents does not have enough knowledge about it.

General Linear ModelUnivariate Analysis of Variance

Table 6. Between-Subjects Factors

130

Value Label N

exposure 1.00 0-1 min.& 30 sec.

13

2.00 2-3min.&30

sec.6

3.00 3-4min.&30

sec.11

knowledge 1.00 has enough knowledge

21

2.00 don’t have enough

knowledge9

Table 6 shows the value labels of exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks and knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks that has been used as fixed factors in the study and the number of each respondent in each category.

Table 7. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: attitude

Source

Type II Sum of Squares Df

Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 4.167(a) 5 .833 1.786 .154Intercept 93.633 1 93.633 200.643 .000Exposure 3.284 2 1.642 3.519 .046Knowledge .818 1 .818 1.753 .198Exposure * knowledge

.182 2 .091 .195 .824

Error 11.200 24 .467Total 109.000 30Corrected Total 15.367 29

a R Squared = .271 (Adjusted R Squared = .119)

The Source list from table 7 is the effects in the model. The “model” is the overall, total sums of square which is 4.167 in the attitude variable that is explained by the two main effects and interaction considered together. The Sum of Squares of exposure is 3.284 while knowledge had .818. Whereas the Sum of Squares of interaction (exposure * knowledge) is .182. This data shows the independence of each effect.

The error Sum of Squares is 11.200. Together with the explained Sum of Squares, a total of 109.000 was the total variability in the attitude variable.

131

The degrees of freedom of each effect are stated in the table above.

The mean square of each effect is calculated by dividing the sum of squares by its degrees of freedom. The corrected model had a mean square of .833 because it is calculated by dividing 4.167 (Sum of Squares) by 5 (degrees of freedom). The remaining mean square of each effect is calculated the same way as it divides the Sum of Squares by its degrees of freedom.

The F statistic is calculated by dividing the mean square by the mean square error. The corrected model had an F of 1.786. The F of exposure is 3.519 and 1.753 for knowledge. The F of interaction between exposure and knowledge is .195.

Effects with a small significance value (smaller than 0.05) are significant. Wherein table 7 shows that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has a significance value of .046 so it is considered significant while the remaining factors is insignificant wherein knowledge and interaction (exposure * knowledge) has a significance value of greater than 0.05. Knowledge has a significance value of .198 while interaction had .824 which had a high significance value so it is considered insignificant.

Discussion

The results of Table 3 from the survey questionnaire measured the television viewing patterns of the respondents, the most number of respondents do not watch or at least watch for one hour of primetime shows in a day.

The result from table 4 shows that respondents even not that expose to advertisements of alcoholic drinks on television, the 8 respondents has the tendency of drinking alcoholic drinks in ways that are harmful and those who are most expose to television advertisements have a result that only 3 out of the 11 respondents has the tendency to develop drinking patterns that are harmful.

In terms of the respondents result in Table 5, it shows that respondents who do not watch or watch for at least 1 hour of primetime shows has the most number of respondents that has enough knowledge or literate enough about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks.

The data analysis that has been used to calculate or utilize the data is general linear model of univariate analysis of variance, wherein table 7 shows Tests of Between-Subjects Effects. The dependent variable that is used in the study is the attitude in regards to alcohol use of the respondents and the fixed factors are exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks and knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks. Result shows that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks has the only significant value of 0.46, having a value less than 0.05. The factors of knowledge about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks had a significance value of .198, having a value greater than and not less than 0.05 so it is not therefore significant.

132

Conclusion

The researcher concludes that exposure to television advertisements of alcoholic drinks on primetime schedule has a significant influence or association on Freshmen College students on their attitude regarding alcohol use but has no significant influence or association on their knowledge on alcohol use and alcoholic drinks.

Result shows that attitudes regarding alcohol use of the respondents have a significant relationship to the viewing patterns in regards to attitude and the alcohol drinking patterns but not the literacy or knowledge of the respondents about alcohol use and alcoholic drinks in general; of the 30 freshmen college students. Television advertisements of alcoholic drinks might be a factor of influence on a person’s personal preference of what to choose if he/she will drink alcoholic drinks/beverages but not merely to greatly influence a person to drink and to be drunk. Some factors that may influence a freshmen college student to drink alcoholic products is their peers but some factors are also prevailing in the scene that media has also something to do with it.

Recommendations

Advertisements of alcoholic drinks on television may be performing positive role to the society, and advertisements of such kinds normalizes the drinking of alcoholic drinks in the minds of young viewers because advertisements of products of any kind often portrays the product being enjoyed in the most appealing settings and by the most attractive people. So it is strongly recommended that responsible attitudes toward alcohol use should be based on the understanding that such beverages are yet another part of life over which individuals have control, like exercise, personal hygiene, or diet.

Parents should also teach their children regard the substance of alcohol as neutral, neither inherently good nor inherently bad. What matters is how it is used, and we must convey by word and example that the abuse of alcohol is never humorous, acceptable, or excusable.

The researcher also recommends further study must be conducted with a more thorough analysis of data and variables; moreover using a more appropriate statistical test in analyzing the data is also advised.

References

Agresti, A. (1996). An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis. John Wiley & Sons: New York. (A very readable introduction the many forms of the generalized linear model)

133

Austin E.W. and Johnson K.K. (1997), "Effects of General and Alcohol Specific Media Literacy Training on Children's Decision Making about Alcohol." Journal of Health Communication, 2,

.Beck, K. H. and T. G. Summons. (1985): "A Comparison of the Social Context for

Alcohol Consumption of College Students and Convicted DWI Offenders." Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education 30 31-39. EJ 313 367.

Berkowitz, A. D. and H. W. Perkins. (1986): "Resident Advisers as Role Models: A Comparison of Drinking Patterns of Resident Advisers and Their Peers." Journal of College Student Personnel 27 146-153. EJ 334 056.

Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina. “What do you know about alcohol test.

Cashin JR, Meilman PW, Mckillip J, Presley CA. (1998) Understanding the three national databases on collegiate alcohol and drug use. J Am Coll Health; 46(4):159-162.

Chen M.J., Grube J.W., Bersamin M. , Waiters E., and Keefe D.B. (2005) "Alcohol Advertising: What Makes It Attractive to Youth?," Journal of Health Communication 553-565.

Collins R.L., Schell., Ellickson P.L., and McCaffrey D., (2003) "Predictors of beer advertising awareness among eighth graders," 1297-1306.

Collins R.L., Ellickson P.L., McCaffrey D.F., and Hambarsoomians K. (1998)

Forging the Link Between Alcohol Advertising and Underage Drinking www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9073

Collins R.L., Ellickson P.L., McCaffrey D.F., and Hambarsoomians K. (2005) Saturated in Beer: Awareness of Beer Advertising in Late Childhood and Adolescence, Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 37, No. 1 pp. 29–36.

Conolly G.M. , Casswell S., Zhang J. and Silva P.A (1994). "Alcohol in the Mass Media and Drinking by Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study." Addiction 89: 1255-1263,

Ellickson PL, Collins RL, Hambarsoomians K, and McCaffrey DF, (2005) Does Alcohol Advertising Promote Adolescent Drinking? Results from a Longitudinal Assessment, Addiction, Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 235–246.

Gentile, D. et al. (April 2001) Frogs Sell Beer: the Effects of Beer Advertisements on Adolescent Drinking Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behavior. National Institute on Media and the Family

134

Grant B. F. & Dawson, D. A. (1997). Age at Onset of Alcohol Use and its Association with DSM-IV Alcohol Abuse and Dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9:101- 110.

Grube J.W. , (2003) "Television alcohol portrayals, alcohol advertising and alcohol expectancies among children and adolescents," in Effects of the Mass Media on the Use and Abuse of Alcohol, eds. S.E. Martin and P. Mail (Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism), 105-121.

Kann, L., et al. (2000). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance -- United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 49(SS05): 1-96.

Levy D. T., Miller T. R., & Cox, K. C. (1999). Costs of Underage Drinking. Calverton, MD: Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation.

Marcus, D. (2000). Drinking To Get Drunk. U.S. News & World Report [On-line], Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/ (Search=Alcohol Abuse).

Martin S.E. Et al., (2002) "Alcohol Advertising and Youth," Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 26 900-906

Mathios A. (1998) “Journal of Studies on Alcohol” (Vol. 59)

Mendelson, E. (2000). Emphasis on Social Norms Can Help Curb Drinking. Chronicle of Higher Education [On-line], Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/

McKenzie D (2000).., "Under the Influence? The Impact of Alcohol Advertising on Youth," Association to Reduce Alcohol Promotion in Ontario, http://www.apolnet.ca/resources/pubs/respapers/araporesearchpaper.html.

Moreau E., Austin E.W. and Knaus C. (2000) , "Effects of Advertising and Sponsorships in Sports and Children's Expectations about Alcohol.

Palo Alto medical foundation (PAMF), Alcohol Quiz

Perkins H. W. and Craig D., (2003). The HWS experiment: A synergistic social norms approach using print, electronic media and curriculum infusion to reduce collegiate problem drinking. In Perkins, H.W. (Ed.) The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians.

135

Perkins, H. W., (2003). The emergence and evolution of the social norms approach to substance abuse prevention. In Perkins, H.W. (Ed.) The Social Norms Approach to Preventing School and College Age Substance Abuse: A Handbook for Educators, Counselors, and Clinicians.

Saffer H. and Dave D. (2003) Alcohol Advertising and Alcohol Consumption by Adolescents, Working Paper 9676 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, May,

Snyder L.B., Milici F.F., Slater M., Sun H., and Strizhakova Y (2006):. "Effects of Alcohol Advertising Exposure on Drinking Among Youth," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 18-24.

Snyder L.B. et al. (2006): "Effects of Alcohol Advertising Exposure on Drinking Among Youth," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 160 18-24.

Stacy A.W., Zogg J.B., Unger J.B., and Dent C.W., (2004) "Exposure to Televised Alcohol Ads and Subsequent Adolescent Alcohol Use," American Journal of Health Behavior 28, no. 6: 498-509.

Strasburger C. and Donnerstein E. (1999) "Children, Adolescents, and the Media: Issues and Solutions." Pediatrics, 129-139., As quoted in "Stop Liquor Ads on TV: Talking Points." Center for Science in the Public Interest, http://www.cspinet.org/booze/liquorads/liquor_talkingpoints.htm.

Wechsler H., Nelson T., & Weitzman E. (2000). From Knowledge to Action. Change [On-line], Available: www2.gasou.edu/library/ (Galileo)(EBSCOhost)(Search=Alcohol Abuse).

Wilcox, G. B., Franke, G. R., and Vacker, B. (1994) Alcohol Advertisements Do Not Encourage Alcohol Abuse Among Teens. In: Wekesser, Carol (ed.) Alcoholism. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Pp. 132-135, p. 133.

Influence of Introversion and Extroversion on the Academic Performance of Intermediate Students with Parents Abroad

Niña Christina C. Pascual

136

The study aimed to find out if introversion and extroversion influence the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. The descriptive method of research was used through a survey checklist to determine who among the respondents have parents working abroad, and the Children’s Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) to determine who among them are introverts or extroverts. The subjects of this study were 120 students studying at Holy Infant Academy, Muntinlupa City. They were from elementary levels IV, V and VI in school year 2006-2007. The data were analyzed using Pearson r to find out the association between the introversion and extroversion to academic performance of students. In support to this study, researcher was made on personality in general, school dilemmas, parent- child relationship, and the role of education and the society in personality development. Findings showed that introvert students achieve higher academic performance, putting more efforts on their studies, as opposed to the extroverts’ carefree and energized personality. The preceding findings suggested that parents continue to give quality time with their children and encourage them to maintain good relationship such as good communication with the absent parent for a grater development of their distinct qualities. Schools on the other hand, should adapt a learning system that will cater to the different needs of these children. Activities should be geared toward student individuality and social mobility, promoting condusive atmosphere for improved academic performance on both parties. Further studies should be conducted with a more thorough analysis of other variables in student’s life so that concerned people would have awareness about such occurrence.

Sanford in 1993 stated that “Philosophers, theologians, humanist, historians, political scientist, sociologist, anthropologist, biologist physiologist- all study man and cast into print the result of their observations. The butcher, the baker, and the candlestick maker- all study man and use the result of their study as the basis for conducting their daily lives. Each of us in his own way has studied human beings. And each of us has his own view of a man. On the basis of what we have learned, we can predict sometimes with great success, what people will do”

Children flourish within a functional two-parent family. If one is not functioning and or missing, it’s really hard to carry a double load on the other part. Child training involves the teaching of new skills to facilitate the child’s growth, development and adaptive functioning. It has been found that facilitating the development of competence in children is useful as preventive measure for children prior to manifestation of the disorder rather than as a treatment. Pro social skills are developed; through the teaching of appropriate play skills, development of friendship and conversational skills to interact positively in their environment. And it was highlighted the need to include the family in the training process (Webster-Stratton and Dahl, 1995).

This study hoped to give ample information for every family most especially for parents remained at home with their children. The child is very much affected with anything that happens within a family or to the parents. The researcher opted to study the introversion and extroversion of children with parents working abroad to manifest her deep concern to the academic performance of the developing child, thus giving importance to the hopes of our future.

Personality can be defined as the distinctive and characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that define an individual’s personal style of interacting with the physical and social environment. When we are asked to describe an individual’s personality, we are likely to use personality trait terms- adjectives such as intelligent, extraverted, conscientious, and so forth. Personality psychologists have historically attempted to devise formal methods of describing and measuring personality by

137

systematizing the ways in which we use personality trait terms in daily life. In particular, they attempt to go beyond our everyday trait conceptions of personality in three ways. First, they seek to reduce the potential set of trait terms to a manageably small set that will still encompass the diversity of human personality. Second they attempt to ensure that their instruments for measuring personality traits are reliable and valid. Finally, they do empirical research to discover the relationships among traits and between traits and specific behaviors (Smith E., 1996).

Introversion-extraversion refers to the degree to which a person’s basic orientation is turned inward toward the self or outward toward the external world. At the introversion end of the scale are individuals who are shy and prefer to work alone; they tend to withdraw into themselves, particularly in times of emotional stress or conflict. At the extraversion end are individuals who are sociable and prefer occupations that permit them to work directly with other people; in time of stress, they seek company. (Eysenck,1976)

This study concerned itself with the influence of introversion and extroversion on the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. In line with this, the study also aims to compare the relationship of introversion and extroversion on the academic performance between intermediate students with parents abroad and with parents living with their children. To present the academic performance of the students, the researcher got the first and second quarter academic average.

The researcher limits the personality traits in two (introversion and extroversion) to determine the general tendency to social interaction as opposed to a general inhibitedness in all aspect of social interaction of students with parents abroad. Participants in the study are intermediate students ages nine to twelve due to their ability to comprehend to the instrument used.

The main purpose of the study is to present to its target readers, the parents (present with their children or in abroad), their children’s current interests, activities and accomplishments to which they need to respond to through some form of approval and enthusiasm.


Personality, Introversion and Extroversion

Every person, while he has much in common with others has his own particular integration of motives, abilities, and behavior patterns, which makes him different from anyone else. This unique integration is what we refer to as his personality. (Sanford, 1993)

Dunn (1992) describes personality, thus: The most distinctive feature of any individual is his personality. This is the overall pattern or integration of his structures,

138

modes of behavior, interest, attitudes, intellectual abilities, aptitudes, and many other distinguishable characteristics. Thus the term personality refers to the whole individual.

rPersonality differences often pose challenges for people who need to work together. One such difference is that which separates introverts and extroverts. Just by being themselves, introverts and extroverts can drive each other crazy. But they can also benefit from each other's strengths. (Karten 1996)

According to Jung (1975), introversion and extraversion refer to the direction of psychic energy. If a person’s energy usually flows outwards, he or she is an extrovert, while if this energy normally flows inwards, this person is an introvert. Extraverts feel an increase of perceived energy when interacting with large group of people, but a decrease of energy when left alone. Conversely, introverts feel an increase of energy when alone, but a decrease of energy when surrounded by large group of people. Most modern psychologists consider theories of psychic energy to be obsolete. However, the concept is still sometimes used in the more general sense of "feeling energized" in particular situations. Jung’s primary legacy in this area may be the popularizing of the terms introvert and extravert to refer to a particular dimension of personality.

Furthermore, Eysenck (1990) described extraversion-introversion as the degree to which a person is outgoing and interactive with other people. These behavioral difference are presumed to be the result of underlying differences in brain physiology. Extraverts seek excitement and social activity in an effort to heighten their arousal level, whereas introverts tend to avoid social situations in an effort to keep such arousal to a minimum. Eysenck designated extraversion as one of three major traits in his P-E-N model of personality, which also includes psychoticism and neuroticism. He also originally suggested that extraversion was a combination of two major tendencies, impulsiveness and sociability. He later on added several other more specific traits, namely liveliness, activity level, and excitability. These traits are further linked in his personality hierarchy to even more specific habitual responses, such as partying on the weekend.

Social psychologist David Myers (1992), on the other hand found a correlation between extraversion and happiness; that is, more extraverted people reported higher levels of personal happiness. The causality is not clear: it is not known if extraversion leads to greater happiness, happier people become more extraverted, or there is some other factor such as social status that affects both. Possibly, the results reflect biases in the survey itself. On average, extraverts also have a somewhat higher self-esteem than introverts. As in the case of happiness, this may be due to inherent differences in the brain, or differential social treatment.

Extraversion is perceived as socially desirable in Western culture, but it is not always an advantage. For many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be more successful in academic environments, which extraverts may find boring. Extraverted youths are also more likely to engage in delinquent behavior (Rauch, 2003). According to Ateel (2005), teachers can also consider temperament when dealing with their pupils, for example acknowledging that introverted children need more

139

encouragement to speak in class while extraverted children may grow restless during long period of quiet study.

School Dilemmas

Early adolescents face difficult personal dilemmas. For example, they need increasing autonomy. They need acceptance by peers and the comfort of conformity and at the same to develop unique and individual identities. They need attention and recognition for their own unique abilities and want to be part of a crowd. Moreover, some young adolescents experience dilemmas created by being significantly more developmentally advanced or less matured than other students. For example, seventh graders may look nine or nineteen in the intellectual development may lay or exceed their emotional or physical development (Van Hoose and Strahan, 1988).

Lipsitz (1984), Dorman (1987), and Strahan (1988) stated that middle-level education shifted its attention from relatively mechanical questions about grade organization to the hard work of creating more responsive schools, research on the middle grades had focused increasingly on the special characteristics of early adolescents and more recently on the distinctive components of middle grades schools that can best meet the students needs. They also discussed the primary needs of early adolescents for healthy development to which schools must respond competence, success, and achievement; self exploration and definition; social acceptance and interaction with peers and adults; physical activity; diversity; meaningful participation in school community; and structure and clear limits. According to (Gruhn & Devalas, 1947) these needs are linked closely to the manifest functions of middle grades schools to provide integration, exploration, guidance, differentiation, socialization, and articulation. The simultaneous and often conflicting function of middle grades schools crate dilemmas for all concerned.

Schools that serve early adolescents also face dilemmas in creating programs that respond to the needs of the students. Schools may try to individualize instruction to meet the diversity in students starting skills but may not want to separate or label students to meet their needs. Schools may seek to help students feel accepted by their peers but at the same time work to guide prosocial behaviors and independent thinking that requires students to counter negative peer pressure. Schools may want to bolster student’s feeling of competence by providing a common curriculum to keep all students’ option for high schools post secondary education but maybe lost when some students do not respond to the typical instructional approaches used in presenting the common curriculum.(Levin 1987)

The dilemmas faced by early adolescents and their schools are even more poignant for educationally disadvantaged middle grade students. For example, in many schools, students who have fallen behind or learn more slowly have difficulties finding opportunities to meet their needs for competence, achievement, and positive social acceptance. Most remedial programs stigmatize the very students who are most in need of social and academic support and make learning more rather than less difficult for the students. If feeling of competence and acceptance are not gathered in middle grade

140

activities, educationally disadvantages early adolescents any seek self- affirmation in non- academic domains and move toward dropping out before graduating form High School. (Melver & Epstein 1990)

Another dilemma for schools is created by recommendations for active learning in academic classes. With their natural energies and need for social support and interaction, early adolescents require instructional programs that stress learning by doing, active application of facts and skills, and interaction and work with other students. This type of program is often purposely rejected for educationally disadvantaged students, even though these may be the ones who most need these opportunities to become actively engaged in challenging and exciting school projects (Dorman and Wheelock, 1987, Epstein, Salinas, and Levin, 1987; Lipsitz, 1984; Melver and Epstein, 1990). Instead, because many teachers of educationally disadvantaged young adolescents see active learning as a threat to order, they tend to offer these students highly structured and passive instructional programs that emphasize drill and practice of basic skills.

The dilemmas created seemingly conflicting simultaneous needs of early adolescents and their schools are beginning to be understood. There are no easy answers, however, as the diversity of the age group makes organizing programs that meet and balance the needs of all students difficult .To promote healthy development and learning in early adolescence, educators need a better understanding of alternatives structures, programs and practices. (Lounsbury, 1984)

Hurlock (1993) stated that he proper understanding of our own youth possesses a challenge to all those who, in a way or another, are concerned with them. In as much as the youth are the future hopes of tomorrow, it is the primary responsibility of both parents and most especially, educators to prepare them to face the complexities of life. She also voiced this when she said: Popular recognition of the role of personality plays in successful adjustments to modern life has given strong impetus to the scientific study of personality. In simple cultures, personality is of major importance. Today’s parents and teacher put great emphasis on developing personality patterns in children, which will help them to make satisfactory adjustments both in the present and the future.

Parent-Child Relationship

Some analysts argue that growing up with a single mother is the primary cause of many of the country's most serious social problems, including poverty, high school dropout, teen pregnancy, and delinquency (Whitehead, 1993; Blankenhorn, 1995). Others argue that poverty and economic insecurity are the real culprits, causing both father absence and adolescent behavioral problems (Skolnick, 1991; Stacy, 1993).

Children who grow up apart from their biological fathers do less well, on average, than children who grow up with both natural parents. They are less likely to finish high school and attend college, less likely to find and keep a steady job, and more likely to become teen mothers. The differences are not huge. Indeed, most children who grow up with a single parent do quite well. Nor are they large enough to support the claim that

141

father absence is the major cause of our country's most serious social problems. However, the differences between children in one- and two-parent families are not so small as to be inconsequential, and there is fairly good evidence that father absence per se is responsible for at least some of them. (Popenoe, 1996)

Downey, D. B (2003) stated "Children residing without biological mothers fare worse than those without biological fathers, across most outcomes. In addition, only longitudinal measures of mother absence directly influence school outcomes. The time lived away from the biological mother is related to adolescents grades and school discipline, while the number of mother changes significantly reduces adolescents college expectations."

Adolescents from single father households are judged by teachers to be less well behaved and to show less effort in class. They also score slightly less than their single-mother counterparts on standardized tests, both verbal and math, and are perceived to be less academically qualified for college. Children raised by single fathers attain on average six months less education. When fathers live apart from their child, they are less likely to share their incomes with the child, and, consequently, mothers and children usually experience a substantial decline in their standard of living when the father moves out. We estimate that as much as half of the disadvantage associated with father absence is due to the economic insecurity and instability. Another quarter is due to the loss of parental time and supervision, and the rest is probably due to a loss of social capital attributable in large measure to the higher incidence of residential mobility among single mothers. (Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W., & Dufur, M. J. 1998).

Biblarz and Raftery (1999) show that mother-absence is much more detrimental than father-absence to children's educational and occupational attainment. They find that once parents' socioeconomic status is taken into account, children raised by single mothers are much better off than children raised by single fathers or fathers and stepmothers, and are just as likely to succeed as children raised by both birth parents.

Role of Education and the Society in Personality Development

Ours is a democratic country. Since democracy requires a participative endeavor, a dynamic personality is essential. Vigorous leadership is much needed to counterbalance the basic substance of freedom. And well- balanced and adjusted individuals can only fulfill good leadership. The second impetus to the scientific study of personality as mentioned by Hurlock has come from the growing evidence that learning, rather than heredity, largely determines what ones personality will be like. She further stated that, it is now recognized that personality, like many other areas of development, is controllable and that the child can, with guidance and help, develop a personality that will make successful adjustments to life possible. In many respects, the greatest impetus to the scientific study of personality is the realization that, since personality pattern can be changed and modified in ways that lead to improved personal and social adjustments. (Hurlock 1993)

142

The school therefore, as an agency of the state is one of those responsible for the total development of the personality of each individual. The educational emphasis should not only be more acquisition of knowledge, habits, skills, and attitudes but should lead to the total development of the whole individual, as quoted from the Philippine Personality Inventory manual of Directions: Personality development is more important than more acquisition of knowledge and skill. In fact, much of the success in life depends in no small measure upon one’s possession of desirable personality traits. (Tan E. 1994)

Gregorio also underscored the role of education in the development of the personality of an individual when he said the primary aim of the new education is the development of well- balanced, well- integrated, and socially adjusted personality. Emphasis is placed on the concept of growth, on the idea of wholeness, and on the apperceptive theory. The cooperation between the teachers and the pupils, the encouragement of voluntary effort on the part of the students, and opportunity for original expression are important factors in the development of personality (Gregorio H. & Gregorio C., 1974).

Knowledge of an individual entails a lot of work and patience. This, every teacher should know because the complete mastery of subject matter alone can cause one to fail in his teaching if there is lack of understanding of personality of the students. This is the very reason why a study of the students’ needs is used as a basis in the formulation of education objectives. Tyler said that sources of educational objectives are studied of the learners and he expounded this principle, thus Education is the process of changing the behavior patterns of people. This is using behavior in the broad sense to include thinking and feeling as well as over action. When declaration is viewed in this way, it is clear that educational objectives, then, represents the kinds of changes in the behavior that an educational institution should seek to produce (Tyler’1994).

Over the past 15 years, research on education in the middle grades has raised awareness of the importance of the organization of transitions from elementary to middle and junior High Schools (Simmons and Blyth, 1987). It has focused attention on the importance of schools and classrooms that encourage students participation and decision making for the development of positive students attitudes, self- direction, personal control, and motivation (Arlin and Whitley,1978; Deci, Schwartz, and Ryan, 1981). It also has shown the middle grades schools and classrooms may inadvertently or purposely reduce student decision making just as students are able to assume more responsibility for learning (Eccles, Midgley, and Adler 1984). Furthermore, this research has suggested that schools’ decisions regarding middle grades practices sometimes involve trade-off between important students outcomes because particular organizational components affect achievement and attitudes differently. For example, departmentalized staffing patterns in the middle grades may promote higher students achievement in science and social studies but may negatively affect student- teacher relations and students attitudes toward school (McPartland, 1987). These and other studies raise the level of educators’ awareness of the power of school achievements, organization, and practices in influencing student outcomes.

