“Our age is so painful that many of the

best men have been seized with despair.

But there is no rational ground for

despair, the means of happiness for

the human race exist, and it is only

necessary that the human race should

choose to use them. ”

(Bertrand Russel)

Education and the Social Order

P.248

120

'kks/izfof/%

dL;kfi 'kks/dk;ZL; egÙoa rnk Hkofr] ;nk rsu izLFkkfirfu"d"kZ}kjk

lektL; ykHk% HkofrA 'kks/dk;ZL; lkiQY;a rnk HkforqegZfr ;nk r=k

iz;qDrk% fo/;% lehphuk% HkofUr] vU;Fkk 'kks/drkZ Je≤&/uO;;a

ÑRokfi lE;d~ 'kks/dk;± u drqZegZfrA vr% 'kks/d=kkZ lE;d~'kks/dk;±

lEiknf;rqe~ mi;qDrfof/% p;uh;%A mi;qDrfof/uk fouk iznÙkladyus

fo'ys"k.ks fu"d"kZizfrLFkkius p fo'oluh;rk] lR;rk] oS/rk] O;kogkfjdrk p

u vkxPNfrA

leL;kuka lek/kukUos"k.ks vFkok uwruKkuL; l`"VÔs vk/qfudiz.kkY;k%

b;a fof'k"Vrk ;r~ vL;ka vkxeu&fuxeu;ks% mHk;ksjfi foè;ks% lke×tL;a

fØ;rsA rFkk p vu;ks% lefUor:is vuqiz;ksxL;So ^oSKkfufof/* bfr laKk

iznh;rsA vij'kCns"kq v;eso vuqla/kuL; 'kks/L; ok fof/% dF;rsA

vuqlU/kuL; 'kkfCndks¿;eFkZ% ;r~ & ^dL;kfi fo"k;L; fopkjL; ok

fo"k;s ckjEckja lU/kua y{;a lk/ua ok*A vL; dFkuL; v;esok'k;% ;r~

defi fo"k;a izfr xkEHkh;sZ.k xEHkhjr;k ok fopkj&foe'kSZjsokuqlU/kuL; eq[;k

izÑfr%A

121

vuqlU/kua 'kks/a ok ewyr% oSKkfudfo/s% i;kZ; ,o dFkf;rqa 'kD;rsA

dfri;fo}kal% vuqla/kuL; fofo/izdkjs.k O;k[;kuedqoZu~A

dL;kfi leL;k;k% vè;;ukFk± oSKkfudfo/s% vuqiz;ksx ,o

vuqlU/kufefr dF;rsA v;eso mi;qDr&fo'oluh;lwpuk;k% ewylzksr% fo|rsA

vL;ksís';a oSKkfudi¼rhuka ekè;esu lkFkZdiz'ukuka rs"kkeqÙkjk.kk×pkuqlU/kue~

vfLrA rs"kka erefLr ;r~ ;|fi vuqlU/kufof/% fofo/lUnHksZ"kq fofo/fo/huka

ekè;esu lEiÂa drq± 'kD;rs rFkkfi vL; lkoZHkkSekizÑfr% O;ofLFkrs oLrqfu"Bs

p :is fo'oluh;KkuL;kUos"k.kesoe~A

izks- ,e- oekZegksn;kuqlkje~ &

^^vuqlU/kuesdk ckSf¼dhfØ;k ;;k uwruKkuL;kfoHkkZoks HkofrA vFk

p iwoZ=kqVhuka HkzkUr/kj.kk×p ifj"dkjks HkofrA vusu fof/uk KkuL; orZekus

dks"ks Øec¼izdkjs.k o`f¼% HkofrA**

tkWu MCY;w csLVegksn;kuqlkjs.k vuqlU/ku'kCnL; ifjp;s

fyf[krefLr ;r~&^^vuqlU/kuL;kUrxZra fu;fU=krizs{k.kkuka O;ofLFkr;k

oLrqfu"Br;k p jhR;k fo'ys"k.ke~ vfHkys[kc¼:is.k fØ;rsA ;su

lkekU;hdj.kL; fl¼kUrkuka fodkl% lEik|rsA vFk p vL; ifj.kkeLo:ia

?kVukuka HkkO;dFkua rFkk p rklka pjefu;U=k.ka izfr mUeq[khdj.ks

lkgkÕ;eokI;rsA**

vfLeu~ lUnHksZ ,o czwl MCY;w- VdeSuegksn;% vonr~&^^vuqlU/kue~

,rkn`'k% O;ofLFkriz;kl%] ;su ekè;esu iz'ukukeqÙkja nkrqa 'kD;rsA**

122

th- ts- ekSyhegkHkkx% vuqlU/kuineR;Ureso Li"Vsu izHkkoiw.kZsu p

fof/uk ifjHkk"k;k×pdkjA rnuqlkje~ & ^^vk/kjlkexz;k% lqfu;ksftr&

lqO;ofLFkr&izdkjs.k lÄïyua] fo'ys"k.ka O;k[;ka p lEik| leL;kuka

fo'oluh;lek/kua izkfIrizfØ;k;k% :is ,o vuqlU/kL; okLrfoda :ia

vocks¼qa 'kD;rsA v;a KkuL; lao/Zuk;] izxrs% Roj.kk;] izfrekuq"ka i;kZoj.ka

izfr izHkkoiw.ksZu fof/uk lEc¼hdj.kk; rL; iz;kstukuka izkI;rs] vUr}ZU}kuka

lek/kuk; p egÙoiw.kZeqidj.kefLr vuqlU/kue~A**

vusu izdkjs.k vuqlU/kuL; izfØ;k vLekda thoukO;oLFkk;ka uSds"kq

{ks=ks"kq iz;qT;rsA ;Fkk oSKkfudn`"VÔk 'kq¼&Li"V&fo'oluh;&Kkudks"kks¿fHko/ZrsA

rFkk p rRlEc¼klq ifjfLFkfr"kq xkspjk.kka fo"k;s"kq p vLekde~ vocks/%

nzqrxR;k izpjsr~] vLekda fopkjs"kq p ,dk lkisf{krk xq.koÙkk fo'kq¼rk p

lekfo"Vk L;kr~A

dL;kfi 'kks/dk;ZL; vkjEHkkr~ iwo± fo/huka izfo/huka midj.kkuk×p

xq.knks"kku~ tkuh;kr~ 'kks/drkZ rnk l% mi;qDrfof/p;ua dfj";frA 'kks/eeZK%

izk;'k% vuqlU/kua f=k/k foHkT;rsA

1- ewyHkwrkuqlU/kue~A

2- o.kZukRedkuqlU/kue~A

3- iz;ksxkRedkuqlU/kue~A

123

KkuL; dL;kfi {ks=ks ÑrkuqlU/kuL; fo/;% fuEufyf[krk% lfUr&

1- ,sfrgkfldfof/%A

2- iz;ksxkRedfof/%A

3- nk'kZfudfof/%A

4- dk;Zdkj.kkè;;ufof/%A

5- losZ{k.kfof/%A

ewyHkwrkuqlU/kudk;sZ fl¼kUrkuke~ vfo"dj.ka ifj"dj.ka izfrLFkkiu×p

HkofrA o.kZukRedeuqlU/kus izk;'k% izeq[k?kVukuka ifjfLFkrhuka la[;k¿¿nhuka

o.kZua HkofrA oLrqr% 'kSf{kdkuqlU/kus uSdfo/oSKkfudfo/;% lfUrA dk¿fi

fof/% u vU;Lekr~ fo/s% Js"Brjk] izR;sdL; fo/s% egÙoa i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~