143

Although educators are increasingly aware of the recommendations for middle grades organization, information about the prevalence or persistence of these practices has not been clear. Previous research has been limited in the location and nature of the samples of schools and students, the breadth and dept of information on the middle grades practices and the comparison of alternative organizations of middle grades schools. Several new studies have focused on the state of middle grades education at the beginning of the 1990’s and raise many questions about improving practice and advancing research for the next decade.

Synthesis

In general, schools face the challenge of helping youngsters establish their own identity in early adolescence, simultaneously assisting them to take steps toward becoming more adult with active participation in their schools and communities. Furthermore, they face the challenge of meeting students’ intellectual needs without neglecting their emotional and social needs. The researcher was able to put together some relevant research and studies, which explained the idea of the influence of introversion and extroversion on the academic performances of the students.

Method

Participants

The respondents constituted three sections each of grades four, five and six having a total population of 102, 107, and 106 respectively. Participants are currently enrolled at Holy Infant Academy, Muntinlupa City school year 2006-2007. The whole of three levels participated in answering the survey checklist to determine among them have parents working abroad and those living with them, with a total of 60 respondents from each group. A total of 120 respondents took Children’s Personality Questionnaire to identify who were introverts and extroverts. Participants in this study are ages nine to twelve years old.

The researcher chose intermediate students because it is in this stage, known as late childhood that the child is marked by conditions that profoundly affects his personal and social adjustments. To many parents, late childhood is the troublesome age- the time when children no longer wiling to do what they are told to do and when they are more influenced by their peers than by their parents and other family members. (Hurlock 1993)Materials/Instruments

The researcher formulated a survey checklist determining the current status of each respondent. It showed every child’s familial status whether their living together or the other one is working abroad. Pilot testing was conducted to test the content validity and reliability of the questionnaire.

144

Children Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) is a standardized questionnaire that measures a set of fourteen factorially independent dimension of personality of pupils. The CPQ is aimed at giving the maximum information in the shortest time about the greatest number of dimensions of personality. It targets 14 dimensions of personality taken from a factor analysis of personality performed by Cattell in 1950. Each form contains 140 items, ten for each dimension. The test result gave the teacher a psychologically insightful understanding, as well as a precise, quantitative evaluation of those aspects of a particular students’ personality contributing to, or detracting from his or her performance in school and his or her social adjustment inside and outside the classroom. This personality measures and concepts are equally relevant to child guidance, counseling and classroom purposes. It has a scoring for introversion and extroversion, which measures a factor, which predicts the child’s seeking of avoiding social interactions generally. The CPQ is theoretically based: its scales are relevant to the hypothesized structure of personality, reliability and validity indicates both the goodness of the hypotheses and the adequacy of the measures of each hypothesized construct. This is termed concept validity (Cattell,1964:Gronbach,1960).

Research Design

The researcher used the descriptive method of research to determine the influence of personality traits to academic performance of children with parents abroad as against those living with a complete pair. Descriptive method is designed for the investigator to gather information about present existing conditions. The principal aims in employing this method are to:(1) Describe the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study;(2) Explore the causes of a particular phenomena. The descriptive research as defined involves a collection of data in order to test hypothesis or to answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study (Sevilla, 1986)

A descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. Just as historical research, descriptive research has no control over what is, it can only measure what already exists. Descriptive research deals mostly with verbal information analyzed, summarized and interpreted along certain lines of thought for the pursuit of a specific purpose of the study (Estolas,et al,1989). This method clearly describes the existing condition, situations, and factors, which the researcher has conceived the problem.

Procedure

First, the researcher sought permission through a formal letter of request addressed to the Directress-Principal to conduct a study about the influence of personality traits to academic performance among the selected intermediate pupils.

145

Upon approval, the researcher went room-to room together with the Elementary Guidance Counselor to distribute the survey questionnaires and to give further instructions to the students on how they would fill up the survey questionnaire. With their response to the survey checklist, the researcher was able to determine the respondents for this study.

The researcher again sought permission to allow her to administer the Children Personality Questionnaire to identify the introvert and extrovert respondents. CPQ was taken from the Elementary Guidance office. Assurance on the test results confidentiality was reassured between the researcher and guidance counselor.

Lastly, the researcher again requested that she may be allowed to copy the first and second quarter general academic performance of her respondents to be used as the determining factor in the relationship of the variables of this study.

Data Analysis

The data gathered from the survey questionnaire, from the records and the CPQ were classified, tallied, tabulated, and analyzed

The Pearson Correlation coefficient r was employed in order to measure relationship between two variables. It indicated the magnitude of the relationship between two variables.

For interpreting the coefficient of correlation, 1.0-was used to show a Perfect positive coefficient for r, and -1.0 for a perfect negative coefficient for r.

Results

This chapter presents, analyzes, and discuss the findings and the result concerning the Influence of Introversion and Extroversion on the Academic Performance of Intermediate students with Parent abroad.

146

Figure 1.The Academic Performance and CPQ Scores of Introvert and Extrovert Respondents

Figure 1 shows the CPQ scores and academic performance of introvert and extrovert students. Based on the CPQ scores, those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are considered introverts and those that fall between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts. Introvert respondents whose parents living together with their children achieved higher academic performance compared to introvert respondents taken cared of by single parents with fathers or mothers working abroad. Extrovert respondents with parents living together with them achieved low grades but those extrovert respondents whose parents are abroad got lower grades compared to those respondents whose parents living with their children. Generally, respondents regardless of being introvert or extrovert but when living with both parents shows a higher achievement level than those who are raised by only one parent.

Table 1Distribution of Respondents According to Grade Level

Grade Level Number of Respondents Percentage

IV 34 28.3%

147

V 33 27.5%VI 53 44.2%

Total 120 100.0%

Table 1 shows that 28.3% (34 out of 120) of the respondents are from Grade IV level, 27.5% (33 out of 120) were from Grade V level and 44.2% (53 out of 120) are from Grade VI.

Table 2Distribution of Personality Traits of Respondents with Parents Abroad

Personality Traits Number of Respondents PercentageIntrovert 42 70%Extrovert 18 30%

Total 60 100.0%

Table 2 shows that 70% (42 out of 60) of the respondents are introverts and only 30% (18 out of 60) are extroverts. This table indicates that a great number of intermediate students with parents abroad were more introvert than extrovert. Based on the CPQ score those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are considered introverts and those that fall between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts.

Table 3Distribution of Personality Traits of Respondents whose Parents are Living Together with their Children

Personality Traits Number of Respondents PercentageIntrovert 45 75%Extrovert 15 25%

Total 60 100.0%

Table 3 shows that 75% (45 out of 60) of the respondents are living with their parents are introvert and 25% (15 out of 60) respondents are extroverts. Based on the CPQ scores those that fall under the scale of 1 to 5 are considered introverts and those that fall between 5.5 to 10 are considered extroverts.

Table 4

Testing the Relationship of Introvert and Extrovert Respondents on their Academic Performance with Parents abroad and with Parents Living with Their Children .

Variable Computed Pearson r Verbal Interpretation

148

With parents abroad (Introvert)

0.52 High positive correlation

With parents abroad (Extrovert)


With parents living with their children (Introvert)


With parents living with their children (Extrovert)


Introvert respondents 0.59 High positive correlationExtrovert respondents 0.62 High positive correlation

Table 4 shows that introversion and extroversion has strong relationship on the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad and with parents living together with their children

Discussion

Based on the results of the study, it is shown that introvert students achieve higher academic performance compared to extrovert students. Table 4 shows that the computed Pearson r for the relationship of introvert respondents on their academic performance with parents abroad is 0.52, explaining that introversion has a strong relationship with the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. The computed Pearson r for the relationship of extrovert respondents on their academic performance with parents abroad is 0.60, which means that extroversion has a strong relationship with the academic performance of intermediate students with parents abroad. For the relationship of introvert respondents on their academic performance with parents living with their children, the computed Pearson r is 0.64, which means that introversion has a strong relationship on the academic performance of intermediate students with parents living together with their children. For the relationship of extrovert respondents on their academic performance with parents living together with their children, the computed Pearson r is 0.67, it means that extroversion has also a strong relationship on the academic performance of intermediate students with parents living together with their children. The computed Pearson r for the relationship of introvert respondents on their academic performance is 0.59 and for the relationship of extrovert respondents on their academic performance, the computed Pearson r is 0.62. It explains that introversion and extroversion and extroversion has strongly influence the academic performance of intermediate students.

Based on the graph shown in figure 1 introvert respondents whose parents living together with their children achieve higher academic performance compared to introvert respondents taken cared of by single parents whose fathers or mothers are abroad. Extrovert respondents whose parents are living together with their children achieve low grades against extrovert respondents whose parents are abroad got lower grades compared to those respondents whose parents living with their children. Generally,

149

respondents regardless of being introvert or extrovert but when living with both parents shows a higher achievement level than those who are raised only by one parent.

The results gathered in this study therefore attest what Raunch in 2003 stated. According to him, for many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be more successful in academic environments, which extraverts may find boring. Extraverted youth are also more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. In addition, Ateel (2005) stated that teachers can also consider temperament when dealing with their pupils, for example acknowledging that introverted children need more encouragement to speak in class while extraverted children may grow restless during long period of quiet study.


The researcher concludes that introversion positively influences the students’ academic performance. Based on the results, introvert students tend more time and concentration in their studies. Since they are the reserved, serious type, they are more diligent in their studies compared to the extroverts who are carefree and less serious in their work. The academic performance is also influenced by the proper parental guidance. Children who are taken cared of by single parents with fathers or mothers working abroad greatly affect their social relationship with peers. Based on the result of the CPQ test conducted, 120 respondents, 72.5% of which are introverts and 27.5% are extroverts. It only proves that the academic performance of these children was greatly affected due to the absence of either parents.

It is important to implement a continuous set of distinct practices including communication between the children and the parent as among the teachers, guidance exploration, integration and socialization are important to have a very strong attachment to children. The school should continue to seek help the student by guiding them towards independent thinking that requires them to counter negative pressure that would exist. Children at this age need acceptance by peers and the comfort of conformity. At the same time, they need to develop unique and individual identities as much as they need attention and recognition for their own unique abilities to be a part of a crowd.

The presence of both parents can be a significant factor in the performance of either introvert or extrovert children. Parents should continue to give quality time with their children. A good parent- child relationship with the absence mother or father presence depends on what transpires between the parent and the child. It is very important that when they are together, the qualities of care by parents are able to give for their children. Therefore, it is not the quantity but the quality of time spent together that

150

matters. Though introversion positively influence academic performance, it is also an advised to students to engage themselves socially for a more development of their distinct qualities. The same study can be done in other levels grade or year so that teachers, administrators would have awareness about such occurrence.

References

Ainsworth-Darnell, J. W., & Dufur, M. J. (1998). Sex of parent and children’s well-being in single-parent households. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60(4), 878-893

Arlin & Whitley (1978), Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

151

Ateel S.A (2005)Personality Career Test Questions on Parenting Bookmark Inc.

Biblarz and Raftery (1999) Educational Attainment in Blended Families, August 2000.

Cattell (1964) &Gronbach (1960) Personality and Motivation Structure and Measurement.Vol.2 p168

Deci, Schwartz, and Ryan (1981) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Dunn (1992), Introduction to Psychology, Child Development 63 (2) 336-49

Dorman & Mc Partland(1987), Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions p56

Downey, D. B (2003) "The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN. (May 1-3, 2003)

Eccles, Midgley & Adler (1984) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Epstein, Salinas & Levin (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions p56

Estolas,et al (1989) Personality theories basic assumption, Research and Application. Mc Grawhill Book Co. p.153

Eysenck (1976) Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 12;422

Eysenck, H. J. (1971) (1990). Readings in Extraversion-Introversion. New York: Wiley. ) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion-and-Introversion

Gregorio H. & Gregorio C., (1974). Introduction to Education in the Philippine Setting p126

Gruhn &Devalas (1947), Child rearing and personality development in the Philippines Phil Journal of Psychology Vol. 126-134

Jung C.(1975)Retrieved last March 1995 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraversion-and-Introversion

Karten N (1996) Understanding Introversion and Extroversion from http//www.stickyMinds.com.Weekly Column from 060502006

152

http://www.thelizlibrary.org/liz/case_blended_families.pdf

Hurlock (1993) Childrens understanding of real and apparent emotions Child Development 57, 106-142.

Levin (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions p56

Lounsbury (1984), From good intentions to willpower in Child Study Journal, 20, 154-70

Lipsitz (1984), Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

Mc Partland(1987), Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions p56

Melver & Epstein (1990) The youngest minds: Parenting and genes in the development of Intellect and emotion. Developmental Psychology 262-83

Myers, David G (1992) The Secrets of Happiness Psychology Today

Popenoe (1996) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN.

Rauch, Jonathan (2003) Caring For Your Introvert The Atlantic Monthly; March 2003; Volume 291, No. 2

Sanford (1993) Human Culture and Categorization of Emotion Psychological Bulletin 110,246-273

Sevilla (1986) Personality theories basic assumption, Research and Application. Mc Grawhill Book Co p. 281.

Skolnick, 1991; Stacy, (1993) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN.

Simmons & Blyth (1987) Differentiated Psychology Individual and Group Differences in behavior. McMillan Publishing Co., p110

Smith E. (1996) Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 12;421

Strahan (1988) Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

Tan E. (1994) Philippine Personality Inventory Manual of Directions p36

Tyler (1994) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

153

Van Hoose (1988) Talking about internal states: The acquisition of an explicit theory of mind. Developmental Psychology 18(6) 106-21

Whitehead, 1993; Blankenhorn, (1995) The Longitudinal Effects of Mother and Father Absence on Adolescent School Success." Population Association of America, Minneapolis, MN.

Wheelock (1987) Storytelling in psychotherapy with Children. Handbook of Emotions

Webster-Stratton and Dahl, (1995) Family talk about feelings states and children’s later understanding of others emotions. Child Study Journal 20, 153-70

Background Music and Ambient Scent Interaction on Consumer In-Store Behavior

Michael M. Rastrollo

Enhancing the shopping experience of a store environment is important to retailers, and such main effects have been studied to know what and how consumers would have an excellent stay. These main

154

effects are mostly the pleasant ambient stimuli such as music and scent. This theoretical understanding extended on the notion of Gestalt to consumers’ perceptions of retail environments and demonstrated that consumers perceive it holistically. It is suggested that the arousing quality of ambient stimuli is one dimension along which holistic evaluations occur, and that pleasant ambient stimuli are perceived when their arousing qualities match rather than mismatch. The researcher manipulated scent and music in a 3 (no music, pleasant low arousal and high arousal music) by 3 (no scent, pleasant low and high arousal scents) factorial design in a setting. The researcher’s findings show that when ambient scent and music are congruent with each other in terms of their arousal qualities, consumers rate the environment significantly more positive, exhibit higher levels of approach and impulse buying behaviors, and experience enhanced satisfaction than when these environmental cues were at odds with each other.

How music affects the behavior of people has been a notion in many fields. Also, scent cues trigger a certain memory cycle and can be stimulating. It is also discussed in biopsychology that the olfaction region is being triggered by scent cues. The combination of these can produce certain human reactions.

The topic that atmospherics influence consumer behavior is widely accepted in the marketing literature, yet theory development is clearly limited in this area. This kind of notion may not have been introduced in the Philippines fully. Likewise, past studies in different western countries have examined the effects of individual pleasant stimuli such as music, color or scent on consumer behavior, but have failed to examine how these stimuli might interact. To further the conceptual understanding of atmospherics on consumer behavior, it has to be extended in the notion of Gestalt to consumers’ perceptions of retail environments.

It is mostly argued that consumers perceive stores holistically and that consumer responses to a physical environment depend on ensemble configurations. Specifically, it is suggested that the arousing quality of stimuli in a store is one dimension that effects this holistic evaluation. This will be tested upon this proposition using two pleasant ambient cues: scent and music. It is suggested that to maximize these holistic effects, consumers need to perceive the arousing qualities of music such as fast or slow tempo to be coherent with those of the scent such as stimulating or relaxing present in a store. Matching ambient stimuli might lead to higher evaluations of the store environment, more positive behavioral responses and higher satisfaction levels and than mismatching.

Optimal arousal theory suggests that minor changes in the environment, such as

adding a low level of scent or playing background music, increases the environment’s perceived novelty and pleasantness (Berlyne, 1971; McClelland et al., 1953). Consequently, the researcher expects that adding either a pleasant scent or pleasant background music to the retail environment should enhance the perceived positive state of the store environment, including the amount of pleasure associated with it. In the context of environmental psychology, the original response taxonomy employed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974), was approach-avoidance behaviors. However, in a service/retail experience, the response taxonomy includes satisfaction judgments (Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). Because impulse buying is an aspect of shopper behavior with potentially important managerial implications (e.g., Beatty & Ferrell, 1998), it should be noticed and included a measure for unplanned purchases in the battery of questions.

155

Combining these evaluative and behavioral responses, the researcher expects that the presence of pleasant ambient scent or background music will increase customer evaluations of the positive state of the store environment, impulse buying and approach behaviors, and customer satisfaction with the service encounter. Because these main or similar main effects have been reported in prior studies, the formal hypotheses are limited to the interaction effects of ambient scent and background music

Because incongruent environmental cues tend to result in lower perceived unity or less coherent ensemble effects (Bell et al., 1991), it is suggested that mismatched environmental stimuli might lower customer perceptions of the entire shopping experience. More specifically, the researcher propose that when the arousal qualities of two ambient cues match [that is, high/low arousal scent and high/low arousal music], this stimulus congruency should lead to an enhanced perception of a store. Conversely, incongruence between the ambient factors [that is, high/low arousal scent and low/high arousal music] should have an adverse impact on consumer perceptions of the environment, including approach and impulse buying behaviors, and satisfaction. Consequently, the researcher proposes the following:

Hypothesis: Matching arousing dimensions of scent and music (i.e., high/high or low/low arousal conditions) will lead to enhanced a) pleasure, b) approach, c) perceived positivity of the store environment, d) impulse buying and e) satisfaction, compared to mismatch conditions (i.e., high/low or low/high).


Arousal intensity is an important dimension in a store. In Sherman et al.’s (1997) study both pleasure and arousal had a positive impact on money spent, whereas time spent in the store was solely influenced by the consumer’s arousal level. Baker et al. (1992) also found that consumers stay longer in stores, which are high in arousing qualities probably as they are perceived as more interesting. In their study, music and lighting were combined as a single ambient factor, thus inhibiting an examination of the interaction effects between two ambient stimuli. Wirtz and Mattila (2000) showed that affective expectations might drive consumers’ approach behaviors and satisfaction in a restaurant setting, again emphasizing the role of arousal in determining consumers’ perceptions of stores.

Research in environmental psychology postulates that people respond to their environments holistically. That is, though individual persons perceive discrete stimuli, it is the total configuration of stimuli that determines their responses to the environment (e.g., Holahan, 1982). In consumer research, Bell et al. (1991) introduced the concept of esthetic complementary to advance our understanding of product evaluations. As noted by Holbrook (1986), an image possesses a cue configuration when components of the image interact in mutually reinforcing manner.

This concept of esthetic complementary is strikingly similar to the principle of unity-invariety developed by philosophers of art (Beardsley, 1981) and extended by

156

consumer researchers (e.g., Holbrook and Zirlin, 1985). Some consumer objects, furniture or clothing for example, are more likely to be paired, whereas other combinations are avoided by many consumers due to their lack of unity-in-variety. In their model of preferences for product styles, Bell et al. (1991) included an ensemble effect, which was intended to measure how the product styles hang together as a combination or configuration. Solomon (1983) postulates that consumers look to the total collection of cues in the environment to decode meanings and to structure their behavior accordingly. The findings of Green, Wind and Jain (1972) suggest that consumers expect certain patterns of products to go together. In other words, satisfaction with a given product is partly a function of its overall “goodness of fit”.

This holistic perspective is also embedded in Bitner’s (Bitner, 1992) conceptualization of store. If the environment is perceived as a whole, while specific arousing dimensions from environmental stimuli can be sensed by the individual, then different combinations of ambient cues might produce differential responses. In this study, they focused on the matching or mismatching of arousing qualities between pleasant ambient scent and background music.

Researchers have generally differentiated scents along three different, although not necessarily independent dimensions (Spangenberg et al., 1996). They include the affective quality of the scent (e.g., how pleasant it is), its arousing nature (e.g., how likely it is to evoke a physiological response), and its intensity (e.g., how strong it is). Although scents can affect arousal levels (e.g., Lorig and Schwartz, 1988), to our knowledge, no prior research has investigated the arousing nature of a scent independent of its affective quality. Furthermore, prior studies have failed to explicitly measure scent presence effects on approach and avoidance behaviors (Bone & Ellen, 1999).

Ambient scent refers to scent that does not originate from any particular object but is present in the environment. Research on ambient scent has been less common (Bone & Ellen, 1994; Gulas & Bloch, 1995), but may be of greater interest to retailers and other service providers than product-specific scents. Ambient scent could affect perceptions of the store and its products, including those products that are difficult to scent (e.g., office supplies and furniture, Gulas & Bloch, 1995).

Scholarly research on the effects of ambient scent has been limited. A notable exception is Spangenberg et al.’s 1996 study, which examined the impact of ambient scents in a simulated retail environment. The findings indicated that subjects had more positive evaluations and behaviors in the scented rather than the unscented environment. Unexpectedly, the type of scent did not matter, as even effectively neutral scents were able to generate enhanced perceptions. Furthermore, the intensity of the scent (within a reasonable range) failed to have an impact on the results. Two other empirical studies have examined the effects of ambient scent in a consumer behavior context. In the first study, subjects spent more time on a catalog-shopping task in scented than in unscented rooms (Bone and Ellen, 1994). The second study found that gamblers spent more money on slot machines when the casino was pleasantly scented than when it was not (Hirsch, 1995).

157

Research on cue congruency, or whether a scent is perceived as appropriate in a particular context, has produced mixed results. Scents that are inconsistent with the product tend to have a negative effect on product or ad evaluations (Mitchell, Kahn & Knasko, 1995; Ellen & Bone, 1999). However, only Bone and Jantrania’s (1992) study provides direct support for a positive impact of cue congruency. In their investigation, adding a consistent scent enhanced consumers’ evaluations of household cleansers and suntan lotions.

Gulas and Bloch (1995) developed a conceptual model portraying ambient scent as an environmental cue that influences emotional responses and ultimately shopping behaviors. Similar to Mehrabian and Russell’s framework, we posit in this model that scent influences consumer’ perceptions of pleasure and arousal, which in turn affect behavioral responses to the environment. Following a better understanding of the effects of ambient scent on human responses and behaviors, we turn our attention to another environmental stimulus, music.

Aside from the obvious commercial issues, the role of music in consumer research is of considerable theoretical interest (North and Hargreaves, 1998). Music is capable of evoking complex affective and behavioral responses in consumers. Bruner (1990) suggests that any musical composition is composed of at least three primary dimensions: a physical dimension like volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, an emotional tone, and a preferential dimension like the degree to which a shopper likes the music. Although the impact of music on consumer emotions and shopping behavior has attracted considerable attention among marketing researchers, empirical evidence of the impact of the physical characteristics of music is mixed (Herrington & Capella, 1994).

Prior research has shown that music can affect consumer behavior in retail environments (e.g., Milliman, 1982, 1986; Yalch & Spangenberg, 1990) and influence their desire to affiliate in buyer-seller interactions (Dube´ et al., 1995). Milliman (1982, 1986) conducted two separate experiments where he manipulated music tempo, one in a supermarket and the other in a restaurant. In the first study (1982), shoppers spent more time and money in a slow tempo retail environment. In the second study (1986) customers in the slow music condition took more time to eat their meals compared to those in the fast-music condition. Beverage revenue was also higher in the slow-music condition.

Yalch and Spangenberg (1988) conducted research that builds on the Milliman studies. In a department store setting, they compared the effects of foreground music as in Top 40 pop hits, and background music like instrumental easy-listening, to a no music control group. In that study, younger shoppers under 25 years old thought that they had spent more time shopping in the easy listening condition, whereas older shoppers perceived that they had shopped longer when Top 40 music was being played. The authors concluded that encountering atypical environmental factors (e.g., unfamiliar music) might adversely influence consumers’ time perceptions. In North and Hargreaves

158

(1998) study, different musical styles (easy listening, classical, pop or silence) exhibited a significant influence on the students’ perceptions of aschool cafeteria.

Dube´ et al.’s (Dube´, 1995) study investigated the effect of music-induced pleasure and arousal on consumers’ affiliation behaviors in a banking context. Their results indicated that music-induced pleasure and arousal might have independent effects on consumers’ desire to affiliate in a buyer-seller interaction, with more desire to affiliate associated with more pleasure and more arousal. As further evidence of arousal effects, Vanderark and Ely (1993) report that high tempo and high rhythmic content in the music led to an increase in physiological arousal among consumers.


The conceptual framework, shown in Figure A below, for this research will be based on the proposed influence of specific environmental dimensions on retail store patronage. Models and concepts developed by Bitner (1992), Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995), Mehrabian and Russell (1974), Monroe and Guiltinan (1975), and Shim

159

and Kotsiopulos (1992) will be adapted to form the framework for this study. The following paragraphs discuss each model individually:

Figure A

1.) Environmental Responses and Approach-Avoidance Behavior

Bitner (1992) developed a framework for environment-user relationships in service organizations. The overall objective of this model was to explore the role of the physical environment in service organizations. Bitner’s framework proposes that consumers and employees in service settings perceive a variety of environmental factors. These factors are ambient conditions; space/function; and signs, symbols and artifacts. Ambient conditions consist of temperature, air quality, noise, music, and odor. The space/function dimension includes the layout, equipment and furnishings. Signage, styles of décor and personal artifacts are among the sign, symbols and artifacts dimension. Both consumers and employees respond to the environment cognitively, emotionally, and physiologically. These internal responses then influence the behavior of consumers and employees, as well as affect their social interactions. Furthermore, Bitner states that the perceived servicescape (i.e., physical setting, environment in service organizations) and environmental factors does not directly cause people to behave in certain ways. Instead, consumer perceptions of a retail store lead to certain beliefs, emotions and physiological actions that influence behaviors.

To discuss individual behavior, Bitner incorporates the concept of approach-avoidance behavior (i.e., patronage behavior) studied by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and Donovan and Rossiter (1982). Bitner states that individuals react to environments in two ways to show preference (i.e., approach) or lack of preference (i.e., avoidance) for a particular environment. Designing environments, which enhance approach behaviors (i.e., store patronage) and encourage social interactions, present many challenges for service organizations because optimal design for one person or group of people may not

SCENT AND

MUSIC

PleasureApproach-Avoidance

StoreEnvironment

Impulse Buying Satisfaction

160

be the optimal design for others. For example, a setting that is conducive to an employee’s work needs may not enhance the social interaction between employees and consumers (Bitner). Furthermore, an environment that promotes approach or patronage behavior for one consumer may not elicit the same response in another consumer or group of consumers.

2.) The Consumer Decision Process

Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) developed the consumer decision process and the store choice decision model. The decision process model can be applied to all decisions that consumers make in the marketplace; however, the store decision model applies only to decisions made about specific retail stores. Seven stages are included in the consumer decision process model. They are need recognition, search for information, pre-purchase alternative evaluation, purchase, consumption, post-purchase alternative evaluation, and divestment. A need is recognized when a perceived difference between the desired and the actual state of affairs occur. For instance, a consumer may recognize the need for a new dress. Next, the consumer engages in an information search to facilitate decision making and to reduce the perceived risk often associated with purchasing a dress. Pre-purchase evaluation involves assessing several criteria, such as fabric type, construction detail, and brand name to decide on an appropriate dress. At the purchase stage, the consumer makes decisions related to whether to buy, when, what, andwhere to buy, as well as how to pay for the dress. After purchase and use of the dress, theconsumer makes a post-evaluation. This evaluation involves determining whether the dress meets the expected level of performance. The consumer often expresses their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the dress. Finally, after using the product over time the consumer disposes of the dress because it no longer meets functional or psychological needs or because the item is obsolete.

At the purchase stage in the consumer decision process, the consumer decides where or what stores to purchase a product (e.g., a dress) once the need is recognized. With respect to the store decision model, Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard (1995) examined store choice as a function of consumer characteristics and store characteristics. The store decision process involves four variables: evaluative criteria or attributes, perceived characteristics of stores, comparison process, and acceptable and unacceptable stores. The model proposes that consumers form images (i.e., overall perception) of stores basedon the combination of perceived criteria or attributes. Often these attributes are combinedto form categories. Some attributes include location, assortment breadth and depth, price, advertising and sales promotion, store personnel, services, and other store characteristics. In retail studies, consumers list attributes that come to mind when thinking about a particular store or store type or they are often given a list. Consumers rate stores relative to each attribute or category on Likert-type scales of importance (e.g., 1-to-7). At the comparison process (i.e., in the mind of the consumer), the consumer compares the importance of store attributes with the store’s image (i.e., overall perception) to determine which stores are acceptable and those that are unacceptable. For example, if quality is important to the consumer, and if Store A is perceived as having lower quality,

161

while Store B is perceived as having higher quality, the consumer will choose Store B rather than Store A.

3.) Importance and Perceptions of Store Attributes

Monroe and Guiltinan (1975) discussed a model of retail patronage. They studied the influence of four variables on store patronage. Of these variables were importance and perceptions of store attributes. The model suggested that a consumer’s attitude toward stores was a function of importance and perceptions of store attributes. Furthermore, consumers engage in a comparison process (i.e., occurs in the mind of consumers) to determine if perceived attributes and perceptions of these attributes match.If the two variables match, then the consumer chooses the store. Engel et al. (1995) discusses a similar comparison process. The consumer compares the importance of store attributes with the store’s image (i.e., overall perception) to determine acceptable and unacceptable stores. With respect to the comparison process, if a specific environmental dimension is important and the respondent’s perception of the store is positive or the store is perceived as offering that particular dimension, then the respondent will decide to select or patronize that particular store. On the other hand, if the environmental dimension is important and the respondent’s perception of the store environment is negative, then the respondent would most likely decide to avoid or not shop in the store.

4.) Shopping Orientations

Shim and Kotsiopulos (1992) and Monroe and Guiltinan (1975) studied shopping orientations. Orientations are shopper styles that reflect consumer needs for product and services (Shim & Kotsiopulos, 1993). Monroe and Guitinan found that shopping orientations directly influenced the importance of store attributes and perceptions of attributes. Furthermore, Shim and Kotsiopulos and Monroe and Guiltinan studied the influence of shopping orientations and the importance of store attributes on store patronage. Both studies found that shopping orientations rather than the importance of store attributes have a stronger influence on patronage.

Method

Participants

Participants were the customers coming in the store. Participants can be high school, college, single or married people. There is no limit of participants. Participants

162

who have incomplete data and may have affected by extraneous variables will be automatically scrapped out. Any other extraneous variables like music or scent that is not included or may cause an effect to the data – i.e. people who has strong perfumes or loud walkmans/discmans/MP3 card etc. – will be automatically disregarded.


Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) twelve-item semantic differential scale was employed to measure emotional responses to the environment. Six item pairs measured the arousal dimension of emotions (e.g., stimulated –relaxed, calm –excited, dull –jittery), whereas the other six items tapped into the pleasure dimensions (e.g., unhappy –happy, despairing - hopeful, melancholic –contented, annoyed –pleased). An eight-item five-point Likert-type scale is used to assess the approach-avoidance behavioral responses to the physical environment (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982). The items measuring approach-avoidance behaviors tapped the following behaviors: enjoyment, return intention, propensity to talk to strangers, to spend more money than originally thought, to explore the store, and to avoid other people.

Fisher’s (Fisher, 1974) environmental quality scale is adapted to measure the subjects’ evaluation of the store environment. Pretesting of the instrument, however, indicated that six of the items were perceived as vague or not related to a retail context. Consequently, a five-item scale is used to obtain the respondent’s evaluation of the store environment (unattractive/attractive; uninteresting/interesting; bad/good; depressing/cheerful; dull/bright; uncomfortable/comfortable and pleasant/unpleasant).

Overall satisfaction with the shopping experience is measured with the 5-point Likert scale items (strongly disagree to strongly agree) taken from Westbrook and Oliver (1981). They were, truly enjoyed coming to the store, satisfied with the store, and choice to come to the store was a good one.

As a manipulation check, respondents will be rating the following statements on a 5-point Likert scale (1 to 5: strongly disagree/strongly agree): 1) the store smelled pleasant of grapefruit, 2) the store smelled pleasant of lavender, 3) the fast-tempo music played at the store was pleasant and 4) the slow-tempo music played at the store was pleasant. The checks are placed at the end of the questionnaire so as to avoid demand effects when answering questions related to the dependent measures.

Research Design

A 3 (no scent/low arousal scent/high arousal scent) x 3 (no music/low arousal music/high arousal music) fractional, factorial design in a field setting will be employed to test the hypotheses. A bookstore served as the context of the study.

163

The scents used in the researcher’s study will be selected based on two criteria: the mood effects and cautionary effects. Taking into account these factors, the two scents chosen for this study will be Lavender and Grapefruit (Butcher, 1998). Both these scents smell pleasant, are suitable for use in a retail store, possess mood effects while lacking side effects. Lavender is known to be a relaxing scent with calming properties, thus being considered as a low arousal scent. Conversely, Grapefruit is known to be a stimulating scent, which can refresh, revive and improve mental clarity and alertness, and even enhance physical strength and energy. These characteristics of the Grapefruit scent are well suited for a high arousal manipulation employed in this study. In the remainder of the paper, Lavender will be referred to as a low arousal scent and Grapefruit as a high arousal scent.

As Bruner (1990) states, “music is not simply a generic sonic mass, but rather a complex chemistry of elements”. Music is composed of multiple time, pitch and texture related variables (Dowling & Harwood, 1986). To reduce the confounding effects of musical style and musical preference, classical music was selected for this study. Two compact discs from the Tune Your Brain TM series by Elizabeth Miles, an ethnomusicologist, were chosen as stimuli for the music manipulations. The low arousal music used for the study was the Relaxing collection, featuring slow-tempo music, while the high arousal music consisted of the Energizing collection, featuring fast-tempo music. In the rest of the discussion, the two types of music will be referred to as either low or high arousal music.

Procedure

The study was conducted 10 days each in the fractional, factorial design which sums u p approximately 90 days. The store will be scented for 10 minutes before five independent passersby will be asked to enter the store and perform a smell check. The study will only proceed when the five “judges” find the scent to be of appropriate intensity. Music will be played through the store’s piped-in sound system using an auto-reverse CD player. The respondents will be randomly selected from the customers entering the store giving out the questionnaire. There will be seven clerks distributing and helping on the survey. The computed data on the store’s average customers coming in everyday is 68 (67.7).

Results

A total of 1098 customers were asked to participate in the survey. Of those approached, 864 agreed to answer the survey, yielding a response rate of 74.9%. Seventy-four questionnaires were rejected due to incomplete data, thus resulting in an effective response rate of 71.5%. Nearly 65% of the respondents were female, and close to 73%

164

were young people less than 20 years old. 73.0% of the respondents reported having purchased something during their visit to the store.

Table 1. Reliability Tests

Construct Indicator Variables and Treatment Alpha

Arousal 6-item scale from Mehrabian and Russell’s 0.81semantic differential scale of emotionalsituations and environments (arousal).

Pleasure 6-item scale from Mehrabian and Russell’s 0.85semantic differential scale of emotional situations and environments (pleasure).

Approach- 8-item verbal measures of approach-avoidance 0.80Avoidance from Donovan and Rossiter’s adaptation of the

original Mehrabian and Russell scale.

Store Environment 7-item environmental scale adapted from Fisher. 0.89

Satisfaction 3-item satisfaction scale taken from Westbrook. 0.74

As indicated in Table 1, all measures used in this study displayed acceptable reliability of more then 0.70.

Table 2. Means of Manipulation Check for Ambient Scent

Manipulation check question Experimental ConditionNo Scent Lavender Grapefruit

(low arousal) (high arousal)

165

The store smells pleasant of lavender 4.3 5.5 2.6(low arousal scent) The store smells pleasant of grapefruit 3.6 3.3 5.1(high arousal scent)

The mean scores of the experimental conditions for each of the four manipulation check questions are presented in Table 2 for scent and Table 3 for music. Only the scent main effect is significant for the scent related questions. Similarly, only the music main effect is observable for the music-related manipulation checks. Overall, the results from these manipulation checks indicate that the ambient conditions were perceived as intended.

Table 3. Means of Manipulation Check for Background Music

Manipulation check question Experimental ConditionNo Music Slow Fast

(low arousal) (high arousal)

The slow-tempo music played at the store 3.6 5.6 2.4was pleasant; (low arousal music)The fast-tempo music played at the store 3.8 2.7 5.4was pleasant; (high arousal music)

Table 4. Cell Means for Arousal by Scent and by Music Experimental Conditions

Experimental No Music Low Arousal High Arousal Main Effect

Conditions Music Music Means

166

No Scent 3.70 4.51 4.85 4.36

Low ArousalScent 3.94 4.79 5.21 4.65

High ArousalScent 4.27 4.85 5.45 4.86

Main Effect Means 3.97 4.72 5.17 4.62

To ensure that the subjects’ self-reported arousal levels differed between the nine experimental conditions, a two-factor ANOVA was performed. As expected, the main effects for scent and music are significant. The interaction effect is insignificant. The cell means shown in Table 4 indicate that the no scent and no music conditions were perceived as less arousing than the experimental manipulated environments. The planned contrasts between no scent and low arousal scent is marginally significant, and the planned comparison between no scent and high arousal scent is significant. Similarly, the planned contrasts for the no music and slow/fast tempo music are significant for both contrasts. These results suggest that the arousal manipulation was successful. The two main effects are significant. The interaction effect is insignificant.

The cell means on the dependent variables as a function of the scent and music manipulations are shown in Table 5. As expected, the scent main effect is significant for approach behavior, store environment, marginally significant for pleasure and satisfaction. For music, the main effect is significant to pleasure, approach behavior, positive state evaluation of the store environment and satisfaction. However, neither of the main effects is significant for impulse buying. The insignificant results may have been due to an interaction effect.

The cell means in Table 5 show that pleasure, approach behavior, consumer evaluations of the store environment, impulse buying and satisfaction are influenced by the congruency between music and scent in terms of their arousal levels. The match conditions elicited more positive responses than the mismatch conditions, according to what was advanced in hypothesis 1.

167

Table 5.Mean Cell Values by Dependent Variable

Dependent Match/Mismatch ConditionsVariables Match Match Mix Mix

High Scent - Low Scent - Low Scent - High Scent – High Music Low Music High Music Low Music

Pleasure 5.66 5.46 5.30 5.16Approach 5.42 5.25 5.15 4.77Store Environment 6.23 5.99 6.11 5.75Impulse Buying 4.38 5.53 2.67 3.00Satisfaction 5.82 5.67 5.30 5.17

Dependent Single Stimulus No Music - Variables No Scent - No Scent - No Music - No Music – No Scent

Low Music High Music Low Scent High Scent Condition

Pleasure 5.00 5.11 4.62 4.80 4.48Approach 4.69 4.84 4.55 4.64 4.55Store Environment 5.72 5.60 5.57 5.40 5.33Impulse Buying 3.50 3.62 3.44 2.65 4.45Satisfaction 5.11 5.06 4.75 4.95 4.62

168

Table 6.ANOVA Results

Dependent Scent Main Effect Music Main Effect Scent x Music InteractionVariables (low and high arousal (low and high arousal (match and mismatch

scent conditions) music conditions) conditions)

F Sig. Eta Square F Sig. Eta Square F Sig. Eta Square

Pleasure 0.02 >.10 0.00 0.87 >.10 0.00 3.15 0.08 0.03Approach 0.45 >.10 0.00 3.37 0.07 0.03 6.32 0.01 0.06Store Environment 0.15 >.10 0.00 3.53 0.06 0.03 1.25 >.10 0.01Impulse Buying 1.82 >.10 0.01 0.00 >.10 0.00 4.79 0.03 0.03Satisfaction 0.02 >.10 0.00 0.50 >.10 0.01 7.63 0.01 0.07

To test the hypothesis directly, it is conducted in a series of 2 (low and high arousal scent) x 2 (low and high arousal music) ANOVAs. The ANOVA results in table 6 show that the music by scent interaction is significant for approach behavior, impulse buying and satisfaction. Matching the arousing qualities of the two ambient stimuli resulted in higher levels of approach behaviors, impulse buying and satisfaction, than the mismatch conditions. The interaction between music and scent is marginally significant for pleasure, and insignificant for store environment. In conclusion, the results largely support H1. Also, it is noteworthy that none of the scent and music main effects is significant at the 0.05 level, as both stimuli were manipulated to be pleasant. What mattered was the interaction between the two stimuli.

169

Discussion

Consistent with past research, the findings show that adding pleasant environmental cues enhances shopping experience. More importantly, the researcher found that such environmental stimuli should not be considered in isolation, since it is the total configuration of cues that influence consumer responses. It is also demonstrated that the arousing quality of pleasant stimuli is one dimension along which these holistic evaluations occur. The objectives of this study were to add to theory development on atmospheric effects on consumer behavior by using Gestalt perceptions as a framework for studying the congruency effects of environmental cues.

Research in environmental psychology postulates that people respond to their environments holistically. That is, though individuals perceive discrete stimuli, it is the total configuration of stimuli that determines their responses to the environment. The notion of cue congruency is reflected in Bell et al.’s notion of ensemble effects, in Holbrook and Zirlin’s principle of unity-in-variety, in Solomon’s consumption constellations and in Green et al.’s discussion on overall goodness of fit of product cues. This holistic perspective is also in Bitner’s conceptualization. If the environment is perceived holistically, but the individual can sense specific arousing dimensions from environmental stimuli, then different combinations of ambient cues might produce differential responses. To our knowledge, this is the first study that empirically demonstrates the Gestalt notion of consumer evaluations of the perceived notion.

The results of this study showed that when the arousal levels of ambient scent and background music matched, consumers’ evaluations of the shopping experience were enhanced. For instance, scenting the store with low arousal scent (Lavender) combined with slow tempo music led to higher evaluations than using that scent with high arousal music. Or playing fast tempo music had a more positive effect on approach behaviors when the store was scented with Grapefruit (high arousal scent) rather than with Lavender. In sum, the findings provide further empirical support for the intuitive belief that when the stimuli in the environment act together to provide a coherent atmosphere, the individual in the environment will react more positively. The importance of continuity and coherence in environmental design is among the guiding principle in designing services.


The first limitation involves the use of a single retail store in the field experiment. The context of this study was a bookstore, and hence, it can be argued that this type of retail environment might be unique – less noisy and smaller, or requiring more cognitive effort than other retail outlets. Consequently, the extent to which our findings can be generalized across different types of service providers or retail stores needs to be established. The second limitation concerns the use of only two types of ambient cues. Combining other atmospherics, such as color schemes and spatial layout, with scent and background music might provide additional insight into how consumers perceive service environments. Finally, guidance on scent selection, the choice on olfactory cues was

170

largely based on literature on aromatherapy. Given the diverse characteristics of service environments, future research should aim at testing more varieties of ambient scent and background music.

This study provides evidence that improving a store’s ambient conditions enhances consumers’ evaluations of and behaviors in the shopping experience. Strategically manipulating the environment’s arousing qualities via scents and background music can help retailers to differentiate their stores from otherwise similar competitors. Moreover, appropriate aromas and music might encourage shoppers to engage in impulse buying. However, great care is needed to ensure that the effects if different environmental stimuli match. As this study has shown, consumers respond more positively toward the environment, when the stimuli match to provide a coherent ambience. Bookstores such as “Power Books” or “Shepherds” might induce people to linger by playing slow tempo, classical background music combined with a relaxing scent. Or to stimulate excitement, organizers of sports events might consider scenting the seating areas with highly arousing aromas and playing fast tempo music. Regardless, the particular scent or music style should be perceived as congruent for the retail store as a whole. Consequently, changes in the service environment should not be carried out in a piecemeal fashion but should be coordinated.

A word of caution is needed in interpreting findings. Retail stores with relatively narrow target markets might reap higher benefits from environmental manipulations than stores aimed at multiple market segments. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder, and how individuals or target segments respond to, for example, music may depend on individual response moderators. Specialty stores aimed at teen-agers, for example, may use funky scents and rap music to attract clientele, whereas the manipulation of ambient cues in a department store needs to be subtler. Or consumers’ consumption-related goals might influence the impact of environmental stimuli on their evaluations of the shopping experience. Task-oriented shopping environments such as grocery stores might have a more difficult time in inducing positive feelings via environmental cues than stores that are patronized for more recreational purposes. Because the novelty and stimulation of a particular music and scent combination might wear off relatively fast, retail stores that rely on heavy frequent-visit patterns might not be prime candidates for these types of environmental manipulations.

To conclude, due to the holistic perception of its many dimensions, this design is often considered an art. This research is only the beginning of understanding how “ensemble effects” influence consumer perceptions of retail environments and their shopping behaviors.

171

References

*Reference list lost due to technical problems

172

Factors Affecting on the Involvement of Young Fathers with his Child

Judy Ann S. Sanchez

This study aims to present the different factors affecting the involvement of young fathers with their child. Qualitative research was used in this study there are 3 single young adults participated in this study and relate their story about their involvement and relationship with their child. In the findings two of the three young fathers have a positive relationship with the mother of the child and with the parents of the mother and only one young father said that he is not close with the parents of his then partner. The researcher therefore stated in this course study that young fathers involvement increase over time due to their specific and personal perspective.

Parenthood is a hard work at the best of times, but being a young parent is one of the most difficult situations to be in. An increasing number of young men and teenagers were becoming father at a very early age. For sure this is one of the toughest jobs anyone can take on. According to Schwarts in the year 1999 that being a father in an early age is an even harder proposition. Because teenage fathers almost never plan pregnancies, their initial reactions may be denial, fear, and a desire to escape.

While Batten & Stowell in the year 1996, Knitzer & Bernardin in the year 1997 state that young fathers frequently face family rejection, barriers to contact with child and mother, a lack of ways to contribute financially, and an inability to envision future achievements enabling them to function effectively as a father. They also may believe that they are simply unwelcome and inadequate as parents Their emotional state is further complicated by the need to reconcile the contradictory roles of adolescent and father and assume the responsibilities of adulthood before they are sufficiently mature (Kahn & Bolton, 1986). As the researcher begins to understand the importance of men's involvement with children, the concept of fatherhood is gaining increasing currency throughout the world.

An increasing amount of research has shown that lack of paternal involvement can increase the likelihood of poverty, crime, school problems, and cycles of repeat pregnancy (Argys, Peters, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998; Lerman & Sorenson, 2000; Rhein et al., 1997). The negative impact of father absence upon children has brought father involvement to the forefront in social policy and research.

According to Nord, Brimhall, & Westin the year 1997 there are compelling reasons to promote the involvement of fathers in their children's lives: the value of their positive influence, their effectiveness in increasing children's academic achievement, and the importance of their financial support. Teenage and young adult males may need extra help to assume the full fatherhood role, but most, if aided, will work hard to be successful parents. Public interest in fostering fathers' involvement is increasing because of the recognized benefits of fathers' contributions to their families

173

This study aims to present the different factors impacting the involvement of young fathers with their child. This would bring about awareness for single parent which would eventually transcend to having more parental involvement in the upbringing of their child. In the light of this, this study would diminish if not totally prevent having a dysfunctional family in the society. This study would tell about that the acceptance of the parents is important to extend their understanding to the young couple instead to outcast the father of the child.

This review concerns itself with the research that focused on the teenage father. Specifically, his emotional support value (lack of) to the child and teenage mother when he is involved in the his child’s life, the impact of having a teenage father on the child, the impact of being a parent on the teenage father himself, and the research that looked at support structures and needs for the teenage father.


Teenage Father Involvement

Research found (Speak 1997, Rivara 1986) “that teenage fathers were not always as keen to avoid responsibility as is generally thought by society, that they were often very enthusiastic about the prospect of becoming an involved parent, wanting to learn how to do the job properly. Although, as the subjects of these studies were often the teenage fathers that cared enough to go to prenatal clinics, the findings obviously do not apply to all teenage fathers.”

As Speak et al (1997) further asserts that " “It is important to acknowledge that not all fathers – whatever their age - want to be involved with their children and that not all children would benefit from their father’s involvement. Fathers are no more homogenous as a group than mothers are."

Furthermore Rivara et al (1986) found that “those who lived with the mother and child were in the minority of teenage fathers, and the percentage decreased further with time. Eighteen months after the birth, thirty seven percent of the teenage parents studied lived together or had daily contact (7.5% were married). Although at thirty six months only one father had no contact with his child, only twelve percent still lived with the child and twenty five percent still saw the child daily.”

The most common reasons given for not living with the child were that the baby was too young, finances, and problems in the relationship with the woman. Speak et al (1997) found that “there were various external factors that were barriers to the fathers' contact with their children, such as the mothers' or her parents' attitudes, lack of support and encouragement from health professionals, the fathers' accommodation, and his financial situation”.

174

The Effect of the Teenage Father on Mother and Child

Some teenage father’s report that the teenage mothers are reluctant to let them become involved The inexperience and immaturity of a young father was Found to be a factor in his relationship with the child and the mother Dallas et al (2000).

Jaffee et al (2001) found that background and behavioral problems were a factor in teenagers becomes uninvolved fathers, and that they would need serious help before their involvement with their child should even be encouraged.

Furthermore, Dallas et al (2000) believe “the lack of developmental knowledge and unrealistic expectations for their children’s behavior shown by the subjects they studied might lead some young parents to mistake their children’s developmental immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors, which could then lead to inappropriate discipline”. The teenage fathers thought physical discipline appropriate for children under three, even under one year old. The children of adolescent parents experience higher rates of physical abuse and infant homicides, but this is also statistically true for children of single parents overall (Overpeck et al 1998).

Previous study like Speak et al (1997) “believed that simply encouraging young absent fathers to be more involved in their children's lives is not necessarily in the best interests of the children unless significant help can be given to the fathers: “Otherwise they may simply exacerbate the difficulties already faced by single mothers and their children.” However, the researcher emphasis that many of the young fathers in their sample study were highly involved parents who were have a good relationship with their in laws, and supportive of the mothers of their children, and that their “data clearly demonstrates that it is not early fatherhood that marks a young man as an uninvolved father, but rather the combination of individual and family-of-origin risk factors that situate him on a path ending in under-involved.

Effects on the Father

Having a child is a life changing event for a teenage mother, but the teenage father may be little affected physically, if he is out of the picture for whatever reason. Emotionally, however, the birth of his child can have a big impact on the teenage father. Fifty five percent of the ninety five adolescent fathers interviewed by Hendricks et al (1983) “were unhappy with not being able to see the child as much as they wanted. Less than ten percent said they were having a problem coping with being a father. Fourteen percent said they had not yet faced any problems as an unmarried adolescent father”.

Nevertheless, Rivara et al (1986) established that there was no difference in the employment status of teenage fathers compared to non-fathers of a similar age, although the teenage fathers left school earlier than non fathers. Teenage fathers, regardless of their marital status at conception or age at first birth, were much more likely to have been high school dropouts than were other male teenagers. Those with a maritally conceived child had a particularly high drop-out rate - almost sixty two percent. (Marsiglio 1987).

175

However, Rhein.(1997) found “that lack of employment was one of the factors that contributed to the absent teenage fathers disinterest in his child.”

Stouthamer-Loeber (1998) “also investigated what effect fatherhood had on the behaviour of teenage males. Although they found out that fatherhood did not reduce delinquent behaviour in teenagers, fathers were more than twice as likely to be delinquent than non-fathers, but being a father didn't necessarily cause the delinquency, rather, the factors related to young fatherhood were a subset of those for delinquency.”

The Mother Factor

The most common reason given by the fathers for not having more contact with their children was the mothers' reluctance to let them, or problems in their relationship (Rivara,1986 et al).

Similarly, in a study of 173 teen fathers, 167 teen mothers, 76 paternal grandmothers and 79 maternal grandmothers the teenage fathers interviewed were more likely to attribute their lack of involvement to resistance from mothers and maternal grandmothers than to other factors. With the information derived from the other interviewees, however, the researcher concluded that it was the young fathers' own disinterest in child rearing that most consistently predicted uninvolvement. Of those fathers who cited disinterest, there was an with association lack of money and lack of knowledge of child care. (Rhein et al 1997)

The National Network of Health found in their study based on research from1976 to 1997 that teenage fathers were less likely than the mothers to care about their education: less likely to have wanted a child or to have considered abortion, but that most teenage fathers planned on being involved with the life of their child, including wanting to take part in childcare training. Factors found that contributed to teenage fathers not becoming involved or losing contact were parental disapproval (both sets of parents), the teen mother's rejection of the father's involvement, and the failure of health care professionals to encourage paternal involvement.