HkofrA fof/p;ua 'kks/dk;ZL; izÑR;kuqlkja HkofrA

3-1 izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ iz;qDr'kks/fof/%

'kks/drkZ 'kks/dk;sZ losZ{k.kfof/a LohdjksfrA vL;k% fo/s% iz;ksxkr~ iwo±

vL;k vFkZfo'ks"kr% lkFkZdrk vko';drk;k% ifjfpr% L;kr~ 'kks/drkZA vr%

v=k losZ{k.kfo/s% laf{kIrifjp;a izfrLFkkI;rsA

losZ{k.kfof/%

'kSf{kdleL;kuka lek/kukFk± losZ{k.kfo/s% iz;ksx% O;kid:is.k HkofrA

vL;k% iz;ksx% LFkkuh;&jkT;Lrjh;&jk"Vªh;&vUrkjkf"Vª;sR;kfn"kq Lrjs"kq

leL;kukeè;;ueusu fof/uk ,o HkofrA vL; dk;Z{ks=kkf.k nÙklÄïyua]

124

iznÙklÄïyua] iznÙklkj.kh;ua] iznÙkO;k[;k] rqyuk&ekiua] oxhZdj.ka] ewY;kadua]

lkekU;hdj.k×psR;knhfu orZUrsA b;a fof/% leL;klek/kukFkZeqfprk orZrsA

vL;k% fo"k;s dspu 'kks/eeZKS% izksDre~A ;Fkk&

tkWu MCY;w- csLV &

^^vL;k% fo/s% iz;ksx% izk;'k% ,rkn`'ks"kq vuqlU/kus"kq fØ;rs ;s"kkeqís';a

orZrs ;r~ orZekus lkekU;a ;k izfrfof/fLFkfr% O;ogkja fda orZrs vL;

lEcU/% orZekus mifLFkrfLFkrhuka O;ogkjs fo'okls n`f"Vdks.ks vfHko`fÙkfHk%

orZrs ;k LFkkfirk% fodflrk% lfUrA**

oscLVj'kCndks"k% &

^^okLrfodifjfLFkfrKkukFk± leh{kkRed:is.k voyksdua losZ{k.ka

dF;rsA**

losZ{k.kfo/s% mís';e~

vuqlU/kus losZ{k.kfo/s% izeq[kksís';e~] bnkuhUru{ks=ks leL;k;k% dhn`'ka

Lo:ia Hkofr] vFkkZr~ leL;k;k% ?kVuk;k% ok fooj.ka izLrqrhdj.ka HkofrA

vL; brjksís';kfu fuEuizdkjdkf.k &

♦ 'kSf{kdfu;kstus lgk;rkdj.ke~A

♦ orZekufLFkrs% Li"Vhdj.ke~A

♦ Hkfo";fu;kstus lgk;rkiznkue~A

125

;fn losZ{k.kL;k¿;kstue~ mfprjhR;k cqf¼eÙkkiw.kZjhR;k fØ;rs psr~

losZ{k.kdk;Zerho ljya HkofrA

losZ{k.kfo/s% fo'ks"krk%

• vL;k% lEcU/% orZekufLFkfrfHk% lg HkofrA

• b;a foLr`r{ks=kkè;;us vuqlU/kulksikua lE;d~ vuqljfrA

• vL;k% Ñrs fof'k"Va dYiukiw.kZ×p fu;kstueko';da orZrsA

• vu;k oSKkfudfu;ek% u izfrLFkkI;Urs] vfirq leL;k;k% lek/kukFk±

mi;ksfxlwpuk% LohfØ;UrsA

• b;eUrekZuoh;lEcU/kuka HkkohfodklØea izfr y{;hdjksfrA

• vu;k losZ{k.ka xq.kkReda la[;kRed×p Hkforqa 'kD;rsA

losZ{k.kfo/s% egÙoe~

♦ dL;kfi leL;k;k% okLrfodifjfLFkrs% Kkue~A

♦ rkRdkfydifjfLFkrhukeoyksdue~A

♦ vL;ka iznÙkkuka fo'oluh;rk lekf/dk HkofrA

♦ oSKkfudlksikueuqljfr b;e~A

♦ foLr`r{ks=kkè;;us vf/dksi;ksxh fo|rsA

126

3-2 iz;qDrpjk%

dfLeÂfi 'kks/dk;sZ pjk.kka egÙoiw.k± LFkkua HkofrA pj% lks¿fLr ;L;

ekua ifjofrZra Hkofr] ;Fkk ukEuSo Li"Va HkofrA ^pj* bR;L; rkRi;± dL;kfi

tuL;] oLrqu% ?kVuk;k'p rS% xq.kS% Hkofr] ;S% ekiua drq± 'kD;rsA

'kSf{kd'kks/dk;sZ fofo/izdkjdk.kka pjk.kka iz;ksxks HkofrA eq[;r% pjizdkjk%

fuEufyf[krk% HkofUr&

1- LorU=kpj%

LorU=kpj% l% pjks Hkofr ;L; ewwY;s"kq iz;ksxdrkZ ifjorZua

djksfr] ,o×p vL; ifjorZuL; izHkkoe~ vkfJr&pjL; mifj

voyksd;frA

2- vkfJrpj%

vkfJrpj% l% Hkofr ;L; fo"k;s iz;ksxdrkZ fdefi iwoZdFkua

drqZfePNfrA vL; uke vkfJr pj ,rnFkZefLr ;r~ vfLeu~ pjs vkxra

ifjorZua LorU=kpjL; ifjorZudkj.kknso HkofrA

3- vlaxrks eè;LFkks ok pj%

,rs pjk% vkfJrpja izHkko;fUrA mfprizfrn'kZuizfof/uksi;qDrsu

'kks/kfHkdYisu p ,rs"kka pjk.kka izHkkoku~ U;wuhdrq± 'kD;rsA

127

izLrqr 'kks/dk;sZ"kq =khf.k pjkf.k lfUr &

1- ekufld;ksX;rkA

2- vè;;uizo`fÙk%A

3- 'kSf{kdksiyfC/%A

3-3 U;kn'kZfu/kZj.ka p;u×p

O;kogkfjds"kq lkekftds"kq pkè;;us"kq izk;% U;kn'kZ}kjk izkIrkuka

fu"d"kkZ.kkek/kjs.kSo lkekU;hdj.ka fo/h;rsA dL;fpnfi euksoSKkfudL;