As presented in the Review of Related Literature there were different factors that affect the involvement of the young fathers with their child such as Speak et al (1997) found out that the mothers' or her parents' attitudes, lack of support and encouragement from health professionals, the fathers' accommodation, and his financial situation. While Jaffee et al (2001) emphasized out that the background and behavioral problems were factors in teenagers becomes uninvolved fathers, and that they would need serious help before their involvement with their child should even be encouraged. On the other hand based on the data gathered by the researcher it was found out that either the own mother or the mother of the partner was very supportive with their role as a young father, either emotional or financial, some of them even praised their in laws for being understanding and supportive.

176

Another factor given in the Literature was that As Rhein et al (1997) established that lack of employment was one of the factors that contributed to the absent teenage fathers disinterest in his child, differed from the result of the case study done by the researcher one of the respondent said that their being unemployed give them a chance to have more time to spend with their child since he was staying at home all day. Some of them even confessed that it was the parents of his partner who gives financial support for their child.

177


Figure 1.Factors that could affect the involvement of the young fathers with their child

PATERNAL INVOLVEMENT

PARENTAL DISSAPROVAL

FINANCIAL STABILLITY

UNEMPLOYMENT

LACK OF MATURITY

BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS

PROBLEMS IN THE RELATIONSHIP

WITH THE MOTHER

178

Conceptual Background

Previous studies such as Rhein et al (1997) on young fathers indicate that it is common for them to experience multiple barriers to paternal involvement. These include lack of maturity due to lack of developmental knowledge and unrealistic expectations for their children’s behavior shown by the subjects they studied might lead some young parents to mistake their children’s developmental immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors, which could then lead to inappropriate discipline.

Due to lack of economic support, young fathers also experience resistance from maternal and paternal grandparents, as well as from the mothers, therefore, providing economic support to their children becomes a monumental challenge for young fathers(Rhein, 1997). Despite the barriers these fathers face, it has been found that many desire to be involved with their children (Barret & Robinson, 1985; Glikman, 2004).

The unemployment, and low educational attainment found by Rivara et al (1986) is one of the given factor for the young father being uninvolved parent. Few studies among low-income fathers indicated that these fathers still tend to view the provider role as their primary duty. For example, some low-income fathers, who are unable to provide for their families due to poverty or job loss, seem to have negative or decreased interactions with their children (Harold-Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993).

Paternal involvement of middle-class young fathers has been in the forefront; much less is known about paternal involvement among low-income fathers or young fathers (Johnson, 2001; Miller, 1994). Few studies among low-income fathers indicated that these fathers still tend to view the provider role as their primary duty. For example, some low-income fathers, who are unable to provide for their families due to poverty or job loss, seem to have negative or decreased interactions with their children (Harold-Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993).

However, the roles and levels of involvement of middle-class fathers in the family have expanded since the 1970s. Fathers are no longer seen only as breadwinners, but may take on other roles as caretakers and nurturers. This could include feeding the child, playing with the child or other caretaking activities. It does not include merely being in the same house as the child. Availability is a father's presence with the child which provides opportunities for other types of interactions. This dimension does not require face-to-face interaction and an example includes a father cooking while a child plays at his feet or is in the same room. Responsibility is defined as arranging for resources and meeting the needs of the child. Ensuring that the child has clothes to wear, and that the child visits the pediatrician when she is sick are examples of responsibility. It is important to note that the authors do not define responsibility as a breadwinner/provider role, rather they characterize it as responsibility for everyday caretaking. (Cabrera, Tamis-Lemonda, Bradley, Hofferet, & Lamb, 2000; Pleck, 1997; Pleck & Pleck, 1997; )

179

The last factor is the problems in the relationship with the mother, that Although both parents thought the father should be involved in the child’s life, they differed in what form that involvement should take. The male providing financial support and the woman caring for the child at home, the females felt the father should provide emotional support for the child and mother share basic childcare tasks with the mother. In contrast the fathers saw their relationship to the mother as separate to their relationship to the child.

180

Method

Participants

Participants were 3 single young male adults and not living with their partner, whose age range falls between seventeen to twenty one (17-21) years old at the time they became father, the said age range represent the young adults stage, and a Filipino citizen. The entry criterion for the interview was for the participant to have had his first child at age 21 or younger, from a middle-class family that refers to people neither at the top nor at the bottom of a social hierarchy, this socioeconomic status was chosen due to limiting the respondents to middle-class only, the status of his relationship with the mother of the child or with the child himself did not matter.


The instrument used is the interview guide made by the researcher. The questionnaire has 3 parts; the first part is the demographic profile which includes the respondents’ age, civil status and the socio economic status. The second part of the questionnaire is the kind of relationships the father have with his child, partner and to the parents of his partner. And the third part would be the questions regarding his experiences concerning his social life before and after he had a child, means of support, the problems he encountered during the pregnancy of his wife/live in partner. To validate the answers of the three respondents the researcher did an added interview with the mother of the child and with the parents of the mother.

Research Design

Qualitative research method was used in the study. Qualitative interviewing is a versatile approach to doing research. Every step of the interview gives information and opens windows into the experiences of the people you meet. It can understand experiences and reconstruct events in which the researcher did not participate. (Rubin, 1995).

Sampling Procedures

Purposive Sampling was used for the purpose of selecting the individuals that will provide the information for the study and often used in qualitative research. Initially the researcher aimed to have 5 participants however; due to the availability of the respondents only 3 young adults were interviewed. The dimensions or factors according to which the sample is drawn up are analytically and theoretically linked to the research question(s) being addressed.

181

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_hierarchy

Procedures

Participants were approached by the interviewer and were asked for consent to participate in this research, and they were informed that they could stop the interview at any time or refuse to answer specific questions without repercussions. The participants were interviewed confidentially at a place of their own choice, which often was their home. A video camera was used to record the interview to enable the researcher to observe closely all the verbal and non-verbal communications and actions of the respondents. The first phase of the interview was the rapport building, to establish trust with the researcher.

The second phase of the interview was the structured interview. An interview guide was used to gather information regarding the relationship and involvement of the respondents with his child, partner, parents of the mother of the child and the different factors that would affect their involvement with his child. As the interviews progressed most of the young men needed only little encouragement to extend on specific points. Interviewer generally allowed the young men to talk about the questions at length or deviate from the actual question, and the questions were not necessarily asked in the order they appeared on the interview guide, as the interviewer considered it more important to let the respondents voice their issues than stick to the structure of the interview. The interviewers encouraged

the participants to elaborate on points that seemed important to them, and sometimes asked about their stories and their lives. Some questions and concepts were explained by the interviewer if the respondent did not seem to understand them, and the wording of the question was often deviated from during the interviews to make the meaning of the questions clearer. The interview lasted approximately 10 to 20 min. for every respondent.

After all the data has been gathered, the researcher transcribe the interview, prepared a table representation and the analysis of the data.

Data Analysis

Data was interpreted by reading each transcript of interview responses. Each answer was categorized according to the most common factors that could affect their involvement with their child up to the very least answers.

182


1.1 Demographic Profile

Name Respondent A Respondent B Respondent CAge 21 20 21Civil Status Single Single SingleSocio economic status

Middle-class Middle-class Middle-class

Occupation Food Service Assistant

Student Unemployed

No. of Children 1 1 2

Three single male young fathers were participated in this study, of these two of them aged and the 21 and the other is 20. All of them are in the middle-class family. One of the respondents is presently a college student with a 1 and half year old son, another is already working with a 3 year old daughter and the last respondent is unemployed with 2 children, a boy and a girl ages 3 and 1 and a half

1.2 Relationship with the mother of the child and in laws

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent CIs your relationship with your in laws plays an important role in fulfilling your duty as a father to your child?

Yes, bec. If you don’t have a good relationship w/ your n laws, it’s awkward that they meet you in angry manners bec. He get scared.

Yes, it affects my role as a father for if not for them I think I wont be able to fulfill them.

No

What kind of relationship do you have with regard to your in laws?

Since the parents of my girlfriend are abroad, she stays with her grandparents, we have a good relationship and in their own way I can see that they have accepted me.when my in laws come, I will feel awkward bec. were not close and I never got the chance to be w/ them.

It’s ok my in laws are nice to me. For us not to separate, my in laws help to maintain our relationship.

I have a good relationship w/ my in laws. Bec. The parents of my girlfriend were both nice.

183

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent C

Do you spend time for your family?

Yes, when it’s my day off at work, sometimes we go to the mall, we bond we watch tv.

Sometimes, just recently we went to ATC to watch dora, things like that.

Sometimes when its Sunday the 4 of us go to church & and sometimes we also go out

How’s your relationship with your wife?

It’s nice, happy although sometimes we fight but it’s ok its normal.

Steady, she’s still my girlfriend, were transitioning to a more mature stage. Were portraying the responsibilities of being a parent.

We’re ok, I love her so much

Those in a relationship with the mother at the time of the interview consistently answered the mother of the child amongst the most important factors, and often elaborated that she was his most important support person, with regards with their relationship all of them said that they have a good relationship although respondent A admitted that sometimes they were having problems, contrary to what Rivara et al (1986), Speak et al (1997), Cohen (1993) said that the mothers' of the child were reluctant to let them become involved, or they were having problems in their relationship.

Mothers were often highly praised: either the own mother or the mother of the partner. Some young men related the story of how the mothers of their then-partners had received the news of their daughters' pregnancies as a complete shock, but had gradually accepted the fathers into the family, and sometimes supported them even in their financial situation. Opposite to what Speak et al (1997) found out that the mothers or her parent’s lack of support could be one of the external factors that were barriers to the fathers' contact with their children.

Only 1 out of 3 respondent said that the parents of the mother of the child could be one of the factor that could affect his involvement with their child, since the parents of her partner are both abroad during the pregnancy happened.

184

1.3 Parenting

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent CWhat are your involvements in rearing the child?

Financially you will have to buy the diapers, the milk.

When he was still a child I was scared bec. I didn’t know how to bathe him. Then my wife taught me.

My wife celemar takes care of the child and I assist her, it’s like she makes the milk while I hold the child.

We played every now & then, we’re happy

How would you compare your involvement with the mother in terms of rearing the child?

Given that the mother is more responsible and closer to the child bec. There always together.

Whatever she ask me to so, I do it because not really that good in handling the child.

We are the same

What are positive and negative effects of having a child?

More responsibility but on the other hand he’s my inspiration in working hard.

I cant go out late at night, he makes me happy

I’m happy when I see my children, my exhaustion disappear. Sometimes the kids are naughty and out of control

What are some of the activities that you do together?

We watch tv, play computer games, and bond together.

We play catch and what else? He has a small guitar, so he takes after me, I teach him.

All of the three respondents said that they were hands-on in handling their child, and has their own time for bonding with their child.

When asked, however, what is the positive and negative effect of having a child? Respondent C said that one of the negative effect of having a child is that the impact on social life, such as going out or staying late at night with friends.

185

1.4 Support


What is your mean to support the child?

Financially, its your responsibility to buy the milk and diapers and other necessity of the child.

Not much financially, its not really who gives the financial compensation but my parents. Its segregated if the child is with us, we have our own milk, if its time for injection and the child is with us, we pay out for that. But if the child is with them and he got sick, they shoulder the expense.

Sometimes I can support my family but if there’s nothing to give my in laws are always there for fall back.

Do you think this is sufficient?

No its not sufficient, it would be better if I can see him study in a private school, to see him graduate, to see him study well and you know, to see your child that he is in a good stature, then you’ll be ok.

For me its better, its sufficient, you can see both parents shouldering the expenses.

I believe its not sufficient, but there will come a time that my means of support that my mean of support will be enough for my family.

What are the paternal privileges that you enjoy?

I go to their house everyday after work. When I and her family is going out im always with them, there’s no problem I’m close to her family.

Sometimes I sleep ther, I was the one who got close to may in laws rather than celemar to my parents.

I am welcome In their house.

186

Questions Respondent A Respondent B Respondent CHow much time do you spend with your child?

When its my day-off I play a nd bond w/ him the whole day, but when I have work I spend a little time w/ him.

Only after school. I’m with them the whole day since I don’t have work, but before I only see them in the morning before I go to work.

What do you do to strengthen your bond with your child?

I want to show my child that as a father I can also be his friend. I am his best friend all his wife. If he asks questions I answer him properly. when he want something I tell him if we can’t buy it now when my salary comes we can. I explain this things to him properly.

That question is so hard. Nothing special I just teach him naughty tricks. For example there’s a pig and my older sister is fat so I teach him to call tita, that he knows when she sees a pig on tv he says tita.

I will prove to them that I’ll love them, and I will do anything for my children so that our bond gets stronger.

Respondent C confessed that he is unemployed during the interview happened and acknowledged that his in laws is their major source of financial support, while respondent B a college student also said that his parents are the one who gives financial support to his child and only respondent A is employed and gives financial support to his child though he also said that it is still not sufficient because he wanted to give more such as seeing his child go to a exclusive school in the future. Differed from what Rhein et al (1997) found that lack of employment was one of the factors That contributed to the absent teenage fathers disinterest in his child, such as respondent C have told the interviewer that he has much more time to spend with his children because he stayed all day in the house rather than before when he used to have a worked.

187

1.5 Outside Factors


What are the factors that could affect your involvement with your child?

Maybe the thing that we don’t get to be together everyday, and when my in laws come, I will feel awkward bec. were not close and I never got the chance to be w/ them.

Immaturity in handling the child, he always falls. I am the type of father who wants to nurture my child strong. I get mad when de’s really out of control.

Another factor is my school bec, like today I don’t have time, instead that I am there with my child my I am still here in school

My in laws were never a bother in fact they help us through hard times.

“Immaturity” in giving discipline was one of the given factors by respondent B no different from what Dallas et al (2000) believed that “the lack of developmental knowledge and unrealistic expectations for their children’s behavior shown by the subjects they studied might lead some young parents to mistake their children’s developmental immaturity for deliberate misbehaviors, which could then lead to inappropriate discipline”.

"Work/School" was amongst the given factors impacting on time and bond with baby for the young fathers. 2 out 3 respondent said that work is one of the factors that affect their involvement with their child as respondent C said, while respondent B said that his studies is one of his given factor that could affect his involvement with his child. Only respondent A said that work could not affect his involvement with his.

“Friends” was one of the given factors by respondent B because he could not refuse to go along with his friends sometimes and stay with them until late at night.


188

Contrary to the theories and studies of Rivara et al (1986), Speak et al (1997) and Cohen (1993) that young fathers involvement decreases over time, the researcher has proven with the course of this study that it is otherwise and that young father become more involved with the life of their child regardless of their civil status. The interviews with young fathers suggested that fathers feel appreciated and supported in their role, and their increasing involvement over time may have something to do with the feeling of usefulness and self worth.

Virtually, all of the young fathers acknowledge the fact that the mother of the child is indeed a major key person for their own bonding and strengthening of relationship. If they are together in a relationship, they expect their partners to be their main source of support in their new role as a father. Most commonly, it is the mother’s prerogative to make or break a father’s relationship with the child, thus enabling the safety and welfare of the child and not for personal gain. Both parents should be aware that their involvement has a deep impact in the lives of their children. Certain actions and circumstances during this period can instil an irreparable damage to the relationship to both parents. In addition to the pre-existing findings with the other researcher like the theories stating that most of the relationship of young fathers with the mother of the child did not work (Rivara et al 1986, Speak et al 1997) but with the findings in this case study all of the relationship of the three respondents did work out and that they all have a good relationship with their partner and to the parents of their partner.

Although at present the fathers acknowledge that they are in no position to support the child alone and the mother, most of them said that having a child is a major change in their lifestyle, goals and everyday living. Setbacks are usually not allowed and a more promising future should be planned ahead for their family’s sake. The actions taken upon very rampantly were to find fulltime and long-term jobs. Save up money for the family to repay reward. Staying at home instead of staying with friends late at night. They had personal reasons why they wanted to change but more so because of the child that is now giving them a sense of direction to do it right and well with their lives. This symbolized their eagerness to live up to stereotypes of a proper, responsible father.

The significant impact of this study is that it would diminish if not totally prevent having a dysfunctional family in the society. This study would tell about that the acceptance of the parents is important to extend their understanding to the young couple instead to outcast the father of the child.

The implications of this study are that young fathers can live up to be mature individuals when their going gets tough. They acknowledge their new responsibilities and change for the better. They plan ahead of time for the welfare of their family. They put aside their personal likings and prioritize the child or the family first ahead of everything. They secure the relationships with the key persons involve and are highly present for the growth of the child. The researcher has therefore stated with this study that young fathers involvement increase over time due to their specific and personal perspectives.

189

References

Argys, L., H. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Smith, J. R. (1998). The impact of child support on cognitive outcomes of young children. Demography, 35, 159-173.

Batten, S.T., & Stowell, B.G. (1996, October). School-based programs for adolescent parents and their young children. Bala Cynwid, PA: Center for Assessment and Policy Development.

Barret, R. L., & Robinson, B. E. (1985). The adolescent fathers: In S. M. Hanson & F. W. Bozett (Eds.), The dimensions of fatherhood (pp. 353-368). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S. & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71(1), 127-136.

Cohen (1993) "The Parenting Trap: Forgotten Fathers" www.edweek.org, 11/3/1993

Dallas, C. M., & Chen, S. C. (1998). Experiences of African American adolescent fathers. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 20(2), 210-233.

Dallas, Wilson, Salgado (2000) : "Gender Differences in teen parents' perceptions of parental responsibilities." Department of Maternal-Child Nursing, University of Illinois at Chicago, 60612, USA. Published: Public Health Nursing Vol.17 (2000)No. 6 pp 413-433

Glikman, H. (2004). Low-income young fathers: Contexts, connections, and self. Social

Work, 49(2), 195-206.

Harold-Goldsmith, R., Radin, N., & Eccles, J. S. (1988). Objective and subjective reality: The effects of job loss and financial stress on fathering behaviors. Family Perspective, 22, 309-325

Hendricks L, Hawkins T, McCoy M, and Howard CS (1983) : Suggestions for reaching unmarried black adolescent fathers." Howard University Institute for Urban Affairs and Research. Published in Child Welfare Vol.62 No 2 pp141-146 1983

Jaffee R, Caspi, Moffitt E, Taylor Dickson (2001): Redicting early fatherhood and whether young fathers live with their children: prospective findings and policy considerations." Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK.

190

Published:Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry 2001 Sep Vol. 42 No.6 pp 803-815

Johnson, W. E., Jr. (2001). Young African American fathers: Indicators of their paternal involvement. In A. M. Neal-Barnett, J. M. Contreras, & K. A. Kerns (Eds.), Forging links: African American children clinical developmental perspectives. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Kahn, J.S., & Bolton, F. G., Jr. (1986). Clinical issues in adolescent fatherhood. In A.B. Elster & M.E. Lamb, Adolescent fatherhood. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Knitzer, J., & Bernard, S. (1997). Map and track: State initiatives to encourage responsible fatherhood. New York: National Center for Children in Poverty. (ED 410 020)

Kiselika S (1995): "Multicultural counselling with teenage fathers: a practical guide (multicultural aspects of counselling Vol 6)" Paperback Vol 006 (September 1995) Sage Publications; ISBN: 0803953372 From Book News, Inc. National Fatherhood Initiative

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1997). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In J. Lancaster, J. Altmann, A. Rossi, & L. Sherood (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111-142). New York: Aldine de Bruyter.

Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E., & Levine, J. (1985). Paternal behavior in humans. American Zoologist, 25, 883-894.

Lerman, R., & Sorensen, E. (2000). Father involvement with their nonmarital children: Patterns, determinants, and effects of their earnings. Marriage and Family Review, 29(2/3), 137-158.

Marsiglio W. (1987): "Adolescent fathers in the United States: their initial living arrangements, marital experience and educational outcomes." Oberlin College Published Family Planning Perspective 1987 Vol 19 No.6 pp:240-251

Miller, D. B. (1994). Influences on parental involvement of African American adolescent fathers. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11(5), 363-378.

National Network of Health, The: Fathers of Children born to adolescent mothers. www.nnh.org/products/fathers.htm

Nord, C.W., Brimhall, D.A., & West, J. (1997, October). Fathers' involvement in their children's schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (ED 409 125)

191

Overpeck, M.D, , , A.C., i, L.B., & Berendes, H.W. (1998.) “Risk Factors For Infant Homicides In The United States”. New England journal of Medicine, 339. 1211-1216.

Pitt E.(1986) "Targeting the adolescent male". Journal of Community Health 1986; Vol 11 No 1 pp:45-8

Rhein LM, Ginsburg KR, Schwarz DF, Pinto-Martin JA, Zhao H, Morgan AP, Slap GB.(1997): "Teen father participation in child rearing: family perspectives." Section of Adolescent Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. Published : Journal of Adolescent Health 1997 Vol 21 No 4 pp:244-52

Rivara FP, Sweeney, Henderson BF. (1986): "Black Teenage Fathers: What happens when the child is born?" Published: Pediatrics 1986 Jul; Vol.78 No.1 pp151-158

Schwartz, (1999): "Young fathers: new support strategies" . Teachers College, Columbia University http//eric-web.tc.columbia.edu/digests/dig141.html

Speak S, Cameron S, Gilroy R (1997): "Young, single, non-residential fathers: their involvement in fatherhood." . Centre for Research in European Urban Environments at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Great Britain. The full report, Young single fathers: Participation in fatherhood - bridges and barriers by Suzanne Speak, Stuart Cameron and Rose Gilroy is published by the Family Policy Studies Centre ISBN 0 901455 10 6

Stouthamer-Loeber M, Wei EH. (1998) : "The precursors of young fatherhood and its effect on delinquency of teenage males." Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Published: Journal of Adolescent Health (1998) Vol.22 No. 1 pp55-65

Westney OE, Cole OJ, Munford TL. (1988) : "The effects of prenatal education intervention on unwed prospective adolescent fathers." School of Human Ecology,

.

192

Newspaper Job Ads: A Content Analysis Study

Juan Rafael S. Saulo

The study attempts to identify skills and competencies present in newspaper job advertisements. The study utilized a total of 798 newspapers, 5220 job ads related to the study starting form January 1 2006 to September 24, 2006 from the three leading newspapers of the Philippines namely the Philippine Star, The Manila Bulletin and The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Content analysis was done to job ads related to the field of Psychology. Other things that the study revealed were: First, most of the companies (about 90%) that post for job vacancies look for single employees. Second, most of the positions that are advertised in the newspapers (about 70%) are Rank and File. Third about 75% of job vacancies look for women whose age range from 22 to 35 years of age. The researcher did not find any trends in the companies that advertised for job vacancies. The companies however preferred hiring individuals with one or two years of work experience. Finally the companies that advertised for job vacancies required at least an MA in the field of Psychology with at least 5 years of work experience for a Managerial position. Implication for career counseling of Psychology Majors were discussed. The skills identified by the Job ads were: Computer Literacy (95%) Interpersonal Skills (90%) Flexibility Skills (89%) and Personality( 85%) and Decision-Making (20%) through the newspapers.

There are many ways of searching for jobs. One can search the internet for job openings. One can even job hunt the hard and tedious way which is to go from one company to another submitting resumes and then play the waiting game with the hope that a company calls the house. The researcher is not saying that this technique is wrong. What he is simply saying is that this technique only favors those individuals who have ample time in their hands and have nothing to lose. There is another way to look for jobs. It is through reading the job ads section of the newspaper that one realizes one of its values.

Many recent studies were done regarding jobs, advertisements like the study of David Demets entitled “Where the jobs are” (Demets 1998) which relates job advertisements to statistics. Recent studies also talk about pay ambiguity in relation to the reactions to 'help wanted advertisements. (Effects of Attribute Set Size and Pay Ambiguity on Reactions to 'Help Wanted' Advertisements, 1998) Still other studies talk about the work in libraries. (Lynch,Smith, 2001)

So what if there are current researches done on job and job advertisements? Does that make it important? What do jobs and job ads have to do with fresh graduates of psychology? Maybe these are just some of the questions that come to mind that need some answers.

Yes, jobs are important. They are very important especially after one finishes college and eventually grows up. Jobs also give a sense of security, in the form of money.

193

Job ads or more specifically newspaper job ads provide the individual an easier option of finding jobs.

Newspaper job ads more importantly look for skills and competencies with regard to job openings and vacancies. That is why this study was made for the purpose of identifying skills and competencies through the analysis of newspaper job ads in the Philippine setting. Based on studies conducted between the year 2000-2007 the researcher was not able to find any study having the same topic.


“Choosing a career path begins with making career choices that can link academic knowledge and real world experiences to establish a path that leads to one’s future professionally.”(Talusig, 2005)

According to the 2002 National Career Information System online journal the terms career, vocation and occupation are used interchangeably since the time of Parson in 1909. Such a narrow view of career is problematic in that it aligned with paid employment. (Talusig, 2005)

Problems with such a narrow understanding of career have been taken into account for over 20 years and writers thus began to expand the career concept into pre-occupational and occupational roles. (Super in Taluisig, 1980, 2005)

According to Miller Tiedman’s concept of “career,” it is the integration of all aspects of an individual’s life including paid employment, if it is applicable. (Miller Tiedman in Talusig, 1988, 2005) It is none than likely that the careers of people will have periods of underemployment or unemployment. Thus many career combinations are possible. (Talusig, 2005) Since this definition of Tiedman’s concept of career includes all aspects of the life of the individual, it is also includes job hunting and all the job-related aspects in the life of the individual. In this regard, a content analysis study was done by Lynch and Smith (2001) on the changing nature of work in the academic libraries. The study highlights the changes that have occurred in the library scene since 1973 until 2001. An instructional role for librarians (2002) gives an overview and content analysis of job ads.

The evolution of international studies skills was done by Todd(1995) where he analyzed the job skills of IS students from the 70’s to the 90’s.

One study related sex-biased jobs and discrimination by Bem in 1973 where he found out that both sex-biased wording in job advertisements and the placement of help-wanted ads in sex-segregated newspaper columns discourage men and women from applying for "opposite-sex" jobs for which they might well be qualified.

Another study reported the 1999 data on the job market in diagnostic radiology detected using a help wanted index of job advertisements and to profile trends in practice

194

type, location, and subspecialty using our previously published data as a basis for comparison.(Covey 2000)

Another content analysis study was done by Ang (1996) on IS job ads and relating them to insourcing and outsourcing arguments.

The study by Campbell in 1998 studied a conceptual modeling approach to data including job ads in the web.

Other job related literature describes a multi-lingual internet employment where job ads are submitted as e-mail texts, analyzed by an example-based pattern matcher and stored in language independent schemas in an object-oriented database.

Users can search the database in their own language and get customized summaries of the job ads.

Thorsteinson (2003) on the other hand conveyed the effects of goat farming in job advertisements on organizational attractiveness which aimed to determine the reason for the greater attractiveness of the gain-framed ad compared to the loss-framed ad. Two possible explanations— valence-based encoding and regulatory focus—were examined. Results suggest that both valence-based encoding and regulatory focus mediated the relationship between framing and organizational attractiveness.