rF;L; ekuoh;L; ok lR;kiuk; iw.kZL; ^lexzL;* (lewgL;) vè;;ua

vlEHkkfoA vln~ vfi dfBueo';eso HkofrA vrks¿f/dka'kr% U;kn'kZ}kjSo

ÑR;a fu:g~;rsA ,rn~n`"VÔk lkekftdkukeè;;u{ks=ks U;kn'kksZ egÙoiw.k± LFkkua

fcHkfrZA

'kks/drkZ ;nk 'kks/dk;± izkjEHkrs rnk rL; iqjr% ,dk leL;k

Hkofr] rL;k% lek/kue~ vUos"Vqa l% lEiw.k± 'kks/dk;± fon/kfrA ija rL;k%

leL;k;k% lek/kukFk± rL; ik'osZ fuf'prek=kk;ka le;% /u×p HkforO;e~A

rfLeÂso le;s 'kks/d=kkZ Loh;a lek/kua izLFkkrO;e~ vfi p /uefi

lhfereso HkofrA /ua fouk oqQ=k 'kks/dk;Zfefr dL;k vfi leL;k;k%

lek/kukFk± 'kks/dk;ZL; lEcfU/rlEiw.kZ{ks=kL;kè;;ua fo"k;L;ko';drk&

128

n`"VÔksi;ksfxrkn`"VÔk¿o';da orZrsA vusuSo 'kks/dk;ZL;ksís';kfu lE;Dr;k u

iw;ZUrsA vr% 'kks/d=kkZ lEcfU/rlEiw.kZ{ks=kL;kè;;ua dÙkZO;esoA

ijesrkofRo'kky{ks=kL;kè;;ua u dsoya dfBuefirq vO;ogkfjdefi

fo|rsA vusukf/da le;O;;% /uO;;% rq HkoR;so vfi p fujFkZd% JeO;;%

vfi HkofrA rka leL;ka nwjhdrqZeqik;% vis{;rs 'kks/drkZA v=k ;fn o;a

yskdO;ogkja foyksd;ke% rfgZ vL;k% leL;k;k% lek/kua izkIrqa 'kDuqe%A ;Fkk

dks¿fi vksnuikpd% ;nk vksnua ipfr rnk vksnufl¼s% KkukFk± rLekr~ f}&f=k

ok r.Mqyku~ mRFkk; vuqeh;rs vksnuikd% fl¼ks u ok bfrA v;eso Hkofr

LFkkyhikdU;k;% bfr ije=k LFkkyhikdU;k;% u rkn`'k mi;qDr% ;kn`'k%

yksdO;ogkjsA v=k ukfLr vksnuikdln`'kh ifjfLFkfr% ;rks fg v=k ukfLr

rkn`'ka lkekU;a ;kn`d~ vksnuikds vklhr~A vr% v=k iznÙklÄïyueR;Urnq"dja

dk;± orZrsA v=k 'kks/eeZKS% dspu~ 'kks/lEcfU/riznÙkladyukFk± fo/;%

izLFkkfirk%A

iznÙklÄïyufof/H;% izkd~ iznÙkladyulzksrlka fo"k;s KkrO;a] rnk o;a

lE;Dr;k iznÙkladyua KkL;ke%A v=k iznÙk&izÑfrfo"k;s Kkrqa izk;'k% fof/};a

vuqfØ;rsA

1- tula[;ki¼fr% (Census Method)

2- fun'kZufof/% (Sampling Method)

tula[;ki¼fr%

129

tula[;ki¼R;ka lEiw.kZ{ks=kL; vè;;ua HkofrA ,"kk i¼fr% lEiw.kZr;k

lg HkofrA vL;ka leL;k;k% lek/kukFk± leL;klEcfU/ra lEiw.kZ{ks=ka x`ársA

;Fkk dL;ka xks.;ka ek"kk.kka ek=kkKkukFk± ,dL;&,dL; ek"kL; x.kuk dj.kh;k

HkofrA fof/j;a Jelkè;% O;;lkè;'pA

fun'kZui¼fr%

vL;ka i¼R;ka leL;k;k% lek/kukFk± lEiw.kZ{ks=kkr~ fdf×pr~ Hkkxa

LohfØ;rs] ija l% Hkkx% lEiw.kZ{ks=kL; izfrfuf/iw.kZ% L;kr~A ;Fkk&vksnuikds

dL;kfi r.MqyL; vk/kjs.k ikdfl¼s% vuqekufefrA

U;kn'kZi¼R;ka JeO;;% le;O;;'p u Hkforqa 'kD;rs] ;rks á=k

vYixzg.kkr~ lEiw.kZfo"k;s vuqekua HkofrA ,"kk i¼fr% y?kks% c`gr~ izfr

xPNfrA rL;k% ,rr~ oSf'k"VÔa foyksD; rFkk u iwoZÑr'kks/dk;kZ.kkek/kjs.k

'kks/dk;± U;kn'kZi¼fr% LohfØ;rs ije=k la'k;%] ;r~ fda uke U;kn'kZ% bfrA

v=k 'kks/eeZKkuka era izLFkkI;Urs&

U;kn'kZL; ifjHkk"kk

djfyÄõj% &

^U;kn'kZ% tula[;kr% vFkok yksdr% uhr% rkn`'kHkkx% Hkofr ;%

lEiw.kZtula[;k;k% izfrfuf/Roa djksfrA*

xqM ,oa gkV% &

130

^U;kn'kZ% ;Fkk ukEuk ,o izrh;rs ;r~ fo'kkylewgL; y?kq%

izfrfuf/%A*

mijksDrifjHkk"kkuqlkja oDrqegZfr ;r~ U;kn'kZ% lexzL; rkn`'k% Hkkx%

Hkofr] ;% lexzL; izfrfuf/Roa djksfrA

U;kn'kZL; vko';drk

U;kn'kZL; oLrqr% 'kks/dk;sZ egÙoiw.k± LFkkua HkofrA rL; eq[;r%

dk;± Hkofr lexzfo"k;s lkekU;hdj.kL; izfrLFkkiue~A ;Fkk dL;kfi

'kks/dk;ZL; rF;kRedleL;k orZrsA r=k losZ"kkeè;kidkuka leL;k;k% vè;;ua

u lEHkofr] r=k ds"kkf×pr~ vè;kidkuka p;ua U;kn'kZ:is.k djksfr 'kks/drkZ]

rs HkofUr U;kn'kkZ%A rs"kkeè;;uk/kjs.k leL;k;k% lek/kue~A v=k dkf'pr~

vko';drk% miLFkkI;rs 'kks/drkZA

• vuqlU/kuL; oSKkfudk/kj% iznh;rsA

• dk;ZL; lhekfu/kZj.kkFkZeko';da fo|rsA

• le;L; /uL; JeL; p O;;% u HkofrA

• lEiw.kZtula[;kfo"k;s lkekU;hdj.kL; vk/kj%A

• leL;k&lek/ku;ks% vk/kj%A

• vuqlU/kus fo'oluh;rk mRFkki;frA

• lhferle;s fu"d"kZizfrLFkkiukFkZe~A

131

• vuqlU/kuL; fn'kkfunsZ'kuiznkuk; vko';de~ HkofrA

• vuqlU/kus oS/rke~ vku;frA

U;kn'kZL; izdkj%

1- lEHkkO;U;kn'kZ% (Probability sampling)

2- vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZ% (Non- Probability sampling)

lEHkkO;U;kn'kZ%

lexzL; ;% Hkkx% ;fLeu~ U;kn'ksZ lexzfo"k;s fdefi lkekU;hdj.ka

drq± 'kD;rs] l% U;kn'kZ% ^lEHkkO;U;kn'kZ* bfr dF;rs vFkok ;% Hkkx%

;fLeu~ lexzL; losZ xq.kk% HkofUr l% lEHkkO;U;kn'kZ% HkofrA

vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZ%

lexzL; ;% Hkkx% ;L; vk/kjs.k lexzfo"k;s fdefi lkekU;hdj.ka

u drq± 'kD;rs l% ^vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZ* bfr mP;rs vFkok ;fLeu~ Hkkxs lexzL;

losZ xq.kk% u HkofUr l vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZ% HkofrA mHk;ks% p;us fofo/fo/;%

vuqljfUr] 'kks/fo'ks"kKk%A v=k dkfpf}/;% izfrLFkkI;Urs] 'kks/d=kkZA

U;kn'kZp;uL; fo/;%

U;kn'kZp;us lEHkkO;U;kn'kZL; vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZL; p fo/;%

i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ lfUrA oLrqr% U;kn'kZp;ufo/;% 'kks/dk;ZL; izÑR;kuqlkja

HkofUrA v=k 'kks/d=kkZ mHk;ks% i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ fo/;% izLFkkI;rs bfrA