The study by Belle and Adams ( 2002) studied the job trends in the library job market and found that growing number of electronic-related advertisements in the past decade has led to the addition of a third division to be investigated, namely the systems and automation librarian.

An article entitled “Enforcement of Employment Security Regulations, On The Job Search and Unemployment Duration” (1998) was found The study showed that contrary to the popular wisdom, European labor markets are characterized by relatively large job turnover rates.

David Jalajas (2001) studied the role of self-esteem in the stress process which related the results form job hunting. Results from the study showed self-esteem as both the moderator and mediator in the stress process.

Another article discussed unemployment and job hunting scenarios in China and examines coping strategies, successes and failures in job searches and in job creation and their relationship to demographic variables (Tsui, 2002). Granovetter, on the other hand, studied the relationship of contracts, careers and job hunting. Diaz once discussed the ethnic job-search strategies of Atlanta Boston and Los Angeles (1999) and found that recent research on employer hiring and worker search behavior has emphasized the importance of social ties in matching workers to job opportunities.

The Consequences of women’s formal and informal job-search methods for employment in female dominated jobs study (1998) assessed the extent to which job

195

search methods affect gender composition in a job. Women using formal job search methods had jobs with fewer women in them compared to not using these methods. For men, job search methods were not associated with the gender composition of the job.

The Validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A Review and Meta-Analysis (1987) assessed the validity of Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristics Model by conducting a comprehensive review of nearly 200 relevant studies on the model as well as by applying meta-analytic procedures to much of the data.

The article “Welfare Recipients’ Job Skills and Employment Prospects (1997) examined how jobs and the capacity of the labor market to absorb workers influence current welfare recipients' success in finding employment and the wages they are likely to earn.

Lastly in the article Applying Trained Skills on the Job: Importance of Work Environment (1995), the influence of the work environment on the transfer of newly trained supervisory skills was examined. The social support system appeared to play a central role in the transfer of training.

According to Corfield (2000), one of the things an employer looks for when hiring an individual is skills .Moreover he stressed that the right person will be punctual and good at time management. Budgeting and organizing skills will come in handy, as well as, attention to detail and the ability to schedule events. Knowledge of home economics would be an asset. An awareness of safety is important when working with children and even confidence with shopping would be a selling point. Being able to handle paperwork competently would be a definite advantage.

The Literature highlights three main points. The first one being, “choosing a career path begins with making career choices that can link academic knowledge and real world experiences to establish a path that leads to one’s future professionally.”(Talusig, 2005)

Second, the review of related literature is divided in 3 parts namely the topic on job ads, job analysis and job skills.

Finally Self esteem plays both mediator and moderator in the stress process (Jalajas,2001)which makes self-esteem and job skills very important.

196


Figure 1

As Figure 1 clearly shows the researcher will analyze job ads which show skills of the employee. Now, if these are the same skills that the employers are looking for, then the employee gets the job.

The researcher’s study is all about Philippine job ads in the newspapers that advertise job positions. These ads also look for skills that are needed to get the job position. According to Career Guide (2003) the top 10 worker qualities employers seek are: Communication Skills, Initiative/Motivation, Teamwork Skills, Interpersonal Skills, Flexibility/Adaptability, Analytical Skills, Computer Skills, Organizational Skills, Honesty/Integrity and Strong Work Ethics. This study will rank the job ads found in today’s newspapers and rank them according to the demands of work at present.

Job Positions

Job Ads

Skills and Competencies

197

Method

Research Design

By analyzing job ads which particularly had openings for psychology graduates the study used the descriptive method particularly content analysis

The study looked for the skills of psychology graduates that would enable them to get the job position they will be applying when they graduate from college.

Procedure

The researcher gathered all job ads in the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Philippine Star and Manila Bulletin from January 1, 2006 to September 24, 2006. The researcher ranked the job ads using percentile. The researcher gathered job ads of all Sunday edition of each newspaper. The job ad with the highest percentile is ranked number 1 and the job ad with the lowest percentile is ranked last.

Reasons for choosing the newspapers mentioned: The newspapers mentioned are read by majority of the people in the Philippines. Both old and young people alike read these newspapers. Second their credibility has been tested to the passage of time thus, there is no need to question the newspapers’ validity in delivering true and authentic job ads within the country.

The researcher wanted to make the job ads as recent as possible thus, choosing January of 2006 as his starting points in getting this job ads and he ended with the date September 24, 2006 because this is the date closes to his thesis defense.

198

Results

The total number of psychology job ads analyzed was 5220 psychology job ads from the three newspapers. (Refer to Table 1) The study also showed that there were an average of 580 job ads per month, 840 job ads came from the Philippine Star, 1630 form Inquirer and 2750 from the Manila Bulletin. (see figure 2 for breakdown) The results of the study also showed the positions that the companies were looking for namely Human Resource Manager, Human Resource Supervisor, Human Resource Assistant; HR Assistant Supervisor, HR Clerk, HR Specialist, HR Director and HR Officer. The number of job ads for January 2006 is 500. 250 job ads came from Manila Bulletin 200 job ads came from the Inquirer and 50 job ads came from Philippine Star (see Table 1)

Table1 : Month Manila Bulletin Inquirer StarJanuary 250 200 50February 350 160 90March 400 150 150April 450 260 90May 350 300 250June 470 240 40July 160 150 40August 150 70 30September 170 100 100Total 5220 2750 1630 840

For the month of February the total number of job ads was 600 90 of which came from the Philippine Star,350 from the Manila Bulletin and 160 from the Inquirer.

For the month of March the total number of job ads was 700; 150 of which came from the Philippine Star, 400 from the Manila Bulletin and 150 job ads from the Inquirer.

The job ads for April were divided as follows: 260 job ads form the Inquirer 90 from the Philippine Star and 450 newspaper job ads from the Manila Bulletin for a total of 800 newspaper job ads. (See Table1)

For May the divisions were: 250 newspaper job ads came from The Philippine Star, 350 from the Manila Bulletin and 300 from Inquirer having a total of 900 job ads. Please see Table1.

For the month of June there were a total of 750 newspaper job ads 40 of which came from the Philippine Star, 240 from the Philippine Daily Inquirer and 470 from the Manila Bulletin. Please see Table1.

199

Table1 shows the division of job ads for the month of July; with 40 ads coming the Philippine Star, 150 from the Inquirer and 160 job ads from the Manila Bulletin for a total of 350 job ads

For the month of August the total number of job ads was 250. 150 came from the Manila Bulletin, 70 from the Inquirer and only 30 job ads from Star.

There were a total of 370 newspaper job ads for September. 170 job ads came from the Manila Bulletin and Inquirer and Star each having 100 job ads.

Table 2Skills Frequency PercentageCommunication Skills 5116 98%Initiative/Motivation 5011 96%Interpersonal Skills 4959 95%Teamwork Skills 4907 94%Analytical 4855 93%Computer Skills 4802 92%Organizational Skills 4750 91%Work Ethics 4698 90%

Table 2 summarizes the skills that are found in the newspaper job ads. Communication Skills is the most common skills that employers seek through newspaper job ads at 98%. Motivation is the next common skill at 96% followed by interpersonal skills at 95%, teamwork skills at 94%, analytical skills at 93%, computer skills at 92%, organizational skills at 91% and a strong work ethics at 90%. Table 3 Job Position Frequency PercentageHR Clerk 1148 22%Encoder 730 14%Secretary 522 10%Sales Assistant 522 10%HR Assistant 261 5%Research Assist. 261 5%Research Analyst 261 5%Marketing Assist Supervisor

261 5%

Customer Service Rep

261 5%

Assist Team Leader

104 2%

HR Assistant supervisor

104 2%

Sales Supervisor 104 2%HR supervisor 104 2%Marketing 104 2%

200

OfficerSales Officer 104 2%HR Officer 104 2%Team Leader 104 2%Sales Mgr 52 1%Marketing Mgr 52 1%HR Mgr 52 1%Total 5220 job ads

Table 3 shows the job positions available for Psychology graduates The very first position is HR clerk it comprises 22% of the total number of newspaper job ads. It is then followed by the encoder 14%, secretary 10%, sales assistant 10%, HR assistant 5%, Research assistant 5%, Research analyst 5%, Marketing Assistant Supervisor 5% customer service representative 5%, assistant team leader, HR assistant supervisor, sales supervisor, HR supervisor, marketing officer, sales officer, HR officer and team leader each with 2% and 1% respectively for the sales manager , marketing manager and HR manager positions.

Discussion

Manila Bulletin had the most number of newspaper job ads followed by the Philippine Daily Inquirer while the Philippine Star had the least number of job ads mainly because the Philippine Star had a lot of sponsor ads like that of Globe, Smart and Suncellular, The classified Ads section of the Philippine Star is inconsistent. On weekdays, it seldom appears inside the paper. Manila Bulletin on the other hand has a consistent classified ads section everyday. The Inquirer also has a moderate grade when it comes to consistency.

All of the three newspapers analyzed have many job ads on Sundays but again, Manila Bulletin is the thickest of the three. Therefore one might say that when it comes to credibility in terms of the number of job ads that can be found, the Manila Bulletin is the most credible among the three.

Although there are no evidences of trends when it comes to the number of job ads per month May’s total number of job ads remains to be the highest mainly because students are trying to apply for summer jobs.

As one’s position gets higher and higher in the work place the decision making skill needed for a higher position also goes up. One can then conclude that the higher the decision making skill the higher the responsibility and the higher the salary. On the other hand, when one starts at the bottom one’s work is more technical. Yet there are some skills like personality and interpersonal skills that are a must in all levels of the work place. One has to have a little bit of personality and interpersonal skills in order to survive in the place of work because no man is an island and a person will more often talk to a person in the work place. This is a form of bias since the employers seek the

201

employees with the skill that they need but very few companies are willing to train their employees since training is an additional cost to the company.

What did the results mean? Communication skills are the most common skills that companies that advertise in the newspapers look for. Communication skills would include English proficiency and the proper usage of non-verbal communication such as proper eye contact, hand movements, voice projection and body posture.

The next skill that employers look for after Communication Skills is motivation. Motivation is very important to employees too. Motivation psyches-up the employees to work hard and do the best they can so that they contribute to the success of the company. This is one of the reasons why companies have benefits and incentives so as to motivate people to work hard and be the best that they can be. Without motivation employees would not do their respective jobs well. This includes going the extra mile in finishing the work that needs to be done.

Interpersonal Skills would be the third skill employers look for. This would include convincing skills confidence when talking to people, know what to say, how to say it and when to say it. These are people skills.

Team Skills would be another skill employers look for. Teamwork Skills on the other hand include cooperation of a group. In a world where people are now globally competitive employees need teamwork skills to survive in the workplace.

Analytical Skill is the fifth skill employers look for.Analytical Skills include decision-making skills and the ability to interpret data This skill is a necessity when it comes to top management positions.

Computer Skills would include the knowledge in using computers It is a must in today’s workplace. It is the sixth skill employers look for in hiring employees

Organizational Skills is the seventh skills companies look for in employees. Organizational Skills would include leadership skills and career development. The employee must follow the rules and regulations of their company to ensure that they stay in the company.

Lastly, Strong Work Ethics include the ability to work under pressure, employee attitude in the workplace and work conduct. It is the last skill employers look for when individuals apply for a job position.

One more element that is very important in order to assure that psychology graduates get a high paying job is work experience of at least one to two years.

The researcher noticed that more often companies that advertise in the newspapers look for women instead of men.

202

One disadvantage of looking for jobs in the newspapers’ classified section is companies don’t advertise high paying jobs often. These high positions are occupied ether by succession or by appointment from the outside the company.

One advantage of looking for jobs in the newspaper is the information that is easily accessible. It is affordable and reasonable.

Conclusions and Recommendation

One can get a lot of information just by looking at the classified section of a newspaper. One can find out what skills are necessary for a job position. Skills are necessary to do a certain or a specific job well. Job positions and other information are easily accessible since all that one needs to do is read and find the job position that one wishes to apply for.

However, companies that advertise in the newspapers also look for one to years work experience from their applicants. Not all job positions are advertised in the newspapers. Top ranking positions like CEO and Vice President positions are occupied by succession or by appointment.

The study can be used as a basis to modify the psychology curriculum of schools and universities in order to prepare the psychology graduates in applying for job positions in the workplace.

These job positions may not pay much but they will be a good source of work experience for the psychology graduates to eventually land the job of their dreams.

The researcher therefore recommends that further studies be done having the similar topics to further confirm the findings of this study as this is the first time a study of this nature has been done.

203

References

A Brief History of Content Analysis (2006) http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/research/content/com2a1.cfm

An instructional role for librarians: (2000) An overview and content analysis of job advertisements:http://alianet.alia.org.au/publishing/aarl/33.3/full.text/clyde.html 2002

Beile Adams (2000)Other Duties as Assigned: Emerging Trends in the Library Job Market http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crljournal/backissues2000b/july00/beile.pdf

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2xgEIBTTdVUC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&sig=uh_P7XpyuVX-LMSetsV8HqIy1ak&dq=Job+hunting

Drentea (1998) The Consequences of women’s formal and informal job-search methods for employment in female dominated jobs

http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0891-2432(199806)12%3A3%3C321%3ACOWFAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K

Bem (1973) Does sex-biased advertising aid and abet sex discrimination http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1973.tb01290.x

Black (1997) Multilingual Generation and Summarization of Job Adverts http://acl.ldc.upenn.edu/A/A97/A97-1040.pdf -

Brinkerhoff (1992) 101 COMMONSENSE RULES FOR THE OFFICE, Malaysia, Golden Books Centre SDN, BHD

Burtless (1997) Welfare Recipients’ job skills and employment prospects http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1054-8289(199721)7%3A1%3C39%3AWRJSAE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J

Campbell (1998) A conceptual modeling approach to data extracting in the web http://www.springerlink.com/content/uy80xbe31rdu1edm/

Career Guide (2003) Jobstreet.com

Corfield, (2000) HOW YOU CAN GET THAT JOB, London, Kogan Page Limited

204

Covey (2000) The Job Market in Diagnostic Radiology 1999 Updated Findings from a Help Wanted Index of Job Advertisements http://intl.ajronline.org/cgi/content/abstract/175/4/957

Demets 1998 Where the Job Ads Are Enforcement of Employment Security Regulations, On-The-Job Search and

Unemployment Duration (1998) http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=106850

Granovetter (1995) Getting A Job: A Study of Contracts and Careers

Hackman (1987) The Validity of the Job Characteristics Model: A Review and Meta-Analysis.

Jalajas (2001) The Role of Self-Esteem in the Stress Process: Empirical Results From Job Hunting

Lee Rogers (2000) The Radiology Job Market, http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001390351&er=deny

Managing Transition: Unemployment and Job Hunting in Urban China, Tsui, 2002 http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002529050&er=deny

Nuendorf, (2006) The Content Analysis Guidebook http://academic.csuohio.edu/kneuendorf/content/resources/flowc.htm

Talusig (2005) Job Tracer: A Study of College Graduates of San Beda College Alabang

Tiedman, AL (1988) Lifecareer the Quantum Leap into a process theory of career

The Changing Nature of Work in Academic Libraries by:Beverly P. Lynch and Kimberley Robles Smith http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlpubs/crljournal/backissues2001b/september01/lynch.pdf

Thorsteinson (2003) Effects of Goat Framing in Job Advertisements on Organizational Attractiveness Todd:http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01891.x

Todd (1995) The Evolution of IS Job Skills: A Content Analysis of IS Job Advertisements from 1970 to 1990 http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0276-7783(199503)19%3A1%3C1%3ATEOIJS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N

205

Tracey (2005) Applying trained skills on the job: the importance of the work environment

Tracy (2001) Get paid More and Promoted Faster, San Francisco, Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc.

Parsons, F. (1909) Choosing a Vocation

Super (1980) A Life-span life space approach to career development, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282-298

206

The Effect of Exposure to Television Advertisements on the Body Image of the San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences Female Students

Zebedee R. Usana

This study aimed to discover if female models in present day television advertisements affect the body image of the female students of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences. The participants for this study were 30 female college students from San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences ages 15-25. Purposive sampling is the sampling procedure used to gather each respondent because respondents are particularly female college students. The conclusion of the first category was there was no significant difference on the amount of exposure of the female students of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences to television advertisements because the Body Esteem Scale scores showed no significant change between the non exposure to television advertisements and 16-19 minutes exposure. In the second category (BMI) there was a significant difference in the body image of the participants depending on their category (under weight, normal weight, overweight, and obese).which explains that the overall appearance of the individual in relation to what is known as beautiful does affect their body image.

Almost everyone has, at one time or another, wished that they could change something about themselves. For many people, the desired change involves something about their appearance. What is this focus that people have on their body parts and their body as a whole? It is their body image.

Body image is something that everyone has. Body image affects the young and the old, and impacts the poor and the rich both males and females are influenced by their body image. Just how important is body image in the society? In Western culture, it seems that for many people, young females’ in particular, looking good is an extremely significant part of their lives (Barlow; Durand, 1995). For some people, happiness and self-worth come to be largely determined by their body image. Whether or not an individual’s body size, body shape and measurements and so on match society’s ideals decide how satisfied they are with themselves. Sometimes, this body image becomes even more important than one’s health and well-being. Unfortunately, for many people the ideal body of their times is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. This make some people feel dissatisfied with their appearance. In other words, their body image is negative.

Research has suggested that biological, psychological and social factors play an important role in the development of one’s body image (Barlow; Durand, 1995). However, it appears that social factors play the key role.” Different images of the woman in advertising have been presented to the female consumer beginning in the 1920s women from ads in the 1920's up to the 1990's have gotten progressively thinner. Women typically have a larger percentage of fat on their bodies for childbearing purposes. Since

207

the birth of the modern advertising industry in the 1920s, marketers have sought to foster insecurity in consumers" (Jacobson; Mazur 1995) this image continues to pervade the advertising network but other images have also worked their way into the advertising world. Although television advertising has a relatively short history, today a person can hardly escape from it. Advertisements are specifically targeted to age-related and demographic groups. By focusing on self-perception and by targeting a low self-concept, advertisers create in consumers the desire to feel good about them. The self-concept regarding female beauty is targeted (Bedore,J. M., 1992).

This study tackles how female models in present day television advertisements affect the Filipino college females who watch these advertisements. This study wants to find out the following; Is there is a significant difference between the exposure to television advertisements and the body image of the Filipino college female? Does the actual physique of college female students a factor affecting their body image? The reason for focusing more on television advertisements, particularly the models rather than on media as a whole is to keep the study controllable and to avoid having a problem of not knowing exactly where the independent variable is arising from. This study will particularly target the female students of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences. The study on females was preferred because most current research has shown that females are more prone to experiencing decreased feeling of attractiveness and self image (Polce-Lynch 2001).


According to Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston., body image is based on the thoughts and feelings about a person’s body looks. Sometimes the way a person thinks of how others are judging his or her appearance can influence his or her body image. Poor body image comes from negative thoughts and feelings about a person’s appearance, and a healthy body image is made up of thoughts and feelings that are positive. Body image is a major factor in self-esteem; which is the way a person think and feel about themselves as a person. Females who are constantly pressured by society to look like models seen on cover of magazines who are extremely thin, look passive and childlike and have physical characteristics like youth, long legs, straight noses, or even pale tanned skin( Boston 2005).

The general topic of attractiveness is important to members of virtually every culture, especially to the young who seek romantic partners and to those who seek to extend their influence in society through contact with others. Attractiveness is significant to each individual and to most people whom the person meets and the effects of attractiveness could extend to virtually every other impression a person makes. Attractiveness to a psychologist means how others perceive and rate the desirability of a person's features. (Human Facets Navigator 2003)

According to Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston, if a female teenager with a scar, birthmark, or uniquely shaped face, she would probably know how hard it can be to look different from everyone else. She might be reminded of

208

that difference every time she look in the mirror or see someone staring in her direction. Major differences in appearance due to burns, birth defects or other diseases and disorders can contribute to a poor body image and low self-esteem. The effects of body image on self-esteem can be especially powerful during the teenage years. Although it's perfectly normal to have negative thoughts and feelings towards your facial difference, finding ways to be positive is the key to building a healthy body image and good self-esteem (Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston 2005).

Body image problems often rear their ugly heads in college, although they are often masked, mistaken for vanity, shyness, cautiousness, or even normalcy. With widespread pressure among college students to look a certain way, to have exact amounts of muscle or body fat, or to achieve perfection, a negative body image may actually be the norm. But how can colleges and universities suffer from a looks-obsessed culture when they are training the future thinkers, doers and leaders of the world? (Bradford, 2006).

The stress of college life can strike blows to anyone's self-esteem, though there are other forces at work. A large part of the problem comes from our culture. Just look at the trademark bodies of the 1990's Kate Moss' black-and-white waif in the Calvin Klein Obsession ads; the tanned, washboard-bellied Diet Coke guy; the incredible shrinking female cast of Friends. Youth and beauty seem to go hand-in-hand in mainstream culture, and many college students strive for the complete package: intelligence, looks, and status. (Bradford 2006). “College is a very stressful time, full of new responsibilities, new friends and a completely new environment,” Justine Karduck, nutrition education coordinator at McKinley Health Center at the University of Illinois said. “It can be very frightening, lonely and confusing, and there is a lot of pressure to fit in socially.”Peer pressure, the media and academics are factors that may cause students to be susceptible to low self-esteem and stress (Aceret 2007). Traits of Media

Many people suffering from a poor body image cite the media as one source of concern. While the motives of advertisers aren't exactly complex (sell, sell, sell!), it's interesting to wonder why people have internalized their 'ideal body image' (Aceret, E., 2007). They sell everything from toothpaste to cars, sporting goods to lingerie. And although the agencies and executives who are responsible for these campaigns may be focused only on the revenue that they will generate, today's consumer-driven, ad-based, beauty-obsessed culture can have serious effects on the average American woman( Nestel, P., 2004).

All evidence that has been being gathered over the years, by a number of reputable researchers, points to the fact that media consumption is the main culprit in disorders such as bulimia and anorexia nervosa, affecting young females in particular (To further emphasize on the image that the media habitually presents, the statistical evidence shows that they exemplify on images that show females to be on average a height of 5”11 and 120 pounds. This is totally opposite what exists in the real-time world. An average female is around 5”4 and 140 pounds (Holmstrom 2004).

209

Though this is a normalcy, the media contradicts it by pushing the idea that females in this range are not tall enough nor thin enough either. Really it is simply ludicrous to strive to be what the media is projecting (Holmstrom 2004). It is unhealthy and impossible for a good portion of females to even reach these types of goals, yet they keep being bombarded with them. Furthermore, these falsities are causing extreme negative emotions to develop such as, sadness, depression, anxiety, and discouragement about ones own self image (Holmstrom 2004). On the other hand, even though the ideals might not be acceptable to some, they do give a number of females the encouragement and personal initiative to try and better themselves and build a better and healthier body that they can feel satisfied with. Even though this is a minute few, it still has some small amount of positivism associated with it, because it can lead to a healthier lifestyle for healthier lifestyle for some females. (Holmstrom 2004). .

Females are going to great lengths to try and be equal to what the media represents. It has come to the point where the issue has surpassed simply body size, but gone on to facial characteristics as well. This has lead females to look into areas of change that involve, cosmetic surgery, liposuction, face-lifts, and miracle diets in an attempt to look their best and achieve perfection (Rodin 1992). However, the truth of the matter is, no person is flawless in the real world and the images that the media present have been airbrushed, enhanced, camouflaged, and have been closely examined to try and portray the females in a way that qualifies them as females of perfection, when they actually are not. In relation to these a study done by Newton JT and Minhas G in regarding to the exposure of ideal faces images and its effects to people. The study reveals that such exposure ideal facial images to people results to reducing of facial satisfaction. Females need to be aware of this, and more than anything else, find happiness with who they are and what they have been endowed with. Rodin’s article (1992) accurately expresses what the media has done to many females, and even men are not wholly immune to this fanatical phase

Recent studies of media effects on body image satisfaction and eating disturbance have shifted the focus of research from testing media effects to identifying possible mediating variables of the effects. Harrison (1997) introduced interpersonal attraction as a mediating variable in explaining the effects of "thin" media images on female viewers. She found that interpersonal attraction to thin media characters was the most significant predictor of a variety of eating disorders. Viewing "thin" TV shows was also positively related to college females' drive for thinness and anorexia. Reading fashion magazines, which contain extremely thin models, was positively related to general eating disturbance and body dissatisfaction. Harrison (1997) argued that the interpersonal attraction to thin characters may be associated with some sort of modeling behaviors, and such modeling may be positively related to eating disturbance. Thus the more attraction a female demonstrates to thin characters, the more likely she would show tendencies of eating disturbance.

Further more it has been argued that the media play a powerful role in communicating prevailing standards of ideal beauty (Sahlstein ; Allen, 2002). Heinberg

210

and Thompson (1995) examined the effects of media exposure and the role of awareness and internalization of societal standards of physical appearance. They found that participants exposed to appearance-related ads reported less satisfaction with their body shape than those with nonappearance-related ads. They also found that females who scored high on the measures of awareness and internalization of societal standards of appearance indicated the most negative emotional experiences after exposed to appearance-related ads. Cusumano and Thompson (1997) discovered that the awareness and internalization of societal standards of appearance accounted for a significant amount of variance in body image dissatisfaction and eating disturbance. However, no significant direct effects of exposure to magazine messages on body image dissatisfaction, eating dysfunction, and self-esteem were found.

211


Figure 1

The phenomenological perspective stresses on the importance of an individual’s perception of oneself and one’s world in understanding personality. It emphasizes that for each individual, reality is what is perceived. This means that a person’s ideal can affect how he sees himself, others and the world around him.( Ermita M.;Juan 2003).

As shown in the diagram the independent variable is the exposure to television advertisements. This variable is used, as standard to what should females these days think their physical appearance should be like. For example a seventeen-year old model seen in a commercial that at over five feet nine inches tall weighs less than one hundred twenty pounds, has no wrinkles, blemishes, or pores. The characteristics shown are what most women would dream to posses because of the society’s pressure and might change their own perception of self when looking at their own reflection at the mirror. (Wolf, N.1992)

The diagram shows that the independent variable affects the dependent variable which is the body image of females according to Naomi Wolf in her book “The Beauty Myth “, says that the media, who does flawless and unrealistic illusions created by makeup artists and photographers, unobtainable perfection negatively affect females, by inviting females to compare their unimproved reality with the air-brushed, illusive `Beauty Myth' models. The media has a great role for defining societal standards of beauty. (Wolf, N.,1992)

EXPOSURE TO TELEVISION

ADVERTISEMENTS

ACTUAL BODY PHYSIQUE

FEMALES BODY IMAGE

212

In conclusion the conceptual framework shows the belief that the physical appearance of models seen in television advertisements that is considered to be ideal standard of beauty of females can affect a females self image in ways that they may cause to see themselves as physically unattractive or physically abnormal. Looking at them at these aspects may cause them to be unsatisfied with themselves physically striving to be thin, tall and flawless instead of accepting themselves and being proud and confident for who they are which is someone who is physically normal.

213

Method

Participants

The participants for this research were thirty (30) female college students from San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences, ages 15-25 from all year levels (freshman – senior year). That age bracket was chosen to represent both adolescents and that in early adulthood because past researches have shown that this is a crucial time for them. In this time there is an increased self-awareness, self-identity, self-consciousness, preoccupation with image, and concern with social acceptance (Slater;Tiggemann, 2002). Further more, Research shows that at this time of their life the media helps them define social meaning in different ways. At these age groups they look to television programs to help them construct meaning into their lives (Granello, 1997).The decision to choose females only from San Beda College Alabang was made to make the research as controlled as possible due to the time limitations. Purposive sampling is the sampling procedure used to gather each respondent because respondents are particularly female college students. The researcher approached and asked several college female students from any year level if their willing to participate and that all information will be guaranteed confidential and will be used for research purposes only.


Survey Questionnaire

A survey questionnaire was distributed on the initial stage of the research. The purpose of the survey was to gather information about the participant regarding their actual physique and exposure to television advertisements. The results were used to get the BMI of each participant using their actual weight and height as well as how much exposure they had on television advertisements in terms of how many hours they watch local television programs, specifically from ABS-CBN and GMA on primetime schedule (5:30-9:30).The reason for choosing the two local channels is because the two channels are the two giant networks in the Philippines. Fucanan,T,B.,(2005).And so most of television advertisements today are aired to the two said stations. The reason for narrowing it down to prime time schedule is because most television advertisements which had beautiful models are aired during this time. The researcher recorded commercials which had beautiful models aired on the local television programs for both stations (ABS-CBN and GMA) during prime time schedule during week days and weekends as well. There were four choices to be check, in terms of how many hours they watch local television programs, first is “do not watch at all”, 30minutes – 1 hour, 2-3 hours and lastly 4 hours. Each category has its equivalent in terms of how many minutes are television advertisements which has models of beautiful and ideal bodies are aired. For 30 minutes to one hour the air time of television advertisements which had beautiful

214

models are two to nine minutes, for two to three hours the air time are 10 – 15 minutes ,for four hours are 16 – 19 minutes and for do not watch at all is zero minutes.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

According to the Children’s Hospital Boston (2001) (cited in Body Mass Index for Age, 2001) Body Mass Index (BMI) gives fairly accurate assessment of how much a person’s body is composed of fat.

In this study, BMI was the numerical value computed by the researchers using the BMI formula developed by the Belgian satisfaction Adolphe Quetelet between 1830 and 1850. Using this formula, the adolescent respondent’s weight in pounds will be divided by the square of the respondent’s height in inches. To obtain the respondent’s BMI the quotient will be then multiplied by 703. The scores were then converted to percentiles. The World Health Organization describes people with a Body Mass Index ranging from less than 19 of being “under weight” 19-25 as being “normal weight “, 25-29 as being “over weight”, and higher than 30 as being “obese”.

Body Esteem Scale

The main instrument used for this is called the Body Esteem Scale(BES) by Franzoi and Shields. This test enables participant to rate thirty-five individual body parts for woman on a five point Likert scale, in which indicated strong negative feelings. This test measures one’s body image satisfaction and will help indicate whether each participant has a positive or negative affect on her own body image due to such exposure to television advertisements. A factor analysis indicated that three factors emerged for males and females. These factors are (1) Physical Attractiveness (PA) for males Sexual Attractiveness (SA) for females, (2)Upper Body Strength ) (UBS) for males Weight Concern (WC) for females and (3) Physical Condition (PC) for both males and females. Since this study focused on college females the factors Sexual Attractiveness, Weight Concern and Physical Condition were used. The means for each factor were then computed and measured using the five point Likert scales, which showed whether or not each participant had a positive, negative or no feelings at all toward their body image.

In terms of validity and reliability, the BES has exhibited high test-retest reliability and internal validity. (Franzoi, 1994) Internal consistency has ranged from 0.83-0.93(Cecil and Stanley, 1997)

Research Design

The researcher used a descriptive survey as the research design because the data was derived from surveys and qualitative methods for gathering the information to inform the conclusions and recommendations of the study. The surveys were handed out in order to find out how often the respondents are exposed to television advertisement in terms of how many hours do they watch local television programs in a day on prime time

215

schedule, their actual height and weight and administered the Body Esteem Scale to all participants for further data analysis.

Data Gathering and Procedure A survey questionnaire was drafted by the researcher in which the respondents

were asked to participate and answer questions regarding their actual weight and height and their exposure to television advertisements. Attached to it is the Body Esteem Scale to determine their body image. These were distributed to the respective participants. After the surveys were collected, they were tabulated and the means for each factor were calculated which determined the participants’ over all body image. The results were then analyzed and then compared according to the three factors from Body Esteem Scale, which were Sexual Attractiveness, Weight Concern and Physical Conditions: these were divided into three subcategories. First, data was analyzed in terms how may hours were the participants exposed to Television advertisements 2-9 minutes, 10 – 15 minutes and 16 – 19 minutes and non exposure at all. Second, the data was also analyzed by separating the participants according to the results of their Body Mass Index, which determines the healthiness of their height and weight ratio and can range from “underweight” to “obese”.

Data Analysis The means for each factor were then computed and measured using the five point

Likert scale, 1 = have strong negative feelings, 2 = have moderate negative feelings, = have no feeling one way or the other 4 = Have moderate positive feelings , 5 = have strong positive feelings .The results were analyzed and then compared according to the three factors from BES, which were Sexual Attractiveness, Weight Concern and Physical Conditions:

216

Results

The participants for this research are thirty (30) female college students from San Beda College Alabang. This is a presentation of the results gathered from the 30 participants regarding their Body Mass Index, amount of exposure to television advertisements and their body image.

Is there is a significant difference between the exposure to television advertisements and the body image of the Filipino college females?

Table 1.1 Participants categorized according to television advertisement exposure in a day

Amount Exposed Frequency %

Non exposure 2 7%

2-9 minutes 3 10%

10-15 minutes 18 60%

16-19 minutes 7 23%

According to the results from the survey on how often are the participants were exposed to television advertisements, it showed that seven percent of the 30 participants were not exposed to the television advertisements as categorized by the researcher, 10% of the participants were exposed between 2-19 minutes, 60% of the participants were exposed between 10- 15 minutes, and 23% of the participants were exposed between 16-19 minutes.

Table 1.2 Body Esteem Scores in relation to exposure television advertisements

Amount Exposed SexualAttractiveness

WeightConcern

Physical Condition

Non Exposure 4 4 4

2-9 minutes 3 4 4

10-15 minutes 3 4 3

217

16-19 minutes 4 4 4

The participants who were exposed to television advertisements for 16-19 minutes and who were not exposed at all had a mean of four for the three categories of the Body Esteem Scale. The participants who were exposed for two to nine minutes and 10-19 minutes both had a mean of three for sexual attractiveness and had mean of four for their weight concern. The participants who were exposed for 10 -15 minutes scored the lowest when it comes to their physical condition having a mean of three.

Does the actual physique of college female students a factor affecting their body image?

Table 1.3 Participants categorized using BMI resultsBMI SCALE FREQUENCY %

Under Weight 12 40%

Normal Weight 15 50%

Over Weight 1 3%

Obese 2 7%

After calculating the BMI scores of each participant, the results showed that 50% of the participants fell in the category of “normal weight”, 40% of the participants were “underweight”. , Three percent of the participants fell in the category of “overweight” and seven percent of the participants were “obese”.

Table 1.4 BES Scores in relation to BMI

BMI SCALE SEXUALATTRACTIVENESS

WEIGHT CONCERN

PHYSICALCONDITION

Under Weight 4 4 4

Normal Weight 4 4 4

Over Weight 4 4 3

Obese 3 3 4

218

The mean results from the three factors of the BES showed that among the 12 “Under weight” participants and 15 participants who fell under the “Normal Weight” had a mean of 4 in the 3 categories which meant over all; the participants had moderate positive feelings on their sexual attractiveness, weight concern and physical condition. The participants who fell under the “overweight” category had a mean of four in both “sexual attractiveness” and “weight concern” category and had a mean of three in “physical condition” category. The participants who fell under the obese category had a mean of three for both “sexual attractiveness” and “weight concern category, which meant that overall; the participants had no feelings towards their own sexual attractiveness and did not care much about their weight. The results towards the physical condition were a four meaning they had a moderate positive feelings towards their physical condition.

Discussion

The results from the Body Esteem Scale showed that among the participants who were segregated based on their BMI scores, all three categories such as sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition, normally fell on the mean of four. Those participants who fell under the obese category scored the lowest when it came to their weight concern having a score of three. This showing that they are not happy of their weight since four is the mean score showing some positive outcome towards body dissatisfaction. Since studies show that if ideal body is difficult and impossible to achieve, this make some people feel dissatisfied with their appearance.

Based on sexual attractiveness, those who fell on the obese category again fell lowest on the four categories with a mean of three which shows that they are still not satisfied with how they look since four is the mean score showing some positive regard towards body satisfaction. Also according to Barlow, if an individual’s body size, body shape and measurements match society’s ideals, it decides how satisfied they are with themselves. The three groups that scored a mean of four showed that they hold their sexual attractiveness in positive regard. Those who were overweight fell lowest when it comes to their physical condition having a mean of three.

The results based from the body esteem scale showed that among the participants who were also segregated based on their exposure to television advertisements, the two groups that were exposed to 16-19 minutes and non exposure to television advertisements had a mean of four in all categories.

Conclusion

In conclusion it is safe to say that there is no significant difference between the women who were exposed for 16- 19 minutes and non exposure at all to Television Advertisements (which are the two extremes of the scale) so it can be pointed out that television advertisements do not make a significant impact on the body image of females in San Beda College Alabang College of Arts and Sciences unless they already feel inadequate about their own body even before they watch Television Advertisements. This

219

is supported by the scores from the Body Mass Index compared to Body Esteem Scale that showed significant differences between scores for all the three subgroups. When an individual already shows either a genetic disposition or maintenance of their own bodies to level the standard of beauty seen on these advertisements their body image will still remain high regardless of their exposure to television advertisements or not, the same way that if an individual already perceives herself as overweight and unattractive regardless if she was exposed to television advertisements or not will not make a strong difference on their body image.

The results of the Body Esteem Scale of the groups that were divided according to their BMI results help the researcher conclude that the null hypothesis was incorrect to say that television advertisements today has a significant impact on the Filipino female adolescents’ body image when other factors like an unhealthy BMI (25-up) are not present. Television advertisements do not bring about great effects on the body image of adolescents even though a lot may feel that the height, weight and the physical appearance of its models is ideal. Filipino female adolescents may come to accept that they do not have the ideal body seen on models of television advertisements and bring it to positive stride

Recommendations

For students who would like to continue this study, the researcher would like to recommend using convenient sampling , which may help to gather information that will able to capture the major objective of the study

This study can also be further continued not just using television advertisements as a factor affecting the Filipino women’s body image but other branches of media present in the Filipino society well.

This study can also be continued by using the male population of college, which might also show data about their body image and how images from the media affect them.

220

References

Aceret,E( 2007). The Rebel Yell University of Nevada Lasvegas from http://www.unlvrebelyell.com/article.php?ID=590

Bierma,P 2002, Body image from http:/www.girlpower.gov/press/research /inthemix.htm

Botta, R. A. (1999). Television images and adolescent girls’ body image disturbance. Journal of Communication, 49(2), 22 – 41.

Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (1995). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

Bradford, A (2006).UT Austin U magazin mexico Here's Looking At YouIs body image being taken too seriously? from http://www.colleges.com/Umagazine/articles.taf?category=features&article=bodyimage

Bedore, J (1992).Warning: This Television Advertisement May Be Hazardous to Your Self-Concept.from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal & objectId= 0900000b8011eafe

British Orthodontic Society (2004). Journal of Orthodontics, Vol. 31, No. 1, 17-19,

Cecil, H & Staneley, M. (1997).Reliability and validity of adolescents ‘scores on the body esteem scale Educational and Psychological Measurement

Center for young Woman’s Health Children’s Hospital Boston(2005) from

www.youngwomenshealth.org

Children’s Hospital Boston (2001) Body Mass Index

Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, 701-721.

Ermita M. & Juan C.(2003) .The Body Esteem of St. Benedict College College of Arts and Sciences Females in Relation to The Exposure of 2002 Fashion Models: An Analysis

221

Fisher, S(2004). Development and Structure of the Body: Volume2 Lawrence, Erlbaum&Associates

Franzoi,S.L&Herzorg M.E(1986). The Body Esteem Scale : A Convergent and Discriminant Validity Study: Journal of Personality Assesment

Franzoi and Shields, S.A.(1984) The Body Esteem Scale: Multidimensional structure and sex differences in college population. Journal of Personality Assesment,48, 173-178.

Fucanan,T,B.,(2005) Youth, driving force of arts, entertainment from http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2005/dec/28/yehey/top_stories/20051228top8.html

Genove,M,C.,(2006) Orient express Bacalod City,Negros Occidental, Philippines from http://www.visayandailystar.com/2006/Starlife/2006/February/19/orientexpress.htm

Granello, D. H. (1997). Using Beverly Hills, 90210 to explore developmental issues in female adolescents. Youth & Society, 29(1), 24 – 54.

Harrison, K. (1997). Does interpersonal attraction to thin media personalities promote eating disorders? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41, 478-500.

Harrison, K., & Cantor. J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47(1), 40-67.

Heinberg, L. J., & Thompson, J. K. (1995). Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 1-14.

Holmstrom, A (2004).“The Effects of the Media on Body Image: A Meta-Analysis” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media Volume 48 1.

Human Facets Navigator, (2003)“Data Face Pychological Appearance and behavior of the Human Face” http://face-and-emotion.com/dataface/facets/deception.jsp

Jacobson, M.F.; Mazur, LA(1995). Marketing Madness Colorado: Westview Press.

Nestel,P(2004).America’s Distorted Body Image from http://www.tcnj.edu/~unbound/spring2005/articles/l2

Newton JT, Minhas G (2005) Department of Oral Health Services Research & Dental Public Health, GKT Dental Institute, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London, UK. [email protected]

222

Polce-Lynch, M., Myers, B. J., Kliewer, W., & Kilmartin, C. (2001). Adolescent self-esteem and gender: Exploring relations to sexual harassment, body image, media influence, and emotional expression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(2), 225 – 245.

Rickins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(1), 71 – 83.

Rodin, Judith(1992). “Body Mania” Psychology Today. Volume25:1

Sahlstein, E., & Allen, M. ( 2002). Sex differences in self-esteem: A meta-analytic assessment

Schmidt N., Oxley, R., & Barrett, L. (2002). Facial attractiveness judgements reflect learning of parental age characteristics. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 269, 873-880

Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 46(9/10), 343 – 349.

Tiggeman, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women’s body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20(2), 199 – 203.

Weiderman, Michael. (2000): “Women’s Body Image and Self Consciousness during Physical Intimacy with a Partner” The Journal of Sex Research Volume 37 1

Wolf, Naomi.,(1992.)The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. NewYork: Anchor Books

223

Assessing the Levels of Student Career Maturity with the Introduction of Vision Therapy

Maria Laika F. Varela

This study aimed to assess the level of career maturity of selected freshmen students in San Beda College Alabang. The researcher aimed to integrate an intervention which is Vision Therapy and to find out whether such a process would result to an increase in the levels of career maturity. The study used quantitative data analysis in a two group design, using a control group and experimental group to determine whether there is a significant difference in the levels of career maturity of selected freshmen students before and after the intervention. A value of t (30) = 6.33, p<.05 indicate that there is no statistically significant difference in the levels of career maturity among control and experimental groups before the intervention. The value of t is again computed and yielded a value of t (30) = 3.24, p<.05 with the introduction of vision therapy for the experimental group and indicated that there is no statistically significant difference in the levels of career maturity of both groups even after the experimental group’s exposure to the therapy. Likewise, a value of t (15) = .38, p<.05 indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in the levels of career maturity of the control group and t (15) = .39, p<.05 for the experimental group after the pre-test and post-test phase of the study.

“If one advances confidently in the direction of their dreams, and endeavors to lead a life

which they have imagined, they will meet with a success unexpected in common

hours”- Henry David Thoreau

People want to be successful in life. Each person has a dream, a goal to achieve. Each individual has a purpose and would have a blueprint in order to act and achieve that vision. The achievement of a goal would often lead to a feeling of happiness. According to Edwin Locke (in Janda, 2004), “One’s highest moral purpose is the achievement of one’s happiness”. This feeling of happiness can be translated into self-satisfaction, which can gage personal growth. For Locke, the best way to achieve happiness is to understand the values that are important to an individual and set a goal that reflects these values (Janda, 2004). Frankl (1984) says that the search for meaning is man’s primary motivation. In order for a person to find the meaning of life, that person determines essential values and sets a goal, which is the objective one needs to achieve. How can a person experience personal growth by having a vision? How can values clarification and realization of one’s purpose influence the actualization of these goals?

Children are often asked by their parents what they want to be when they grow up, and children would say they want to be a doctor, a police officer, a lawyer, a scientist,

224

etc. Clearly, at some point when a child is asked that question, he/she seem sure of what he/she want to become, sometimes children might even portray as such. Keeping a career track would seem easy but eventually as people grow older, people view some things differently as before. In particular the in-demand jobs abroad become the courses people like to take up in the country. There was Information Technology, Physical Therapy and right now Nursing and jobs as call center agents What happens to most of the fresh graduates? Either most of these fresh graduates take up a second degree course leading to the hottest jobs available abroad or end up working on graveyard shifts in call centers, but is this the way the people who make certain shifts in their careers want their lives to be? Is there self-satisfaction? Did they attain their goals?

Most people admit that they want control over their lives (Cramer and Perreault, 2006). Controlling different aspects and future outcomes leads to personal growth and fulfillment of goals (Langlois et. al., 2002). People want to live and manage their lives in the context of their values, goals and purpose. If one has a clear possible vision, there is big possibility that the goal is attainable. Eventually for some the accomplishment of a goal cannot be easily attained because of several obstacles that come across considering the fast paced changes in the world and demands for employment.

John Powell introduced the concept of vision therapy. According to Powell (1965, from Mores, 2006), this therapy enables a person to find misconceptions and distortions in himself that results to unhappiness and suffering. Mores (2004), states that vision therapy helps the person explore his vision and goal and life and come up with ways to handle obstacles in the attainment of these visions and goals. Through vision therapy, the person assesses and clarifies his values and establishes a goal. Likewise, he prepares himself for possible barriers that can interfere with the fulfillment of his goals.

A goal-oriented strategy for finding happiness applies only to areas in which the primary motivation is to achieve (Janda, 2004). The premise of vision therapy is the recognition of one’s purpose, setting a goal, knowing the barriers towards the achievement of the goal, redefining one’s values, and affirming the self in order to obtain success and enable a person to cope with the obstacles, rediscover the self to have self-satisfaction and success. Being satisfied with one’s career is one of the most important aspects of happiness (Henson, 2003).

Career maturity is the readiness of an individual to make appropriate career decisions (Lundberg, et.al., from Kerka , 1998). It is the ability of an individual to make appropriate career choices which include the awareness of what is required to make career decisions, and the degree to which one’s choices are both realistic and consistent over time (Levinson, Ohler, Caswell and Kiewra, 1998, cited in Patton and Creed, 2001).

The purpose of this paper is to assess career maturity and the possible effects of the intervention of vision therapy to the levels of career maturity of freshmen college students. As a construct, career maturity represents a repertoire of coping behaviors and one’s readiness to employ these behaviors toward career-related events encountered at various life stages (Rojewski et.al, 1995). It reflects a person’s capability, competence

225

and preparedness in entering the world of work. Vision therapy on the other hand, engages in understanding the meaning and purpose of one’s existence for personal growth and career success (Mores, 2006).As such, the purpose of this paper is to evaluate the career maturity of college freshmen students, and through an intervention of Vision therapy, evaluate whether or not Vision therapy will have a significant implication on levels of career maturity.


Career Decision Making

Each personality is unique. Each individual has his own interests, likes and dislikes. These interests would most probably define or outline a person’s goals, a career path, or a sense of direction towards the achievement of that goal.

Choosing a career path begins with making career choices that can link academic knowledge and real-world experience to establish the path of one’s future profession (Talusig, 2005). Managing and choosing a career is influenced not only by an individual’s preference. Factors such as economic demands, amount of competition and family constraints would somehow restrain a person from choosing a career that best interests him but leaves him pursuing a course that would enable him to do not as much as his true capabilities are.

According to Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma (1951, from Henson, 2003) there are three periods in the career choices process: the fantasy stage which involves play and imagination regarding future work; tentative stage which concerns the interest, abilities, and values, including knowledge of the work, and identifying four periods - the development of interests, development of capacities, development of values, and the transition period which is the realistic stage occurring after the age of seventeen, and includes the specification of career choices.

Planning a career is simply planning for one’s life (Henson, 2003). According to Kelly (1996, from Greene, 2002) choosing a career is a lifelong process that demands accurate perceptions of ability, potential and achievement. One chooses a career path that is desired and is similarly influenced by its suitability to a person’s best interest and ability. The individual should learn what he wants, where he is good at and what comes his values or he will end up in a destructible career (Henson, 2003). Having defined the purpose, the capacity and the beliefs that envelopes a person contributes to the success and personal growth of an individual.

226

Career Development and Career Maturity

Individuals go through certain stages and different phases in their lives as they mature (Henson, 2003). Career development is generally a lifelong process which incorporates general education, occupational training, and work, including social and leisure life (Umali, 2006). Career development would as well induce the wholeness and wellness of an individual in the entire life span. Donald Super (1957, from Henson ,2003) and other theorists of career development recognize the changes what people go through as they mature. The career development model formulated by Donald Super is divided into five stages (Henson, 2003):

1. Growth Stage (birth – 14 years) wherein self concept is formed, the person develops his attitudes, interests and needs.

2. Exploratory Stage (14 – 24 years) is the “try-out stage” wherein the individual is constantly conscious as one explores the world of school and work.

3. Establishment stage (25 – 44 years), the individual becomes stable to a certain area of expertise.

4. The Maintenance stage (45 – 59 years) concerns on certain adjustment a person must go through to retain as well as improve his current standing.

5. Disengagement stage (60 years - above) prepares the individual to retirement as their output is reduced because they become choosy on the things they do.

Career maturity also referred to as vocational maturity is an individual’s readiness to make informed, age-appropriate career decisions and cope with career development tasks Sacvickas (1984, in Patton and Creed, 2001). Donald Super (1955, from Henson, 2003) described career maturity as having the following components:

1. Orientation and vocational choice2. Information and planning about a preferred occupation3. Consistency of vocational preference4. Crystallization of traits5. Vocational independence6. Wisdom of vocational preference

Career decision status is a specific aspect of career maturity, defined by the Career Decision Scales as certainty or indecision (CDS; Osipow, 1976, from Patton and Creed, 2001), making career maturity as a measure of readiness to make career decisions in the bases of attitudes toward and knowledge of career decision making (Powell and Luzzo, 1998, cited in Patton and Creed, 2001). Accordingly, the assessment of career indecision provides information about specific issues that might inhibit individuals in making career decisions, and the extent and nature of career indecision becoming a relevant aspect if career development maturity, would be a useful theoretical construct for providing a criterion index for the development and evaluation of career interventions.

Students would find career maturity beneficial since they are trying to lay a solid foundation for their future, and in relation to this, they become aware of different career decisions and choices they will have to make in the future (Henson, 2003).

227

Factors affecting career maturity

Studies done by Buchanan and Flouri (2002), Etzel and Kornspan (2001), Patton and Creed (2001), Rojewksi et.al (1995) identifies factors affecting career maturity.

Career maturity, a main concept in Super's theory, is manifested in the successful accomplishment of age and stage developmental tasks across the life span, it is also influenced by race and ethnicity, locus of control, work salience, and gender (Naidoo, 1998, in Patton and Creed, 2001). According to Patton and Creed (2001), the complex interaction of these factors affects an individual’s readiness to succeed in mastering the tasks appropriate to various stages of career development. Although, related literature and studies seem to contradict each other in terms of considering age as a dominant and significant factor for career maturity.

Vondracexk and Reitzle (1998, in Patton and Creed, 2001) criticizes on the focus of career maturity on the individual, its ties to developmental stage models, and its lack of inclusion of contexts of time and culture, thus suggesting that the identifiable age-related maturational regularities in career maturity might as well be also affected by other variables such as historical time, cultural and economic context and the individualization of educational pathways.

Theoretical assumptions suggest uniform development in career maturity, practical considerations such as planning activities needed for immediate decisions and transition points imposed by the education system suggest uneven development (Patton and Creed, 2001). Accordingly some researchers commented that career maturity may be more differentiated by grade rather than age due to the influence of the educational milieu as the primary agent of the development of career behavior and the grade-related career decisions students are required to make (Watson and Van Arde, 1986, in Patton and Creed, 2001). Another study by Powell and Luzzo (1998, from Patton and Creed, 2001) expresses that there is no relationship between age or grade of participants and their levels of career maturity. These may be due to different career programs of career development activities, perceptions of occupational opportunity and exposure to different alternatives available. Buchanan and Flouri (2002) states that age is positively related to career maturity however, in a research by Etzel and Kornspan (2001), results indicate that age is a significant variable to career maturity but is however a weak predictor of such.

A study done by Niece and Bradley (1979, from Patton, 2001), indicates that there is no consistent monitoring pattern across age and grade levels regarding certainty or indecision. However, a study done by Watson and Stead (1994, from Patton, 2001), provides the data that highlights transition points in career certainty, particularly in school based subject and course selection.

In a cross sectional research done by Patton and Creed (2001), data indicates a complex pattern in terms of career certainty. The pattern shows higher certainty at ages 13 and 14, and during the age of 15 there was a drop in certainty and an increase again by

228

age 16 which continues at 17 only for the males. In conclusion to the study, these transitions show that decisiveness is clearly affected by external pressures within the school system.