132

lEHkkO;U;kn'kZ%

• ;kn`fPNdU;kn'kZfof/%A

• ykWVjh fof/%A

• fuf'prØefof/%A

• fVfiV vÄïfof/%A

• fxzMfof/%A

• Lrfjr;kn`fPNdfof/%A

• xqPNU;kn'kZfof/%A

• O;ofLFkrU;kn'kZfof/%A

;kn`fPNdU;kn'kZfof/% (Random sampling)

vfLeu~ fo/kS 'kks/d=kkZ dLeknfi Hkkxkr~ iznÙkkuka p;ua LohfØ;rsA

vfLeu~ dL;kfi HkkxL; p;ua Hkforqa 'kD;rsA vr% la;ksxizk/kU;a fof/j;a ija

vfLeu~ p;us ,rr~ è;krO;a ;r~ p;furHkkx% lEiw.kZHkkxL; izfrfuf/iw.kZ%

L;kr~A izk;'k% 'kks/drZ̀fHk% ,"k% fof/% vuqfJ;rsA

ykWVjhfof/%

vfLeu~ fo/kS lexzL; izR;sdL; ^bdkbZ* vL; ys[kua ds"kqfpr~

dxZn[k.Ms"kq HkofrA defi O;fDr us=ka fuehY; ds"kkf×pr~ dxZn[k.Mkuka

133

p;ukFk± dF;rsA vusu fof/uk ;L; p;ua Hkofr] ra U;kn'kZ:is.k LohfØ;rs

'kks/d=kkZA

fuf'prØefof/% (Sequential List method)

vfLeu~ fo/kS 'kks/drkZ lexz ^bdkbZ* bR;srs"kkesdklwpha fuekZfrA

rnuUrjesdfuf'prØes.k ^bdkbZ* bR;srs"kka p;ua djksfr ;Fkk 100 Nk=kk.kka

izR;sdL; n'keNk=kL; U;kn'kZ:is.k LohfØ;rs] rfgZ 100 lwpheè;s izR;sd&

n'keNk=kL; p;ua Hkfo";fr] ;Fkk 10 Nk=kk% 20 Nk=kk% bR;kn;%A

fVfiV&vÄïfof/%

^fVfiV* egksn;su lEHkkO;U;kn'kZp;ukFk± la[;kuke~ ,dk lwph fufeZrk]

rnk/kjs.k iznÙkkuka p;ua HkofrA

fxzMfof/%

vfLeu~ fo/kS iwoZfufeZr ^dk¡p* [k.Mk/kjs.k U;kn'kZp;ua djksfr

'kks/drkZA

Lrfjr;kn`fPNdfof/% (Stratified Random Sampling)

;nk lexzL; vkdkj% c`gr~ Hkofr rnk loZizFkea lexza fofHkÂLrjs"kq

foHkT;rs rRi'pkr~ izR;sdLekr~ Lrjkr~ i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ izfrn'kZL; p;ua HkofrA

;Fkk&uj] ukjh }kS LrjkS] f'k'kq% ckyd% fd'kksj% cgqLrjk%A

xqPNU;kn'kZfof/% (Culster Sampling)

134

v;a fof/% rnk iz;qT;rs ;nk tula[;k c`gnkdkjk Hkofr rFkk p

rL;k% izlkj% vifjfer% Hkofr] rnk U;kn'kZp;ukFk± 'kks/d=kkZ loZizFkea

lexzL; xq.k vFkok fo'ks"krk/kjs.k dkfu xqPNkfu fuehZ;Urs] rk% fo'ks"krk%

HkkSxksfyd{ks=k&lkekftd{ks=ks.k p lEcfU/rk% HkofUrA rRi'pkr~ ;kn`fPNd~

fof/uk izR;sdLekr~ xqPNkr~ U;kn'kZp;ua HkofrA

O;ofLFkrU;kn'kZfof/% (Systimatic Method)

vfLeu~ fo/kS 'kks/drkZ lexzL; vkÑR;ka vkuqikfrd&lEcU/a fuf'pra

djksfr] ;Fkk 1000 la[;kRedkr~ lexzkr~ 100 U;kn'kZL; p;ua dj.kh;a

fo|rs] rfgZ vfLeu~ fo/kS izR;sdfLeu~ n'klewgs ,dNk=kL; p;ua lqfuf'pra

HkofrA vr% lexzfo"k;s 1%10 vuqikra HkofrA

vlEHkkO;U;kn'kZ%

• lksís';U;kn'kZfof/%A

• ;Fkka'kfof/%A

• vkdfLedfof/%A

lksís';fof/% (Purposive Sampling)

vfLeu~ fo/kS 'kks/drkZ 'kks/dk;ZL; vko';drk/kjs.k U;kn'kZL; p;ua

djksfrA 'kks/drkZ rs"kkeso U;kn'kZ:is.k Lohdjksfr ;S% 'kks/dk;ZL; leL;k;k%

lek/kua HkofrA

;Fkka'kfof/% (Quata Method)

135

v;a fof/jfi lksís';fof/&ln`'k bo orZrs] ;rks fg vfLeu~ 'kks/drkZ

LoKkuk/kjs.k ;a Hkkxa lexzL; izfrfuf/iw.k± tkukfr] reso U;kn'kZ:is.k

LohdjksfrA

vkdfLedU;kn'kZfof/%

vfLeu~ fo/kS 'kks/drkZ vuqlU/kuleL;k;k% lEcfU/ra U;kn'k±

LohdjksfrA rnk 'kks/drkZ Loko';drkuqlkja U;kn'kZp;ua djksfrA

mijksDrfo/;% lfUr] rku~ vkfJR; 'kks/drkZ Loh;a 'kks/dk;±

djksfrA v=kkfi 'kks/d=kkZ lEHkkO;U;kn'kZL; p;us liz;kstuekuq"kfÄõdizfrp;u&

izfof/% LohfØ;rsA rsu 'kks/drkZ U;kn'kZL; p;ua dfj";frA

'kks/s iz;qDrU;kn'kZfof/%

'kks/dk;sZ 'kks/drkZ mís';kuq:is.k ;kn`fPNdfof/uk fnYyhLFk

ds"kk×pu ijEijkxrk/qfudfo|ky;kuka p;ua Ñroku~A rnuUrja liz;kstuekuq&

"kfÄõdizfrp;uizfof/% (PURPOSIVE INCIDENAL SAMPLING)

ekè;esu ijEijkxrk/qfudfo|ky;kuka uoe ,o×p n'ked{kk;k% Nk=kk.kka

ekufld;ksX;rk&vè;;uizo`fÙk%&laLÑr'kSf{kdksiyC/s% rqyukRedeè;;uk;

p;ua Ñroku~A

rkfydkla[;k 3-1

U;kn'kZL; lajpuk

136

Ø-la- fo|ky;% U;kn'kZ%

1- ijEijkxrfo|ky;% 200

2- vk/qfudfo|ky;% 200

rkfydkla[;k 3-2

fo|ky;kuke~ ,o×p Nk=kk.kka p;ue~

Ø-la- ijEijkxrfo|ky;uke Nk=kla[;k

1- JhlarukxikylaLÑregkfo|ky;% ,o×p 'kks/laLFkkue~]

NÙkjiqj] uonsgyh

40

2- Jhen~n;kuUn&osnk"kZegkfo|ky;%] xkSreuxj] uonsgyh 40

3- JheksrhukFklaLÑregkfo|ky;%] jes'kuxje~] uonsgyh 40

4- JhguqekulaLÑregkfo|ky;%] j?kqohjuxje~] uonsgyh 40

5- vkn'kZlaLÑrfo|ky;%] olUrxzke] uonsgyh 40

vk/qfudfo|ky;uke

1- vkpk;Zrqylhjktdh;ckyofj"Bekè;fedfo|ky;%]

NÙkjiqj] uonsgyh

40

2- jktdh;lgf'k{kkmPprjekè;fedfo|ky;%] lqYrkuiqj]

uonsgyh

40

3- jktdh;ckyofj"Bekè;fedfo|ky;%] f?kVksjuh]

uonsgyh

40

4- jktdh;lgf'k{kkmPprjekè;fedfo|ky;%] vk;kuxje~] 40

137

uonsgyh

5- jktdh;ckyofj"Bekè;fedfo|ky;%] lekydk]

uonsgyh

40

lEiw.kZ;ksx% 400

3-4 'kks/ksidj.kkfu

'kks/d=kkZ 'kks/leL;ka fuewZyhdrq± izkjEHks mís';kfu fu'ph;UrsA

rnk/kjs.kSo ifjdYiuk% izfrLFkkI;Urs] rr% rklka ijh{k.kkFk± 'kks/izk:ik%

fuehZ;UrsA rfLeu~ l% 'kks/dk;ZL; izÑR;kuqlkja fo/huka p;ua djksfrA rr%

ifjdYiukuka ijh{k.kkFk± iznÙkladyua djksfrA iznÙklÄïyua rnk ,o lE;d~

Hkofr] ;nk rL; lÄïyueqfprksidj.kS% L;kr~A

izR;sdfLeu~ 'kks/dk;sZ rF;iw.kZlkexzh.kka p;us midj.kfu/kZj.ke~

vR;Urko';da HkofrA iznÙklÄïyue~ uSdfo/lzksrsH;% HkofrA leL;klek/kukFk±

dkfufpr~ ;U=kkf.k mi;qT;Urs] rkfu ,o midj.kkfu vfHk/h;UrsA 'kks/drkZ

midj.kkuka iz;ksxfo"k;s fuiq.k% L;kr~A rL; Ñrs vuqlU/krq% midj.kkuka

fo'ks"krklhekfo"k;s Kkua lE;d~ L;kr~] rnSo 'kks/dk;± xq.koÙkkiw.k± Hkforqa

'kD;rs ukU;FkkA

'kks/dk;sZ midj.kp;us 'kks/izÑR;kuqlkja HkofrA midj.kp;ukRiwo±

midj.kfo"k;s lE;Dr;k KkrO;a vLekfHk%A 'kks/eeZKS% fofo/ksidj.kkuke~

mYys[k% fØ;rsA rkfu midj.kkfu fuEu:is.k oxhZfØ;Urs&

138

midj.kkuka oxhZdj.ke~

1- vUos"k.ki=ke~

• iz'ukoyh

• vuqlwph

• pSdfyLV

• xq.kkadi=ke~

• vfHko`fÙkekiuh

• fu/kZj.kekiuh

2- fujh{k.ke~

3- lk{kkRdkj%

4- lektfefr%

5- euksoSKkfudijh{k.ke~

• fu"ifÙkijh{k.ke~

• vfHk#fpijh{k.ke~

• cqf¼ijh{k.ke~

• #fpijh{k.ke~

• O;fDrRoijh{k.ke~

v=k ds"kkf×pr~ midj.kkuka ifjp;% izLrw;rs 'kks/d=kkZA

139

iz'ukoyh

iz'ukoY;ka iz'ukuka vFkok dFkukuka O;ofLFkrØe% orZrsA ;=k

lwpuknkrk Lo;eso rs"kq LokfHkera nnkfrA v=kksP;rs ;axegksn;su & ^iz'ukoyh

,rkn`d~ izi=ka orZrs ;=k lwpuknkrk Lofo"k;s fyf[kRok ifjp;a nnkfrA*

xq.kk%

• vL; vadua ljya HkofrA

• foLr`r{ks=kk.kka iznÙkladyus mfpra HkofrA

• vL;ka lwpuknkrk lwpuka fyf[kRok nnkfrA

• iz'ukoY;ka lwpukiznkukFk± Ik;kZIrkodk'k% HkofrA

izdkjk%

• lajpuk;qDr%A

• lajpukfoghu%A

• fefJr%A

nks"kk%

• vL;ka iz'uk% izfrfuf/iw.kkZ% u HkofrA

• vL;k% iz;ksx% dsoya f'kf{krkuka Ñrs mi;qDr%A

• iz'ukoY;ka izR;kxeuL; leL;k% HkofUrA

• iz'ukoY;k% lkiQY;a lwpuknkrqeqifj vf/da HkofrA

140

vr% 'kks/drkZ xq.knks"kku~ voxE; ,o vL; midj.kL; iz;ksx%

dÙkZO;%A

vuqlwph

vuqlwph iznÙkladyuL; izR;{klk/ua orZrsA vL;ka 'kks/drkZ

vuqlU/ku{ks=ka xRok fujh{; p iznÙkkuka ladyua djksfrA vL;ka 'kks/drkZ

lwpuknkrkja iz'ua i`"V~ok mÙkjkf.k fy[kfrA v=k xqM rFkk gkVegksn;kH;ka

izksDre~&^vuqlwph'kCnL; iz;ksx% lkekU;r;k iz'ukuka lewgkFk± iz;qT;rs] ;ku~

iz'uku~ 'kks/drkZ vU;O;Drhuka le{ks lwpuknkrkja i`PNfr*A

izdkjk%

v=k ;axegksn;su oxhZdj.ka izfrLFkkI;rs &

• fujh{k.kkuqlwphA

• ewY;kÄïukuqlwphA

• laLFkklosZ{k.kkuqlwphA

• lk{kkRdkjkuqlwphA

xq.kk%

• 'kks/drkZ Lo;eso iznÙkladyua djksfrA

• lwpuknkrq% le{ks mÙkjkf.k fy[kfr 'kks/drkZA

• vu;k izkIrk% lwpuk% fo'oluh;k% HkofUrA

nks"kk%

141

• izfrfuf/iw.kZiz'ukukeHkko%A

• vf/dle;% /u×p vis{krsA

• lEidZleL;k HkofrA

• foLr`r{ks=kk.kka Ñrs uksfprkA

'kks/d=kkZ nks"kk% ifjgk; ,"kk 'kks/dk;sZ iz;ksDrO;kA

pSdfyLV

vL;k% Lo:ieuqlwphln`'keso orZrs] ijefLeu~ erLFkkius LokrU=;a

ukgZfr lwpuknkrkA lwpuknkrk dsoyeqfYyf[krs"kq rF;s"kq izfrfØ;klq p fpÉeso

nnkfrA

fujh{k.ke~

vfLeu~ 'kks/drkZ leL;ka lE;d~ voyksD; rL;k% fo"k;s vkdyue~

djksfrA

lk{kkRdkj%

;nk dL;kfi leL;k;k% fo"k;s O;fDr};efHkeq[khHkw; fuf'prksís';a

LohÑR; okrkZykia dq#r% l% ^lk{kkRdkj%* bfr ins vkV~VhdrsA v=k tkWu-

MCY;w- csLVegksn;su izksDre~&^lk{kkRdkj% iz'ukoyhln`'kh ,dk

ekSf[kdiz'ukoyh orZrsA ;L;ka lwpuknkrk mÙkjys[kukis{k;k ekSf[kdksÙkja nnkfrA

lektfefr%

142

v=k gsyugkytSfuaXlegksn;su fuxfnre~&^lektfefrfo/s% rkn'̀kkuke~

vè;;ukuka o.kZua Hkofr ;s"kka fo"k;oLrq dL;kfi lewgL; O;Drhukekd"kZ.k&

fod"kZ.kSLlg lEcfU/ra HkofrA*

euksoSKkfudijh{k.ke~

euksoSKkfudijh{k.kkfu rkfu HkofUr ;kfu lwpuknkr¤.kka ekufldLrjs.k

lEcfU/rkfu HkofUrA v=k lwpuknkrq% dk;sZ"kq fu/kZfjreÄïa iznh;rs 'kks/d=kkZA

lkekU;r;k midj.kkuka jpuk/kjs.k f}fo/oxhZdj.ka fØ;rs&

1- ekudhÑrksidj.ke~A

2- LofufeZrksidj.ke~A

1. ekudhÑrksidj.ke~ & rn~ Hkofr ;L; eè;ekua ekudfopyu×p

iwoZfu/kZfjra Hkofr] vfi p oS/rk] fo'oluh;rk] foHksndrk]