As to race and ethnicity being a factor to career maturity, a study done by West (1988) indicates that ethnic minority students often score as less career mature than non-minority comparison groups. In comparing the career maturity of rural youth and metropolitan based-youth Rojewski et.al (1995) identifies that the rural youth in the particular study were considerably less career mature than the group of metropolitan based adolescents, and considerably less mature in career competence as well that is explained by the role of discrimination, social attitude, cultural expectations, and stereotypes in career development. Conte (1983, Rojwesksi et.al) noted that negative cultural perceptions and social expectations can impose lower status and devalue the role of an individual resulting to limited career choices, restrictions in career opportunities and narrow employment possibilities.

Perron et. al. (1998, in Kerka, 1998) suggested that increased ethnic identity may lead to greater awareness of potential barriers lowering career maturity. Lundberg at. al. (1997, in Kerka, 1998) found out that Anglo ninth-graders had higher career maturity scores than Mexican – American students, which the researcher attributed to the limited access to information about the world of work. The study also concluded significant differences between the two groups on the Myers Brigss Type Indicator highlighting the influence of personality on career maturity.

In terms of socio-economic status, some studies fail to show that it has an influence on career maturity (Naido, 1998, in Kerka, 1998). However, according to Shaft (1997, in Kerka, 1998) concepts such as career exploration and planning may not apply to poor individuals who choose to leave school in order to take jobs for economic survival.

Existential Phenomenology and Human Behavior

Existentialism regards to the awareness of man to be aware of what he is and to take full responsibility of his existence (Sahakian and Sahakian, 1970). It opposes the Freudian concept of the Psyche. Therefore, the approval or tolerance of certain values imposed by the society is a free choice, when people live by these values and norms.

Rollo May (in De Avila, 1996) states that difficulty arises in being able to open our vision to more or human experience. The existentialist thought, conceives the idea that there are no set of standards for self-identity, either for individuals or people in general, so to say that there is no such thing as “human nature” providing to view the individual and the world they participate (De Avila, 1996).

Viktor Frankl (1984) introduced existential therapy to emphasize the concept of man’s search for meaning. For Frankl, the striving to find meaning in one’s life is the primary motivation of human beings. It concerns the individual to realize one’s worth,

229

conceptualize a goal in relation to one’s purpose and depicted meaning, which develops to actualization and achievement of these goals.

Existential therapy would therefore not attempt to find out repressed pain from the past, but rather deals with present anxieties that overcome an individual to cope with the difficulties in life (De Avila, 1996).

The Viktor Frankl Institute in 2006 identifies that in Logotherapy or Existential Analysis the search for a meaning in life is the primary motivational force in human beings. This kind of approach is based on three philosophical and psychological concepts namely: freedom of will, the will to meaning, and meaning in life. In freedom of will humans are not subjected to conditions but have the free decision and capable of taking a stand on different conditions. The will to meaning, is essentially every person’s motivation as seen to the desire of man to achieve goals and purposes. Lastly, the meaning in life sees the idea that meaning is an objective reality, in which logotherapy encourages man to develop the best in themselves and in the world by recognize and realize the meaning of each situation they are in.

Implications of Assessing Career Maturity

Henson (2003) states that the concept of career maturity simply implies an individual’s coping abilities to the world of work, and that assessing student’s career maturity is relevant because during that particular stage, students most especially are experimental in various aspects of their lives. Consequently, they are very concerned of their future careers, considering the fast changing career trends.

According to Gysbers (1988, from Umali, 2006) students have the following career developmental needs:

1. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to become aware of and develop their career (self) identity.

2. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to conceptualize students’ emerging career identity through continuous and sequential career exploration activities.

3. The need of improved and expanded opportunities to generalize emerging career identities through effective placement and follow-through adjustment activities.

These needs touches the absolute necessity of having a career guidance program that would benefit the students, in such a way that it would provide them with opportunities of developing themselves as complete individuals as they are equipped with the proper skills and knowledge on how to achieve their goals as they continuously cope with the fast changing industry while demonstrating competitiveness and competence.

Career maturity being the repertoire of coping behaviors and one’s readiness to employ these behaviors toward career-related events encountered at various life stages (Rojewski et.al, 1995) would then be a useful measure for career guidance.

230

Several studies assessing career maturity focused mainly on age, gender and other psychological factors. Jepsen (2003) suggests using interventions that are designed to stimulate public career exploration activity and clear expressions of occupational choices or goals such as career counseling interventions, and other simulations.

Synthesis

The route to lasting change and getting what you really want in life is through a sustained vision of the future (Marano, 2002). A clear vision of a future one desires serves as a positive motivation, as one already has a clear definition of what he wants. People can easily get somewhere when they have a clear plan or path to take to get there.

Career decisions involve a process and certain factors like ability, potential and likewise interest (Kelly, 1996 in Greene, 2002) and career maturity would be an essential factor into getting oneself to that desired future. The problem now lies on how to establish the career maturity of a person to make appropriate career decisions and help them develop themselves and reach their full potential.

According to Mores (2006), Vision therapy combines the construct of cognitive behavior therapy and existential therapy. It allows the individual to reconsider himself and provide a clear picture of what he is, in the past and in the present and what he wants to be in the future. It responds to the individual’s needs of finding the meaning of one’s life, by seeking out the negative thoughts and values one believes into and reconstructs these negative feelings and behavior to achieve positive outcome. By engaging to this realization, a person thus becomes aware of certain obstacles and in turn figures out ways on how to solve them in order to achieve the desired outcome. Vision therapy is about realizing the responsibilities and purpose that lies within the understanding of one’s meaning in life.

Career Maturity projects a person’s capability to handle and make proper decisions regarding his career (Henson, 2003). This is reflected by a person’s preparedness to engage in the diverse and challenging world of work. Having a high level of career maturity would then imply that a person is competitive and equipped with the proper skills.

Career maturity implies that a person is able to cope with the developmental tasks as they are able to make appropriate decisions in terms of their careers as well as preparing for a career. The relevance of assessing career maturity would mainly project the individual’s capacity to succeed in a career and give direction to one’s life.

Studies indicate a complex pattern of different variables that may affect the levels of career maturity. However, researchers suggest using interventions that would stimulate the individual to increase one’s level of career maturity (Legum, 2004).

231


Vision therapy is a “therapy through meaning”. Its aim is to assist individuals find meaning and direction in their life, by taking into consideration their wrong beliefs that hinder growth which is focused on values and self-affirmation. It is focused on enabling the patients or clients to overcome life's "tragic triad" of pain, guilt, and suffering by "helping [them] see meaning in life" (Frankl, 1997, from Carden, 2003, in Mores, 2006).

The assumption and thesis of vision therapy is that each of us has unique and highly personalized perception of reality, a way of look at things, a vision (Powell, 1976, in Mores, 2006). By this, people look at their lives differently, as such defining a certain idea or goal that one assumes to caress in the future.

Theoretical bases for vision therapy include cognitive behavior therapy and existential therapy (Mores, 2006).

For Hardin (1999, in Mores, 2006), the basic premise of cognitive behavior therapy is negative thoughts lead to uncomfortable emotions that lead to ineffective or self-destructive behaviors. Cognitive behavior therapy supposes that misconceptions and wrong beliefs result to feelings of unhappiness, and that when these wrong beliefs are modified; a person would be able to utilize his full potential and achieve more in life.

According to Atkinson et.al. (2000), cognitive behavior therapy is a general term for treatment methods that use behavior modification techniques as well as procedures that are designed to change maladaptive behaviors. It involves recognition of unhealthy or unhelpful patterns of behavior including thoughts and emotions and attempts to modify or formulate alternative ways to replace these misconceptions with realistic ones in order to overcome troubling thoughts, feeling, and behavior

Cognitive behavioral therapy takes into consideration of the everyday observation that people respond differently to the same situation (Scott et. al., 1995). Beck et. al, (1979, from Scott et. al., 1995) explains that an individual’s interpretation of a situation has a major influence on his or her subsequent emotions and behavior, and that the primary task in cognitive behavior therapy is to help clients see whether they are making the most adaptive and rational interpretation of a situation engaging them in behaviors consistent with a new interpretation of events.

232

Existentialism on the other hand supposes that individuals are not the victims of circumstances, because to a large extent they are what they choose to be (Corey, 1996, from Mores, 2006). It predisposes the individuals fight or flight response to the situations which they encounter. Having the choice to act as such lies on how a person sees himself in the situation he is facing and that these actions are not merely forced by certain factors that leaves a person having with no choice at all. Existential analysis tries to make the patient fully aware of his responsibilities, leaving him with the option for what, to what, or to whom he understands himself to be responsible (Frankl, 1984). Awareness to responsibility then reflects the search for the meaning of life.

Vision therapy converge cognitive behavior therapy and existential therapy to better understand the self, to realize how a person can improve himself to be able to reach or achieve what he desires.

Figure 1. Theoretical Bases of Vision TherapyBy Mores, E.T., MA. (2006)

ExistentialTherapy

Vision Therapy

Existential MeaningGoal Setting

Creative Visualization

Cognitive Disputation

Values Clarification

Positive Self-Affirmation

Cognitive Behavior Therapy

233


Career maturity is the readiness of individuals to make decisions related to their career and their capacity to deal with environmental demands (Henson, 2003). Career maturity describes one’s ability to successfully cope with vocational developmental tasks such as crystallizing, specifying and implementing career choices that are encountered across the developmental continuum from exploration stage to the stage of withdrawal (Rojewski et. al, 1995).

Career maturity refers broadly to the individual’s ability to make appropriate career choices, including awareness of what is required to make a career decision which is both realistic and consistent over time (Lewinson et. al, 1998, in Patton and Creed, 2001)Career maturity identifies the development of individuals in terms of making appropriate decisions to achieve their career goals.

In combining the efforts of vision therapy and counseling there is an attempt to converge strategies to assist individuals who are struggling to find meaning and direction in life (Mores, 2006). Vision therapy is a way to help individuals achieve their goals by realizing their full potential, reaffirming their values and as well as having good dispositions in life.

Vision therapy incorporates the concepts and techniques of existential meaning, creative visualization, cognitive disputation, values clarification and positive self-affirmation. Each technique having specific objectives (Mores, 2006):

1. Existential meaning aims to help the clients understand, acquire and appreciate the value of having meaning in life as a tool for effective living.

2. Creative Visualization enables the person to learn how to focus on their goals as they see these goals come true using their imagination.

3. Cognitive Disputation aims to help the clients recognize their irrational beliefs that thwart their personal development, as well as to examine their frame of reference a seeing reality as well as their belief system with end view of changing it with something positive. This technique helps the person face negative beliefs for him to have a more healthy perception of himself.

4. Values formation seeks of helping the individual learn the importance of values in life, re-examine the values he presently upholds. It is a tool that would help the person clarify and choose alternatives and decide on what has meaning to him.

5. Positive Self-Affirmation aims to build and enhance the self – esteem and self image of a person, to recognize one’s strengths and abilities allowing the person to select quality thoughts and implants them to the subconscious so that one can feel and perform better. It gives opportunity to the person to be able to do the best and be the best he can.

234

Conceptual Paradigm:

Figure 2. Factors affecting Career Maturity

Figure 2 shows the factors affecting career maturity. The researcher intends to determine whether an intervention which is vision therapy would contribute to the levels of career maturity.

Related literature suggests using interventions that are designed to stimulate public career exploration activity and clear expressions of occupational choices or goals such as career counseling interventions, and other simulations Jepsen (2003). Findings of Legum (2004) indicate an increase in career awareness and competency levels subsequent to a career intervention, which through a weekly class one period a day for nine weeks. Such findings are consistent with previous studies done such as Outen (1995) (in Legum, 2004) and OBrien et.al (1999) (in Legum, 2004). Powell and Luzzo (1998, from Patton, 2001) suggests that other aspects that can contribute to career maturity would be programs of career development activities, perceptions of occupational opportunity and exposure to different career alternatives available. It could be noted that these three aspects lies on the basic premise of vision therapy.

Using vision therapy as a form of intervention would possibly answer the limitations of previous studies that intended to assess career maturity in terms of demographic and psychological factors. This study assumes that vision therapy would result to an increase in the levels of career maturity based on the premise that it promotes realization through insights, therapy outputs, setting of clearer goals and determining obstacles, therefore making the individual prepared in the future. This study is set forth to integrate vision therapy and career maturity and see the implication of such effort.

Vision Therapy

CAREER MATURITY

Work SalienceLocus of control

Age Gender

Race and Ethnicity

235

Method

Participants

The participants for this study were a total of thirty (30) freshmen college students, currently enrolled in San Beda College Alabang, age ranges from sixteen to eighteen (16 - 18). The participants were pre- selected students and assigned in random into control group (15 participants) and experimental group (15 participants).

Age Distribution of the Control Group of Respondents

4, 27%

6, 40%

5, 33% sixteen (16)

seventeen (17)

eighteen (18)

Figure 3. Graph of the age distribution of participants in the control group

Figure 3 represents the age distribution of the control group. It is evident that the distribution of age is almost in equal proportion. 33% of the respondents are aged eighteen (18), 40% are seventeen (17) and 27% are sixteen (16).

Age Distribution of the Experimental Group of Respondents

5, 33%

6, 40%

4, 27%sixteen (16)

seventeen (17)

eighteen (18)

Figure 4. Graph of the age distribution of participants in the experimental group

Similar in the experimental group, age is in equal distribution. 27% of the respondents are aged eighteen (18), 40% are seventeen (17), and 33% are sixteen (16). The ages of all respondents are balanced in distribution to both control group and experimental group. The figure above represents the distribution of age of the experimental group participants.

236

Gender Distribution of the Control Group

11, 73%

4, 27%

Male

Female

Figure 5. Graph of the gender distribution of participants in the control group

The figure above represents the gender distribution of the participants in the control group. It is evident that the males which are 78% of the sample are in greater number compared to the females which is only 27%.

Gender Distribution of the Experimental Group

8, 53%7, 47%

Male

Female

Figure 6. Graph of the gender distribution of participants in the experimental group

In the experimental group however, the distribution of gender of the sample respondents are almost equal. The experimental group composed of 53% males and 47% females. Figure 6 represents the gender distribution of the participants in the experimental group.


The Career Maturity Assessment is a 40 – item test, developed and validated by the researcher using the sub-scales (CMI Attitude Scale and CMI Competence Scale) of the Career Maturity Inventory (CMI; Crites, 1978, from Rojewksi et.al., 1995). The reliability value of the Career Maturity Assessment is .903 and a .773 validity coefficient. The measures career maturity based on attitudes and competence. The test uses a 4-point

237

Lickert scale, equivalent to (1) strongly disagree, (2) agree, (3) disagree, and (4) strongly agree.

The Vision Therapy Seminar/Workshop Module by Mores (2006) which composes of different techniques was adopted as a guide in conducting the therapy sessions.

Standardized equipment includes a consent form indicating the purpose of the study, and a journal for each of the participants belonging in the experimental group for writing in reflections and personal realizations after each therapy session.

Research Design

The researcher applied quantitative data analysis for the purpose of this study. The changes in the level of career maturity was measured and compared before and after the introduction of vision therapy. Using the two group design, participants were assigned to either control or experimental group, the researcher aimed to determine whether there is a significant difference in the level of career maturity of the control and experimental groups before and after the intervention. The control group did not undergo vision therapy while the experimental group went through the therapy process. A pre-test and post test was administered to both groups of participants in determining the effect of vision therapy to the levels of career maturity.

Procedures

The study consisted of three phases. The first phase includes the orientation and briefing of the participants in both groups explaining the nature and flow of the experiment and the measures that will be taken up during the entire procedure of the study and the gathering of personal data through a Demographic Information Sheet and the assessment of career maturity of both control and experimental groups.

The second phase constitutes the therapy sessions, wherein participants of the experimental group will undergo vision therapy. Each participant was provided with a journal to write on exercise outputs during therapy sessions as well as their views, insights, realizations after each session. Unlike the experimental group, the control group was not exposed to vision therapy or any other variable.

The 2 –week intervention is composed of 15 therapy sessions on a daily basis for 15 days with 30 minutes allotted per session. A life satisfaction quiz is taken as a precursor at the start of the therapy session. Exercises and activities include triadic sharing, listening tasks, relaxation and visual imagination techniques and reflections writing.

The third phase is the post assessment of the career maturity of all participants (control and experimental group) 10 days after the last therapy session.

238

Data Analysis

In analyzing the effect of vision therapy on the career maturity of the students, the researcher used a T-test for two dependent samples to compare the career maturity of both control and experimental groups prior and subsequent to the vision therapy sessions. Likewise, in order to determine whether there is a difference in the career maturity of the control and experimental groups a T-test comparing two independent samples was computed. The levels of significance are set at 0.05 (two-tailed).

239

Results

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF BOTH GROUPS(Pre-Assessment)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Levels of Career Maturity

PRETEST Control Group

PRETEST ExperimentalGroup

Figure 7. Graph of Pre-test score results of both groups

Figure 7 shows the initial levels of career maturity of the both control and experimental groups gathered during the first phase of the study. The distribution of the levels of career maturity indicates that a high frequency of the respondents reflects to a moderately high level of career maturity indicating that they are in track on terms of having the right frame of mind in pursuing a career that best suits their interests and ability to perform certain tasks required in achieving such career goals.

A t-test for two independent samples was used to analyze the difference between the career maturity levels of the control and experimental groups. Results yielded a value of t (30) = 6.33, p<.05showing that there is no statistically significant difference in the levels of career maturity of both groups before the intervention. Thus, indicating that there is equivalence between the control and experimental group of respondents based on their scores in the pre-test phase of the study.

240

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF BOTH GROUPS(Post -Assessment)

02468

101214


POST TEST Control Group

POST TEST ExperimentalGroup

Figure 8. Graph of Post-assessment scores of both group

The figure above represents the levels of career maturity of both control and experimental group gathered after the completion of the second phase of the study. The graphic representation reflects that there is no extreme differential between the levels of career maturity of the both groups after the exposure of the experimental group to Vision therapy aside from the observation that some respondents belonging to the experimental group had high levels of career maturity compared to the average levels of those belonging to the control group.

When the value of t was computed it yielded t (30) = 3.24, p<.05. Such value indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in the career maturity scores between the two groups even after the additional process the experimental group went through which is Vision therapy.

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF THE CONTROL GROUP OF RESPONDENTS

02468

101214


CONTROL GROUP Pre-assessment

CONTROL GROUP Post-assessment

Figure 9. Graph of the Levels of Career Maturity of the Control Group

Accordingly, a t-test for two dependent samples was used to compare the levels of career maturity of both groups before and after the intervention. The control group not

241

undergoing vision therapy yielded a value of t (15) = .38, p<.05 indicating no significant difference in the scores of the respondents. However, the graphical representation indicates that there is an increase within the moderately high level and decrease in the average level of career maturity, although the group was not exposed to any other variable in the process of the study. Figure 9 represents the Career Maturity levels of the control group both in the pre-assessment and post-assessment.

Figure 10. Graph of the Levels of Career Maturity of the Experimental Group

The figure above represents the levels of Career Maturity of the experimental group before and after the therapy. When the value of t was computed using two-dependent samples it yielded a value of t (15) = .39, p<.05 indicating that there is no significant difference in the level of career maturity of the respondents before and after the therapy. The researcher observed that in the graphical representation of career maturity shows it reflects that there is an inconsistency with the scores of the respondents indicating that there are changes in the levels of career maturity but such changes are not evident when computed on statistical analysis.

Such observation could have been affected by the number of sessions completed by each of the participants. Out of the fifteen pre-selected participants in the experimental group, eight were able to complete the 15 sessions, three were able to attend 10 sessions, and the four were only able to attend half of the required number of sessions. The attitudes and behavior of the selected participants towards the experiment and its procedure is a crucial factor as well. How well they relate to the procedure, how interested they are in participating in the study, how well they understand the crucial pre-test and post test phase of the study and how honest they are in answering the Career Maturity Assessment.

LEVELS OF CAREER MATURITY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP OF RESPONDENTS

02

46

810

1214


EXPERIMENTAL GROUPPre-Assessment

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPPost-Assessment

242

Discussion

The focus of this study if to assess the levels of career maturity of selected freshmen students and introduce an intervention in the form of vision therapy and measure if such intervention would result to an increase in career maturity. This particular research is a collaboration of the concepts of career maturity and vision therapy which aims to assist students in evaluating themselves and assess their preparedness for work.

Results indicate that there are no significant differences in the levels of career maturity of both control and experimental groups in the pre-test phase of the study. The career maturity of the control group was assessed twice in order to determine if such variable would differ. Results indicate that the levels of career maturity of the control group had no significant difference after the completion of the whole duration of the study.

COMPARISON OF MEANS ( x ) OF BOTH GROUPS

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Pre-asssessment Post-assessment

Experimental Group

Control Goup

Figure 11. Graph of Comparison of Means of Both Groups of Respondents

Figure 11 shows the comparison of means of the two groups in the pre-assessment and post-assessment phase of the study. The figure represents parallelism indicating that there is no significant difference in the levels of career maturity between the groups before and after the intervention.

Likewise, the results of assessment of the levels of career maturity of the experimental group indicate that there is no statistical significant difference in the scores of the group. Such results mean that career maturity would not have readily increased given a short period of intervention.

Career maturity is said to be affected by many factors. The researcher tried to assess whether the introduction of Vision therapy would result to an increase or change in the levels of career maturity. Crites (1976, from Patton and Creed, 2001) states that

243

career maturity is central to a developmental approach to understanding career behavior and involves am assessment of an individual’s level of career progress in relation to his or her career-relevant developmental tasks. Career development is said to be a life-long process. As such, the short period allotted for Vision therapy in this particular study did not necessarily result to increased levels of career maturity.


This study is limited to assessing career maturity and the possible change in the levels of career maturity with the introduction of Vision therapy. Results indicate that the respondents acquire moderately high to high levels of career maturity even before the intervention. Likewise, when career maturity is re-assessed to find out whether there is a significant change before and after the intervention, results indicate that there was none. Such findings are consistent with previous researches done.

This study identified that career maturity would have not necessary change or increase within a short period of time even with the introduction or injection of an intervention. It supports the theory that career development is a lifelong process.

Given that the effect of Vision therapy to the career maturity of the respondents would not have easily be or manifested in a short period of time. The bulk of the success of this particular study relies on the active cooperation and participation of the selected respondents, more importantly those belonging to the experimental group. The researcher observed that though they reflect high levels of career maturity its behavioral manifestation in terms of attitude and motivation, and actual performance is not observed during the duration if the study.

The researcher suggests for further studies to have career interventions that are developmental in nature and not but only a short term process in order to fully help the individual attain and fulfill self-growth and enhancement. Also, since the sessions are based on the availability of the respondents, it is suggested to conduct the experiment or the process in a more controlled environment having all respondents in one session to avoid other extraneous variables that might have affected in the results of the study. Likewise, the researcher suggests assessing the relationship of career maturity to the actual academic performance of students.

244

References

Atkinson, Rita L., et. al (2000). Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology. 13th Edition. Wadsworth Group. 577 – 580.

Barnes, Paul E. and Carter, David (2000). Assessing Student Career Maturity: Implications for School Counselors. from http://www.ohiocounselingassoc.com retrieved July 28, 2006

Buchanan A. and Flouri E. (2002) The role of work-related skills and career role models in adolescent career maturity - Special Section: Adolescent. Career Development. Career Development Quarterly from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAX/is_1_51/ai_92036445 retrieved July 28, 2006

Cramer, Kenneth M., and Perreault, Lynn A.(2006). Effects of Predictability, Actual Controllability, and Awareness of Choice on Perceptions of Control. Current Research in Social Psychology, Vol. 11, Number 8, 111 – 126 from http://www.uiowa.edu. retrieved June 20, 2006.

De Avila, Diana Teresa. (1996). Existential Psychology, Logotheraphy and the Will to Meaning. from http://www.existential-psychology.net/exist.html. retrieved July 21, 2006

Etzel E. and Kornspan A. (2001). The relationship of demographic and psychological variables to career maturity of junior college student-athletes. Journal of College Student Development. from http://calbears.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3752/is_200103/ai_n8948278 retrieved October 11, 2006

Frankl, V.E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Press.

Greene, Meredith J. (2002). Recurring Themes in Career Counseling of Gifted and Talented Students. from http://www.gifted.ucon.edu/nrcgt/newsletter/spring02/sprng022.html. retrieved August 2, 2006.

Henson, Rhia Marie S. (2003). Development of a Career Maturity Inventory Based on Selected College Students and Professionals. Unpublished Thesis, San Beda College Alabang.

Janda, Louis Ph. D. (2004). Are you happy?: 24 self-tests to assess your happiness. Penguin Group Inc. 78 – 85.

245

Jepsen, David A. (2003). Continuity in life-span career development: career exploration as a precursor to career establishment. Career Development Quarterly. from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_M0JAX/is_2_8/ai_100389275. retrieved October 11, 2006.

Kerka, Sandra. (1998). Career Development and Gender, Race and Class. From http://library.educatiojworld.net/a2/a2-17.html retrieved July 28, 2006.

Langlois, M. W., et. al. (2002). Delineating the unique effects of predictability, controllability and choice in perceptions of control. Current Research in Social Psychology, Vol. 9, 163 – 181. from http://www.uiowa.edu. retrieved June 20, 2006.

Legum, Harry L. (2004). Impact of a career intervention on at-risk middle school student’s career maturity levels, academic achievement and self esteem. from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_M0KOC/is_2_8/ai_n8580066 retrieved October 11, 2006.

Marano, Hara Estroff (2002) Lasting Change. Psychology Today Online.

Mores, Elmerando, M.A. (2006). Junior Career Development Association of the Philippines: Second General Convention Seminar – Workshop. Theme: Vision Therapy: “Becoming Fully Human, Fully Alive, Living My Vision into Reality”. July 20, 2006

Patton, Wendy and Creed Peter. (2001).Developmental Issues in Career Maturity and Career Decision Status. Career Development Quarterly. from

http://www.allbusiness.com/periodicals/article/828307-1.html. retrieved July 28, 2006

Rojewski, Jay W. et. al., (1995). Effects of Gender and Academis Risk Behavior on the Career Maturity of Rural Youth. Journal of Research in Rural Education. Vol. 11. No. 2,1. from http://arches.uga.edu/~wickone/research/EFECTS.html retrieved July 28, 2006

Sahakian, William S. and Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. (1970). Realms of Philosophy. Philippine Copyright. Schenkman Publishing Company Inc. 562 – 578.

Scott, Michael J. et. al., (1995). Developing Cognitive Behavioral Counselling. Sage Publications.

Talusig, Dianne Lou T. (2005). Career Tracer Study on College Graduates of San Beda College Alabang. Unpublished Thesis, San Beda College Alabang.