dkfBU;Lrj'p fuf'pr% HkofrA oLrqr% vfLeu~ midj.ks

midj.kL; losZ xq.kk% HkofUrA

2. LofufeZrksidj.ke~ & midj.kfena 'kks/d=kkZ Loko';drkuqlkja fuehZ;rsA

vfLeu~ 'kks/leL;k;k% mís';kuqlkja iz'uku~ fuekZfr vuqlU/krkA

oLrqr% vfLeu~ 'kks/leL;k;k% losZ ?kVdk% lekfgrk% HkofUrA

vfLeu~ midj.kL; O;kogkfjdxq.kk% HkofUrA

dL;kfi midj.kL; dsfpr~ xq.kk% HkofUr] rS% fouk lE;d~

midj.kfuekZ.ka u HkofrA vr% rkÂfi Kkuh;kr~ 'kks/drkZA

143

midj.kxq.kk%

midj.kL; ;nk fuekZ.ka djksfr 'kks/drkZA rnk rL; xq.kkuka fo"k;s

lE;Dr;k tkuh;kr~] vU;Fkk lE;d~xq.koÙkkiw.kksZidj.kfuekZ.ka u HkofrA

,rkn`'ksu midj.ksu mfpra iznÙklÄïyuL; vk'kk fuEco`{kkr~ vkezL; vk'kk

ln`'kh HkofrA vr% 'kks/ksidj.kkuka p;ukr~ fuekZ.kkPp iwo± rs"kka xq.kk%

voxUrO;k%A v=k 'kks/d=kkZ dsfpr~ midj.kxq.kk% miLFkkI;UrsA

oLrqr% xq.kk% f}/k foHkT;rs] 'kks/eeZKS% &

1. O;kogkfjdxq.kk%

• U;k;;qDrrkA

• xfr'khyrkA

• l{kerkA

• larqyue~A

• O;kogkfjdrkA

2. rduhdh;xq.kk%

rduhdh;xq.kk% rs xq.kk% HkofUr] ;s xf.krh;dk;Z}kjk fu'ph;Urs&

• OkS/rkA

• fo'oluh;rkA

• foHksndrkA

144

• oLrqfu"BrkA

• dkfBU;Lrj%A

• ekud%A

rduhdh;xq.kk% rs HkofUr] ;s midj.kL; xf.krh;;ksX;rka

izfrLFkki;fUr rduhdh;xq.kk% uSdfo/k% HkofUrA 'kks/d=kkZ dsfpr~ rduhdh;&

xq.kk% izLFkkI;Urs v=kA

oS/rk (Validity)

dL;kfi midj.kL; fuekZ.kle;s lokZf/da egÙoiw.k± iz'ua Hkofr] ;r~

midj.kL; fuekZ.ka vL;k% ;ksX;rk;k% ekiuk; fufeZrefLrA rL;k% ekiua

djksfr u okA oS/rk;k% lEcU/% midj.kL;ksís';izkIR;k lg HkofrA ;fn

midj.ka rnqís';a izkIuksfr] ;L; Ñrs rL; fuekZ.keHkoÙkfgZ rnqidj.ka oS/rkiw.k±

HkofrA oS/rkfo"k;s fo}fn~Hk% izksDre~ &

ØksuoSd &

^oS/rk lk lhek fo|rs] lk rL;So ekiua djksfr] ;L;k% Ñrs rL;

fuekZ.keHkor~A*1

izQheSu &

^oS/rk rL; lwpdkÄïL; ek=kka izfrLFkki;fr ;L;ka ek=kk;ka ijh{k.ka]

rYy{;a eki;fr ;L; Ñrs rL; fuekZ.keHkor~A*2

1 Validity is the extent to which a test measures what is purpose to measure.

145

lkjka'kr% oDrqa 'kD;rs ;r~ oS/rk;k% lEcU/% ijh{k.kL;ksís';;ksX;r;k

lg vfLrA oS/rk}kjk ,o Kk;rs ;r~ midj.ka iwoZfu/kZfjrksís';a izkIuksfr u okA

oS/rk;k% izdkj%

1- :ioS/rk (Face validity)

2- fo"k;xroS/rk (Content validity)

3- rkfdZdoS/rk (Logical validity)

4- iwoZdFkuoS/rk (Pridictive validity)

5- dkjdh;oS/rk (Factorial validity)

mijksDrfof/}kjk 'kks/drkZ midj.kL; oS/rka tkukfrA oS/rk

midj.kL; egÙoiw.kZxq.k% fo|rsA

fo'oluh;rk (Reliability)

f}rh;% rduhdh;xq.k% orZrs fo'oluh;rkA midj.kL;

fo'oluh;rk;k% lEcU/% izkIrkÄïLFkkfirRosu lg fo|rsA midj.kL;

fo'oluh;rk lwp;fr ;r~ midj.ka eqgqeqZgq% iz'kkl;sr~ u osfrA ;fn rLekr~

izkIrkÄïs"kq LFkkf;Roa Hkofr] rfgZ rfLeu~ midj.ks fo'oluh;rkxq.k% HkofrA

oLrqr% midj.kL; fo'oluh;rk;k% lEcU/% izkIrkÄïkuka lÄõr;k lg HkofrA

2 A index of validity shows the degree to which a test measure what it purpose to

measure when compared with accepted criterion.

146

fo'oluh;rk Kki;fr ;r~ izkIrkÄï% fd;r~ lheki;ZUra pj=kqfVr% eqDrks¿fLrA

fo'oluh;rk;k% fo"k;s 'kks/eeZKS% fofo/izdkjs.k of.kZrefLrA

fxYiQksMZ &

^fo'oluh;rk ijh{k.kizkIrkads"kq lR;izlj.kL; vuqikr% fo|rs*A

vukLrslh &

^ijh{k.kL; fo'oluh;rk;k% vfHkizk;% fHkÂ&fHkÂkoljs"kq vFkok

lerqY;inkuka fHkÂ&fHkÂfoU;kls"kq dsukfi O;fDruk izkIrkadL; laxfr% orZrs*A

mijksDrdFkusu izrh;rs ;r~ fo'oluh;rk;k% lEcU/% izkIrkÄïkuka

lÄõr;k vFkok iqu#Rikndr;k lg fo|rsA fo'oluh;rk;k% Kkuk;

'kks/fo'ks"kKS% dsfpr~ fo/;% lwfprk%A rs fo/;% v=k izfrLFkkI;Urs 'kks/d=kkZA

fo'oluh;rk;k% fo/;%

1- ijh{k.k&iquiZjh{k.ke~ (Test-Retest)

2- lerqY;ijh{k.ke~ (Equivalent Forms)

3- v¼ZfoPNsnfo'oluh;rk (Split-Halfs)

4- rkfdZdlerqY;fo'oluh;rk (Rational-Equevalence validity)

ekud% (Norm)

midj.kL; ,dk egÙoiw.kkZ fo'ks"krk Hkofr ekud%A midj.kfuekZrk

;nk midj.ka fuekZfr rn~le;s midj.kL; ekud% fu/kZj;frA rnk/kjs.k

147

midj.k}kjk lax`ghriznÙkkuka O;k[;k fØ;rs fuekZ=kkA ekud% midj.kL;

lUnHkZfcUnq% Hkofr] rn~}kjk izkIrkÄïL; rqyuk djksfr l%A v=k

bZfoyegksn;suksDre~ & ^dL;kfi ijh{k.kL; ekud% cks/;fr ;r~ dL;kfi

lewgL; lnL;S% ijh{k.ks dFke~ vÄïk% izkI;UrsA*

mijksDrdFkusu izrh;rs ;r~ ekud% midj.kL; lUnHkZfcUnq% ln`'k%

Hkofr] ;su izkIrkÄïkuka O;k[;k fØ;rsA vL; lEcU/% okLrfodr;k lg

Hkofr] vL; fu/kZj.ka fuekZ=kk fØ;rsA ekudL; dfrfpr~ izdkjk% 'kks/fo'ks"kKS%

LohfØ;UrsA

1- vk;qekud% (Age Norm)

2- d{kkekud% (Grade Norm)

3- 'krka'kh;ekud% (Perantile Norm)

4- izekihÑrekud% (Standardized Norm)

foHksndrk (Discrimination)

midj.kL; iz'ufuekZ.ks 'kks/drqZ% eufl ,d% egÙoiw.kZ% fopkj%

vkxPNfr] ;r~ midj.ks fofgriz'uk% Nk=ks"kq ;ksX;rkuqlkja foHksna dfj";fUr u

ok] lk Hkofr foHksndrkA foHksndrk dfu"BJs"B;ks% foHksnua djksfrA vL;

lEcU/ksidj.kL; foHksnu;ksX;r;k lg HkofrA ;fn midj.ka Nk=ks"kq lE;d~

foHksnua djksfr] rfgZ rfLeu~ foHksnu;ksX;rk HkofrA vr% midj.kfuekZ.ks

fuekZ=kk vL;k% fo"k;s vfi è;kua nkrO;e~A

148

dkfBU;Lrj% (Defficulty Level)

midj.kL; xq.kks¿;a iz'ufuekZ.ksu lEc¼%A ;fn midj.ks

lfÂfgriz'ukukeqÙkjkf.k losZ iz;ksT;k% nnfr] rfgZ midj.ks dkfBU;ewY;L;

(Defficulty Value) vHkko% HkofrA vr% fuekZ=kk midj.kfuekZ.kle;s ,rr~

eufl vo/kj;sr~] ;r~ iz'ukukeqÙkjkf.k losZ u n|q%A

'kks/dk;sZ iz;qDrksidj.kkfu

'kks/dk;± lEiknuk; midj.kkfu egUegÙoa fun/frA izLrqr&

'kks/dk;ZlEiknuk; midj.kRosu ijEijkxrk/qfudNk=kk.kka ekufld;ksX;rkUrxZrs

rs"kka Le`fr%] 'kkfCnd;ksX;rk] v'kkfCnd;ksX;rk] vè;;uizo`fÙk% p vkxPNfrA

vfi p 'kSf{kdksiyC/huka rqyukRedkè;;uk; i×p'kks/ksidj.kkuka iz;ksx% Ñr%A

r|Fkk&

1- Le`frijh{k.ke~ (LofufeZre~)

2- 'kkfCnd;ksX;rkijh{k.ke~ (IMTISUNGBA AO - KOHIMA)

fgUnhotZue~

3- v'kkfCnd;ksX;rkijh{k.ke~ & Mk- vkj- ds- vks>k] Mk- ds- vkj- pkS/jh

}kjk fufeZre~A

4- vè;;u&vknrijh{k.ke~ & ,e- eq[kksikè;k;] Mh- ,u- luluoky }kjk

fufeZre~

5- 'kSf{kdksiyfC/ijh{k.ke~ & Mk- ehuk{khfeJk (ekudhÑr vizdkf'kr%)

149

'kks/ksidj.kkfu fooj.ke~

3-4-1 Le`frijh{k.ke~

ijEijkxrk/qfuNk=k;ks% Le`frukeè;;ueso izLrqr'kks/dk;ZL;

izFkeeqís';eklhr~A izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ i×ppjk.kka ekiuL; dk;Zeklhr~A rs p

lfUr&ekufld;ksX;rk;k% vUrfuZfgrLe`fr;ksX;rk] 'kkfCnd;ksX;rk] v'kfCnd&

;ksX;rk] vè;;uizo`fÙk%] 'kSf{kdksiyfC/'pA rs"kq iwoksZDri×ppjs"kq prq..kk±

;ksX;rkuka ekiuk; ekudhÑrijh{k.kL; fu.kZ;a Ñre~A Le`fr{kerk;k% ekiuk;

ekudhÑra ijh{k.keqiyC/eklhr~] ija r=k iz'ukuka la[;k lef/dk vklhr~]

vr% izLrqr'kks/s¿L; iz;ksxeso u Ñre~] ;rksfg Nk=kk.kka pRokfj ijh{k.kkfu

vof'k"VkU;klu~A vr% Nk=kk.kkeko';drkuq:ia 'kks/d=kkZ LoLe`frijh{k.k&

fuekZ.kL; fu.kZ;a Ñre~] rL; Ñrs p fuEulksikukU;uqlju~ 'kks/ksidj.ka

fufeZre~A

Le`frijh{k.kfuekZ.kL; ;kstuk

miyC/kuka ekudhÑrijh{k.kkukeoyksdua Le`frlEc¼lkfgR;L;

vè;;u×p Ñre~A rnf/ÑR; rkRdkfydLe`R;k/kfjrkuka LFkk;hLe`R;k&

/kfjrkuk×p iz'ukuka fuekZ.ka Ñre~A ekè;fedLrjh;fofo/fo"k;k/kfjrlkekU;&

Kkufo"k;diz'ukuka fuekZ.kk; fo"k;fo'ks"kKSlZgfopkj% Ñr% 'kks/d=kkZA

ijh{k.kL; fuekZ.ke~

150

Le`frijh{k.ks iz'ukuka la[;k foa'kfr% (20) Hkosr~ bfr fu.kZ;a Ñre~A

p;furfo"k;oLrqu% fujh{k.ksu fo"k;fo'ks"kKSlZg fopkjfoe'ksZ.k f=ka'kr~ (30)

iz'ukfu jfprkfuA izkjfEHkdkUos"k.kk; Le`frijh{k.kizfr:ia (izk:ia ok)

i×pfo"k;fo'ks"kKS% vUos"k.ka dkfjre~A rs"kka fopkjk.;fi lÄïfyrkfuA

fo"k;fo'ks"kKS% p;furkfu (fpfÉrkfu) dsoya foa'kfr% iz'ukU;so vfUre&

izk:ik; fu/kZfjrkfu] funsZ'k×p fyf[kRok ijh{k.kL;kfUre:ia fufeZre~A

ijh{k.ks fuEuizdkjL; iz'ukU;klu~

iz'ukuka izdkj%

1- vlR;@lR; dFkua

2- cgqfodYikRediz'ukfu

3- fjDrLFkkuiwfrZ lEcfU/riz'ukfu

(d) ,dinsu mÙkjr

([k) }Ôf/dins"kq mÙkjr

4- O;qRØeiz'ukfu

ijh{k.kL; ewY;kÄïue~

Le`frijh{k.kL;kfUreizk:ia fo"k;fo'ks"kKku~ n'kZf;Rok midj.kL;

fo"k;xroS/rk vUo;oS/rk p lqfuf'prkA

ijh{k.kL;kÄïhdj.ke~

151

fofo/iz'ukukek/kjs.k fofo/kÄïhdj.kL; izfØ;k lqfuf'prk ÑrkA

;L;k% fooj.ke/ksfyf[krefLrA

1- lR;@vlR;dFkue~

iz'uL; izdkj% vke~ u

ldkjkReddFkue~ 1 0

udkjkReddFkue~ 0 1

2- cgqfodYikRediz'usH;%

izR;sdlehphuk; mÙkjk; vÄïe~ ,de~ (1) iznÙke~A

3- fjDrLFkkuiwÙkZ;s

izfrlE;d~ fjDrLFkkuiwrZ;s 1&1] 2&2] 3&3] 4&4 vÄïkfu iznÙkkfuA

4- O;qRØfediz'usH;%

lE;d~ O;qRØeizLrqrs lfr ,diz'uk; (1) ,deÄïe~ iznÙke~A

3-4-2 'kkfCnd;ksX;rkijh{k.ke~

ijh{k.kfenesda oLrqfu"BkReda cqf¼ijh{k.kefLrA ijh{k.ksukusu

lkekU;ekufld;ksX;rk ijh{;rsA ijh{k.ks¿fLeu~ v"VkS Hkkxk% lfUrA izR;sdL;