246

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_M0KOC/is_2_8/ai_n8580066

http://www.uiowa.edu/

Umali, Conchita Ph.D. (2006). Career Development Association of the Philippines Annual Convention Seminar: Re-thinking the role of Counselors as Career Development Practicioners. September 22, 2006.

Viktor Frankl Institute. What is Logotherapy and Existential Analysis? from http://logotherapy.univie.ac.at/e/logotherapy.html. retrieved August 3, 2006.

West, Dennis K. (1988). Comparisons of Career Maturity and its Relationship with Aacademic Performance. Journal of American Indian Education. Vol. 23. No. 3. from http://jaie.asu.edu/v27/v27s3.htm. retrieved July 28, 2006

247

The Psychological Effects on Early Pregnancy on Teenage Mothers

Ma. Isabel P. Velayo

This study was about the emotional and mental effects of early pregnancy on the teenager’s mother by having a personal interview with three (3) female respondents aged 38 – 56. It was to identify the mother’s social relationship and perception in handling and working out their emotions in going through the situation of their teens. This involved the demographic profile of the three respondents and the information concerning the different psychological effects of early pregnancy on them. The three mothers may have different initial reactions in learning that their daughter was pregnant. They were angry or disappointed at first, but they had the strength in setting aside their feelings to support their daughter’s early pregnancy. These mothers had the protective factors in keeping their families whole in spite of their condition. They communicated with their daughters and other family members as well, and had a positive attitude of hope to buffer this trial from family crisis.

Teenage pregnancy in the Philippines is increasingly becoming a major cause of concern. There is a rising trend of young women becoming mothers and majority of whom are unmarried. Young pregnant women are more vulnerable to death during pregnancy while childbirth and a huge number are not physically and emotionally prepared for motherhood. This is a direct reflection that there is inadequate and inaccurate information on adolescent pregnancy and not enough priority is given to maternal and child health care. (The Fair and Fearless Freeman: Teenage Pregnancy, a rising trend among young women, 2005)

If pregnancy occurs, teenagers and their families deserve honest and sensitive counseling about options available to them, from abortion to adoption. Special support systems, including consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist when needed, should be available to help the teenager throughout the pregnancy, the birth, and the decision about whether to keep the infant or give it up for adoption. There may be times when the pregnant teenager's emotional reactions and mental state will require referral to a qualified mental health professional (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: When Children Have Children, 2004).

The ability to talk openly about problems is one of the most important aspects of the parent and child relationship. Developing this relationship and open communication takes time, persistence, and understanding. The relationship develops gradually by spending time with the child. Meal times, story telling, reading, playing games, outings, vacations, and celebrations are important opportunities for parents to spend time with their child. Parents should also try to spend some individual time with each child, particularly when talking about difficult or upsetting things. This relationship creates the foundation for talking with the child when struggles and conflicts emerge during adolescence (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Parenting: Preparing for Adolescence, 2001)

Whatever feelings you're experiencing, this is likely to be a difficult time for your family. The important thing to realize is that your teen needs you now more than ever. Being able to communicate with each other - especially when emotions are running high -

248

is essential. Teens who are carrying a baby to term have special health concerns, and your child will have a healthier pregnancy - emotionally and physically - if she knows she doesn't have to go it alone (Homeier, 2005).

While this fact isn’t fully discuss yet, the researcher would attempt to illustrate more of the psychological effects of early pregnancy on three (3) teenager’s mother aged 38 – 56 from the City of Las Piñas. The main objective of the study is to consider the mental and emotional behavior of the mothers all through out the pregnancy of the teenager. It is to include the details like what are the mother’s initial reactions upon knowing, the actions they went through, how this situation affected the whole family, and the emotional and mental effects they have gone throughout the pregnancy.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Teenage Pregnancy comprises a series of crisis, trials and action. This review of research evidence was arranged from the teen sexual activity, teen pregnancy, role of mothers, and family problem.

Teen Sexual Activity

According to Guttmacher (1999), the likelihood of teenagers' having intercourse increases with age; however, about 1 in 5 young people do not have intercourse while teenagers.

Based on Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study (2004), a number of young adults also experienced reproductive health problems and symptoms. Nineteen percent of young females said they have experienced painful urination while 6% have had abnormal vaginal discharges. Three percent of males said they have had penile discharges, 23% have had painful urination, and 3% have had warts or ulcers in their penis.

Raymundo and Lusterio (1995) found 18 percent of the youth (26% of the boys and 10% of the girls) all over the country have had pre]-marital sex experience.

Derived from Alan Guttmacher Institute," Sex and America's Teenagers (1994), More than half of 17-year-olds have had intercourse. Most young people begin having sex in their mid-to-late teens, about 8 years before they marry.

As said by Moore KA et al. (1998), while 93% of teenage women report that their first intercourse was voluntary, one-quarter of these young women report that it was unwanted.

Teen Pregnancy

Teenage pregnancy itself is perceived by our society as a deviation from normal. It has been placed alongside drug abuse and crime on Government initiative agendas (Mowlam, 2000; Gilham, 1997).

249

As stated by (Baker, 1999) this overt pathologisation reinforces a culture of disapproval of teenage pregnancy; having babies when you are young is seen as a bad thing

In line with Guttmacher, Teen Sex Overview: Teen Pregnancy (1999), Each year, almost 1 million teenage women--10% of all women aged 15-19 and 19% of those who have had sexual intercourse--become pregnant.

According to Henshaw, S.K. (1998), data from the mid-1990s indicate that 43 percent of pregnancies to teens aged 15-19 ended in unintended births and another 35 percent ended in abortions.

Maynard, R. (Ed.) (1997) said, mothers who do have a teen birth are more disadvantaged, on average, than are other teens and have children who face negative health, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes.

Teenage pregnancy is also linked with low educational achievement, non-participation in education, training or employment, sexual abuse, mental health problems and crime (Social Exclusion Unit, 1999).

Role of Mothers

Parents are given little advice on how to talk with their children about sex and school-based sex education is patchy and often under-developed and inconsistent. As a result there is a considerable amount of misinformation and ignorance among youths about sex, and how to cope with puberty and adolescence (Social Exclusion Unit, 1999).

According to Homeier, M.D (2005), whatever feelings you’re experiencing; this is likely to be a difficult time for your family. The important thing to realize your teen needs you now more than ever. Being able to communicate with each other – especially when emotions are running high – is essential.

Based on Children's Defense Fund (1996), that is, the challenges of adolescence derive from the fact that youth today are both in need of parenting that promotes their positive development and, at the same time, historically unprecedented numbers of adolescents are themselves becoming parents and, typically, unmarried parents.

250

Family Problem

The degree to which these families and their children are able to manage such stressors is likely to affect their level of adjustment according to Kazak, Segal-Andrews, & Johnson (1995).

Based on Melamed (1991) Families with children who have chronic illnesses or physical disabilities face multiple burdens due to frequent hospitalizations, financial strain, time-consuming medical regimens, and other stressors.

McGreW (1991) stated, The teenagers' parents are often thrust into the role of raising two children--the teenager and his or her child. Further, they find themselves stressed emotionally and economically at a time when they were looking forward to their children becoming self-sufficient.

251


Fig. 1. HILL'S ABCX MODEL OF FAMILY STRESS

The two protective factors helps to buffer the family from acute stressor and diminish the relationship between stressors and family crisis. Social relationships are further distinguished as being within family variables, e.g. attachment, positive family bonds, effective communication, as well as across family variables: i.e. social isolation vs. informal and formal social support networks; Perceptions (C Factor) include the range in cognitions and attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness vs. despair, and helplessness. These two complex factors relate together with the acute stressors and ongoing social context of chronic stressors, to predict family crises.

PROTECTIVE FACTOR ( Social Relationship)(B) Attachment, positive family bonds, effective communication, social relationships

PROTECTIVE FACTOR ( Perception)(C) cognitions and attitudes between

hope and personal effectivenessvs. despair, helplessness

FAMILY STRESSORA) Depression, arguments,never have time to relax, seldom talk about the feelings, stress at work, stress at school, trivialize, single parent, teenage pregnancy

FAMILY CRISIS(X) domestic violence, substance abuse (relapses), illness from weakened immune system, accidents, death

252


Teen pregnancy became known to be one of the most serious social problems in the whole world. The youths today are at high risk of becoming an early and immature parent who are expose to a malevolent behaviors. This issue was a severe family stressor that may quickly lead to a family crisis. The researcher studied the psychological effects it brings about to the mother.

This conceptual paradigm illustrated the factors affecting teen pregnancy and the psychological effects of this concern the mothers.

Individuals who experienced too many stressors at one time, i.e., too many changes in their daily routines and circumstances, are at increased risk within one year for having an accident, for becoming physically ill (Ell, 1984), for having an impaired immune system, for becoming violent, or for relapsing (Pianta, Egeland and Sroufe, 1990; Rutter, 1983). An acute family stressor came quickly to a family crisis. These family crises included domestic violence, substance abuse, and illness from weakened immune systems, divorce, accidents, and children being abused or neglected.

Hill’s theoretical constructs included the protective factors in surviving multiple contextual stressors and continued proficiently parent despite chronic and acute stressors. The two protective factors included the social relationships, which distinguished as being with in the family variables like attachment, positive family bonds, effective communication and the social isolation vs. informal and formal social support networks.

The other factor was the perception in which it ranges in the cognitions and attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness vs. despair and helplessness. These two complex variables were theorized to buffer the family from acute stressors and reduced the direct correlation between multiple stressors and family crisis.

Research studies have since offered support for Hill and McCubbin's theoretical constructs. The combination of high stress with social isolation (the "B" variable) for families has been highly correlated with many forms of dysfunctional family outcomes (Garbarino and Abramowitz, 1982; Belle, 1980; Cyrnic, Greenberg, Robinson and Ragozin, 1984; Egeland, Breitenbucher and Rosenberg, 1980; Ell, 1984; Lindblad-Goldberg, 1987; Marks and McLanahan, 1993; Simons, Beaman, Conger and Chao, 1993; Tracy, 1990; Wahler, 1983). The “B” variable that is social relationships must be important especially for an individual who are undergoing stress. Social isolation means the increase in the impact of multiple stresses of family functioning.

253

If a family experiences multiple stressors AND 1) they are socially isolated and emotionally disconnected to one another, AND 2) they are depressed, hopeless, and disempowered, THEN they will be at increased risk for illness, accidents, child abuse and neglect, and substance abuse, delinquency and school failure (Attneave, 1986; Belle, 1980). The content of the concept explained that an individual who were in high pressure and anxiety and did not find positive relationships with his family were at increased risk for experiencing aggravated family crisis.

Some families had positive appraisals towards the problem, which increase their ability to accept their circumstances. A family that shared perception about the stressor prevented them from opposing a family crisis. They have positive set of cognitions, empowered attitudes and active informal and formal support network. In this way, there would be a reduction in a stressful life experiences.

Since the world today is a place of evil temptations, the families of high-risk youth must identify, understand and strengthen family protective factors. There must be a positive social connections and empowered outlook. In addition, the family together with the youth survived the multiple chronic and acute stressed of poverty and neighborhood disorganization over time to reduce their drug dependency and associated crime.

Positive bonds and social relationships (B Factor) are directly promoted on six distinct levels of the child's social ecology (Bronfenbrenner; Garbarino). This idea refers to the child-to-parent bond, family units bonds, parent-to-parent bond, parent-to-self-help group bond, parent affiliation to school and parent linkages to community.

Interactive activities within the family, like eating meals together, attending mass every Sunday, vacations, playing game board, watching movies etc. decreases the influence of family stress on the family functioning.

254


Demographic Profile

Case # 1: Mrs. AAge: 46Religion: CatholicOccupation: Government EmployeeCivil Status: MarriedDaughter’s age when she got pregnant: 18

Case # 2: Mrs. BAge: 56Religion: ChristianOccupation: HomemakerCivil Status: MarriedDaughter’s age when she got pregnant: 17

Case #3: Mrs. CAge: 38Religion: CatholicOccupation: HomemakerCivil Status: MarriedDaughter’s age when she got pregnant: 17

Psychological Effects of Teenage Pregnancy on Mothers

Professor Reuben Hill’s theoretical constructs included the protective factor to survive multiple contextual stressors and to continue to proficiently parent despite chronic and acute stressors. The two protective factors included the social relationships and the perception.

According to Reuben Hill (1983), social relationships were distinguished as being within the family variables; examples are attachment, positive family bonds, effective communication as well as across family variables: that is the social isolation versus informal and formal social support networks. Perceptions in contrast, included the range in cognitions and attitudes between hope and personal effectiveness versus despair, and helplessness.

Mrs. A remembered she had the “mother instinct” that something’s wrong with her daughter; “Napapansin ko na lagi siyang malungkot at laging maga ang mata” (I have observed that she was always sad and have bloated eyes).

255

Her intuition became stronger when she found out a Sytotec in her daughter’s room. This was the time she already confronted her daughter and asked if she’s pregnant. “Hindi ako nagalit sa anak ko, nagalit ako sa nangyari sa kanya” ( I did not get angry to my daughter, I was angry for what happened to her), exclaimed Mrs. A. However, she was very down and disappointed with what happened to her daughter, since she gave her everything she wants; “Ni hindi siya sakin nakatikim ng sampal o ano” (I never get aggressive nor physical with her). In the course of the interview, I saw and felt how low Mrs. A was during those times.

In spite of how sad Mrs. A was, she accepted the situation and showed her concern. “Kung may baby na talaga yan, kelangan na niya ng medical attention para maalagaan siya at hindi naman siya lumabas na kung ano” (If you’re already carrying a baby, you should receive medical attention to make sure the baby will be given special medical treatment). She also explained to her daughter that she may hear negative things from other people, “Marami kang maririnig na sabi-sabi ng mga tao, ng mga kapitbahay, huwag mo isipin yun, ang importante andito kame sa likod mo, at alagaan mo yang asa tiyan mo, dahil magka-diperensiya yan problema pa rin natin lahat yan” (You may hear a lot of things and comments from other people, you should not be bothered, what’s important, were hear to support you and you must take care of your baby inside your tummy).

Another thing that concerned Mrs. A was the fear that her daughter may not be able to finish her studies. Yet this fear was gone when she saw her daughter exerting effort in going to school everyday though her stomach was getting bigger; “Na ano naman ako sa kanya dahil pumapasok pa siya, hindi siya nahiya, wala siyang ni-reklamo sakin” ( I appreciated her effort to continue her studies, she was not ashamed and she never complained anything).

Mrs. A evoked that she was sure not to allow her daughter to receive the sacrament of Matrimony. “Iniisip ko kasi pano kung hindi sila mag-click, papaano na, ang hirap hirap magpa- annul ng marriage, tsaka magkakaroon ng psychological effect, aksidente yan at pareha pa silang bata” (I imagine if they did not get along, it’s hard to have an annulment and it may bring psychological effects on them, it was an accident and they were still very young) explained Mrs. A.

In the flow of the interview, I know Mrs. A was still confused during that time yet she handled her emotions well because she had the positive attitude and perception towards the problem. She also said that she knows how her daughter feels since she also got pregnant outside marriage.

Like what Prof. Hill points out, Mrs. A obtained the two protective factors to reduce the correlation between the stressor and family crisis. Mrs. A had a stronger bond with her daughter, they became closer, and she also talked to the other family members especially the father.

256

She also mentioned that she doesn’t care how others may react towards the incident because this would not help her daughter. The way she accepted the fact, she did not get mad and took it as a lesson for the whole family.

“Monthly naka monitor ako sa kanyang menstruation magbuhat noong magkaroon siya” (I monitor her menstruation period ever since she had) as Mrs. B admits. This was the reason why she already had a doubt that her daughter was pregnant when a month and a half passed without her period. Mrs. B brought her daughter to the hospital and found out that it was positive. “It saddened me, pero para magalit hindi, kasi alam ko na nagsisinungaling na siya bago pa” (It saddened me, but I did not get mad at her because I knew from the start that she was already lying), like with Mrs. A’s initial reaction, Mrs. B felt disappointed.

“Andyan na yan, hindi ako ang magpapalaglag niyan, siguro maaaring palaglag ko yan kung hindi ako Kristyano” (It’s already there, I will not be the one to abort that, I may only to do it if I am not a Christian) strongly stated by Mrs. B. It was her new religion (Christian) that prevented Mrs. B in letting her daughter prevented an abortion. She reasoned out that her daughter was still studying and was young for that responsibility.

As a brave woman, Mrs. B did not care on what their relatives and neighbors would comment them; “Yung mga kamag-anak namin hindi nga makapag-tanong dahil alam nila matapang ako at kaya ko. Wala rin kami pakialam sa mga neighbors namin kasi their family is not perfect also!” (Our relatives knew that I am a brave person so they did not even ask anything about it. I also did not mind what our neighbors would say, because their family is not perfect also!)

Mrs. B worries about their future because her family is not well off; “Yung budget naming mag-ina sakto lang tapos eto ngayon buntis siya, mahahati pa lalo para doon sa baby” (Our money is just enough for us, since she’s already having a baby, we will budget it now.) Mrs. B’s first concern was their financial status although they know that the boyfriend will cover everything.

She also believes that she was old enough to nurture another child; “Kaya nga isa lang ang anak ko dahil ayoko mag alaga at matanda na rin ako para diyan” (That’s why I only have one child because I don’t like to take care, especially now I am too old for that) She was concerned that she would look after the baby because her daughter is still studying and definitely could not afford to get “yaya.”

In contrast with Mrs. A, she wanted her daughter to get married but since they are not yet at the right age, this did not happen. She also confessed that it was heartbreaking to see her daughter having her own family so soon. While Mrs. B continued sharing her stories and her sentiments, her eyes began to become watery

257

The attitude Mrs. B had, which pushed her to go on was her braveness to face the situation. Her positive outlook in life, being supportive, her love to her daughter, and a stronger mother-daughter relationship helped them to cope with the circumstances.

Same with Mrs. A, their perspective regarding criticisms was not far more important than anything else but surviving the trial.

Compared to the two respondents, Mrs. C was really angry to her daughter when she found it out; “Sobra kasi talaga ang trust ko sa kanya kaya hindi ko akalain na magiging ganyan siya” (I trusted her so much that I never imagined that she will get pregnant). Same with Mrs. B, she also monitors her daughter’s monthly menstrual period. When the time came that it was almost six months that her daughter was not having her period, she still did not had the doubt because of so much trust. Until the time her daughter was complaining of stomach annoyance, they learned that her teenage daughter is six months pregnant. Her initial reaction was anger, because she gave her full trust and this trust was not valued. She confessed that she was irritated every time she sees her daughter because of extremely disappointment and annoyance; “Hanggang sa nanganak siya, galit talaga yung naramdaman ko” (Until she gave birth, I was mad at her).

Mrs. C was also young when she got pregnant, and believes that their small age gap between her daughter have nothing to do with early pregnancy; “Kahit magka dugo pa kame, alam naman niya yung ginagawa niya” (Even though we are blood related, she knew what she’s doing).

The same with Mrs. B, she was also concerned with their financial aspect. She worries about the future of her daughter with the baby; if her daughter could pursue her studies and if she could handle the responsibilities of being a mother. Although she knows that her daughter is as brave as she is, but being a mother at an early age is a very difficult job.

During the interview, Mrs. C was obviously fighting over her feelings of sorrow. She seemed to be uncomfortable to discuss what she has gone thru and was not serious enough since she keeps on laughing. One way or another she still recalled her emotions throughout her daughter’s pregnancy.

“Parang problema lang na dapat bumangon” (It was just another problem that we need to get up and have strength) as what Mrs. C sees the situation.

It was not really a crisis, like what she said; “hindi naman ‘to yung parang binagsakan ka ng langit at lupa” (This is not like the end of the world). It was her hope that they will go through the problem and her support to her daughter that helped them in surviving.

258

In relation to Hill’s theory, in spite of Mrs. C’s being irritable to her daughter, she still managed to talk and supported her daughter in overcoming the instance. She knew it was just another problem in life that must conquer. These things helped her to overcome the trial and prevent it from becoming a family crisis.

Implication

Given the conclusion, the following implications are enumerated: In view of the fact that the parents who have unconditional love for their child will still be the persons who would help and support her all the way. Admitting to their parents is the only solution in this situation, and not abortion. Teenagers must understand that it is normal for parents to have reactions of anger and frustration since they know that young teens are not yet fully matured for such responsibility. It will be very painful for them but later on they will learn to accept this circumstance. Nevertheless, these teens must tell their parents as soon as possible so that they will be given special medical attention.

Young teens should know that no matter how intense their mistake is, their parents will always forgive, understand, support and love them without end. The hope and positive attitude of the parents toward a suffering is a proof of their love to their child and to the whole family.

In spite of the parent’s sentiment, they must communicate with their daughter and to the whole family. Parents must talk to their teens so they will know that they will not go alone all through the pregnancy. Setting aside the parents’ emotional reactions and just focus on how they will support their daughter is necessary to get through this trial. They must help their daughters to become physically and emotionally strong. The daughters need consistent medical check ups to have a healthier pregnancy. Parents should also explain to their daughters that the different reactions of their relatives, friends and neighbors are not important and would not help their situation.

Parents must communicate with the whole family to solve the problem at once. They have to help the other family members to view the circumstance as a lesson for everybody. Parent – daughter relationship is far more essential during these days. The parents should talk to their daughters about their future and their future child’s. Both can make decisions if their daughters are ready to receive the sacrament of matrimony. They can also discuss the financial support they can give to the new baby, like clothing, milk, and medical check up. Parents should help their daughters to understand their new and big responsibilities as mother since they are not fully developed and their physically, emotionally and mentally immature from. Guidance of the parents is still necessary in nurturing the new baby.

Supporting teenage daughters can only be achieved if they work on their feelings of anger, disappointment, guilt and anxiety. Parents must consider the fact that this is the moment they are needed most by their daughters.

259

For the therapists and counselors, they must give strength to the parents in overcoming this condition by means of advice. They should help the parents in developing a positive attitude to view it as a trial and having the hope that they will come through all of it. Counselors may give advice or suggestions on how the parents will work on their emotional conflicts so they can fully support their child. They can also propose some ideas on how these parents can prepare their teens for bigger responsibilities. Counselors may also talk to other family members to apply techniques in understanding their present difficulty and help them prevent family crisis.

Since pregnancy among teenagers is becoming an epidemic, the schools may help in controlling this issue. Schools can run a program which aimed to attach the teenagers to their parents. There can be activities and seminars that tackle about the viewpoints of both parents and the teenagers regarding love and premarital sex. These school programs must help the students in dealing with whatever problems they may encounter without considering violence.

Conclusion

In these cases, protective factors are important to buffer the family stressor that may lead to a family crisis. All the three respondents may have the feeling of disappointment and irritation but their hope and positive attitude made them strong to pass through the circumstance. They all believed that in spite of their daughters’mistakes, this is the time they are needed most. With those attitudes, teenage pregnancy became just a problem that should not be allowed to destroy the whole family.

260

References

Alan Guttmacher Institute," Sex and America's Teenagers" New York: AGI, 1994, pp. 19-20.

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: When Children Have Children. Updated July 2004, from http://aacap.org/page.ww?name=When+Children+Have+Children&section=Facts+for+Families

American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: When Children Have Children. Updated June 2001, from http://aacap.org/page.ww?name=Parenting%3A++Preparing+For+Adolescence&section=Facts+for+Families

Baker, (1999). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the Social Exclusion Report. 2002, from http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Children's Defense Fund (1996). The Parenting of Adolescents and Adolescents as Parents: A Developmental Contextual Perspective: On the Nature of Parenting from http://parenthood.library.wisc.edu/Lerner/Lerner.html

DeLambo K, Ievers-Landis C, Drotar D, and Quittner A, Association of Observed Family Relationship Quality and Problem-Solving Skills with Treatment Adherence in Older Children and Adolescents with Cystic Fibrosis, http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/29/5/343

Henshaw, S.K. (1998). "Unintended pregnancy in the United States." Family Planning Perspectives, 30(1):24-29, 46

Homeier B (2005). When Your Teen is having a Baby, http://kidshealth.org/parent/positive/talk/teen_pregnancy.html

Kazak, Segal-Andrews, & Johnson (1995). Longitudinal Study of Observed and Perceived Family Influences on Problem-Focused Coping Behaviors of Preadolescents With Spina Bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2001, from http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/41

Melamed (1991). Longitudinal Study of Observed and Perceived Family Influences on Problem-Focused Coping Behaviors of Preadolescents With Spina Bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 2001, from http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/41

Maynard, R. (Ed). (1997). Kids Having Kids: A Robin Hood Foundation Special Report on the Costs of Adolescent Childbearing. New York: Robin Hood Foundation.

261

http://jpepsy.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/1/41#REF25%23REF25

McDonald L, Hill’s Theory of Family Stress and Buffer Factors: Build the Protective Factor of Social relationships and Positive Perception with Mulit-Family Groups, http://cecp.air.org/vc/presentations/2selective/3lmcdon/HILL'S_FAMILY_STRESS_THEORY_AND_FAST.htm

McGrew M.C, The Problem of Teenage Pregnancy, http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0689/is_n1_v32/ai_10380944

Moore KA et al., A Statistical Portrait of Adolescent Sex, Contraception, and Childbearing, Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1998, p. 11.

Mowlam (2000) & Gilham (1997). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the Social Exclusion Report. 2002, from http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Occupational Outlook Handbook, Counselors, http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/ooh20022003/ocos067.htm

Raymundo and Lusterio (1995). Filipino Youth Views on Premarital Sexand Unmarried Parenthood from http://www.teenfad.ph/library/nonfad/filyouth.htm

Social Exclusion Unit, (1999). Teenage Pregnancy and the Midwife: Exhuming the Social Exclusion Report. 2002, from http://www.radmid.demon.co.uk/teenpreg.htm

Teen Sex Overview: Teen Pregnancy, 1999, from http://www.teencarecenter.org/index.php?s=factsheets&p=sheet8

Teen Sex Overview: When Teens Start Having Sex, 1999, from http://www.teencarecenter.org/index.php?s=factsheets&p=sheet8

The Fair and Fearless Freeman: Teenage Pregnancy, a rising trend among young women, June 1, 2005, from http://www.thefreeman.com/lifestyle/story-20050601-31122.html

The National Campaign To Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Ten Tips for Parents to Help their Children Avoid Teen Pregnancy, http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/reading/tips/tips.asp

262

The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Fact Sheet: Dad Makes a Difference, http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/reading/fact_sheets/fatherfs.asp

Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study (2004). Filipino Youth Think They Have Immunity From HIV/AID, from http://www.remedios.com.ph/fhtml/mk1q2005_fytt.htm

263

Date post:	12-Nov-2014
Category:	Documents
Upload:	san-beda-alabang
View:	973 times
Download:	3 times

Bedan Journal of Psychology 2008

Documents