HkkxL; iz'ula[;k fHkÂk HkofrA

152

1- oxhZdj.ke~ & vfLeÂqiijh{k.ks i×pn'kinkfu nh;UrsA ins"kq deI;sda

js[kkÄïua dk;± HkofrA

2- rqY;kRede~ & v=k i×pn'kinkfu iznh;UrsA v=k };ks% 'kCn;ks% feFk%

lEcU/% HkofrA r`rh;'kCnL; Ñrs dks"Bds"kq df'pr~ ,d% 'kCn%

js[kkfÄïr% dk;Z%A

3- i;kZ;% & v=k foa'kfr% inkfu HkofUrA izR;sds"kq ins"kq ,d% 'kCn%

LFkkI;rs] rRle{ka dks"Bds fodYi% iznÙkks¿fLrA v=k lekukFkkZ% 'kCnk%

js[kkÄïuh;k% HkofUrA

4- la[;kRedijh{k.ke~ & vfLeÂqiHkkxs }kn'kinkfu HkofUrA izR;sdfLeu~

ins "kV~la[;k% iznÙkk% HkofUr] vfi p vfxzela[;k;k% Ñrs fjDrLFkkua

ifjdfYirefLrA v=k iniznÙkk fp=kla[;k ys[kuh;k HkofrA vusu

la[;kØe% iw;ZrsA

5- iwfrZijh{k.ke~ & vfLeu~ pRokj% x|ka'kk% iznÙkk% HkofUrA izFke x|ka'ks

i×pfjDrLFkkukfu iwj.kh;kfu HkofUrA izR;sdfjDrLFkkuL; Ñrs iznÙks"kq

fodYis"kq leqfpr% mÙkj% ns;%A vusu izdkjs.k vfLeÂqiijh{k.ks

=k;ksn'k&mÙkjkf.k nkÙkO;kfuA ;s"kka iw.kZiQydkÄïk% vfi =k;ksn'k ,o

HkofUrA

6- ifjPNsnijh{k.ke~ & vfLeu~ miijh{k.ks ,da js[kkfp=ka iznÙka Hkofr] ;=k

ikfjokfjdlEcU/% iznf'kZrks HkofrA v=k n'kiz'uk% HkofUr

;s"kkeqÙkjlEcU/:is.k ys[kuh;EHkofrA

153

7- mÙkeLrdZ% & vfLeÂqiHkkxs¿fi n'kiz'uk% HkofUrA fodYis"kq ,da

lk/wÙkja fpÉhdÙkZO;EHkofrA

8- ljyrdZ% & vfLeu~ Hkkxs Hkkx};EHkofrA ;fLeu~ 1r% 57;kor~

laa[;kfÄïrk HkofUrA

rr% n'kinkfu nh;UrsA izR;sds"kq ins"kq dkf'pr~ la[;k% lfUrA rklka

la[;kuka le{ka o.kZekyk;k% 'kCnk% ys[kuh;k%A vijfLeu~ Hkkxs lIriz'uk%

HkofUr] r=k mfprfodYi% fpÉhdÙkZO;%A

vfLeu~ ijh{k.ks }kn'kkf/d'kriz'uk% HkofUrA ;s"kka dqyiQykÄï;ksx%

vf/dkf/d% }kn'kkf/d'kra HkofrA vLeS ijh{k.kk; pRokfja'kr~ fues"kkRed%

dky% iznh;rsA

vÄïhdj.ke~ &

mÙkjekykr% iz'ukukeqÙkjkf.k lR;kfu ok vlR;kfu lfUr bfr

fu/kZjf;ÙkO;kfu HkofUrA lk/wÙkjL; Ñrs ,d% vÄï% izns;ks¿fLrA vusu izdkjs.k

lkj.khiz;ksx}kjk vkâR; dqy;ksx% fu"iknuh;% HkofrA

v"ViQydkuka ;ksx% ewyizkIrkÄïlkgkÕ;su O;Drs% 'krka'k% vfi p ‘T’

iQykÄïlkj.;k KkrO;%A vr% laHkkO;=kqVÔkuqlkja ‘T’ iQykÄïL; lgkÕ;su

oxhZdj.ksu fu'psrO;ks HkofrA vusu izdkjs.k cqf¼yC/kÄïks¿fi KkrO;ks HkofrA

fo'oluh;rk &

154

vfLeu~ ijh{k.ks fo'oluh;rk izdkj};su Kkfirk HkofrA

1. SPLITHALF METHOD

2. KUDER RICHARDSON FORMULA

oS/rk &

cqf¼ijh{k.kL; oS/rk fofo/Hkkxkuka ikjLifjdlEcU/a foKk;So

fu/kZfjrkA vij×p oS/rka izek.khdrq± iQykÄïL; lglEcU/kr~ Kk;rsA

ekud% &

f=kfo/ekuda fuekZ.kekè;esu f=kfo/ekuda fuehZ; rn~}kjk vL;

ijh{k.kL; ekudhdj.ka fØ;rsA f=kfo/s"kq ekuds"kq izFkeLrkor~ 'krka'k:is.kkij%

‘T’ iQykÄï:is.k vfUrelIroxhZdj.k:is.k izLrw;rsA

3-4-3 v'kkfCnd;ksX;rkijh{k.ke~

izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ¿fLeu~ v'kkfCnd;ksX;rk;k% ekiuk; NVIGT

IMTISUNGA AO (KOHIMA) ESTD 1971 Hidni Verson }kjk

fufeZr%A v'kkfCnd;ksX;rk;k% ekiU;k% iz;ksx% Ñr%A vfLeu~ v"VlIrfr

dFkukfu lfUr] ,rs"kkek/kjs.kSo 'kks/drkZ iznÙke~ LohdjksfrA ,rs v"VlIrfr

iz'uk% ^ljykr~ dfBuEizfr* bfr f'k{k.klw=kek/kjhÑR;So fufeZrk%A izR;sdL;

iz'uL; Ñrs¿=k pRokfj lek/kukfu fodYi:is.k dfYirkfu lfUrA

iznf'kZrkÄï}kjSo bg vÄïk% iznh;UrsA vfLeu~ mÙkji=ks izR;sdiz'uL;

le{keÄïkukeqi;qDrJs.kh iznÙkk¿fLrA

155

ijh{k.kiz'kklukFk± funsZ'kk%

ijh{k.kdrkZ Loifjp;iznkusu lg fØ;kdykiksís';kfu fufnZ'ks;q%A

iwoZiznÙkk% funsZ'kk% Nk=kk.kka le{ka ekSf[kd:is.k izLrksrO;k%A rnuq Nk=ksH;%

mÙkjiqfLrdka iznk; Lofo"k;s fooj.ka nnkrqA izFkeLrkor~ mnkgj.kkuke~ vH;kl%

dj.kh;%A 'kÄïklek/kuL; i'pkr~ lÄïsrsu lg ijh{k.kL;kjEHk% fo/krO;%A

f=ka'kr~ fues"kkuUrja mÙkji=kk.kkeÄïhdj.ka dÙkZO;e~A

vÄïufof/% &

vL; ijh{k.kL; Ñrs vÄïufof/% vR;Urljy% HkofrA ,dLeS

lk/wÙkjk; ,d% vÄï% iznh;rsA vlk/wÙkjL; Ñrs u dk¿fi vÄïO;OkLFkk

ifjdfYirkfLrA ,dsu ikjn'khZLVsfUlylgkÕ;su vÄïua HkofrA ;r~ dk;ZL;kL;

lEiknuk; ,o fufeZra L;kr~A la[;kO;oLFkhÑR; fNnzLFka fo|ekua lek/kueso

lk/qRosu eU;rsA iznÙkkÂkÄïku~ x.kf;Rok rs"kka ;ksx ,o izR;sdLrEHks

ys[kuh;EHkofrA vkâR; dqy;ksxks¿/% fy[;rsA

ijh{k.kL; le;lhek &

le;kof/% ijh{k.kL; iwoZiz;kls O;rhr% vko';d% vkSlrle;%

,o ijh{k.kk; fu/kZfjrks HkofrA izR;sdsH;% insH;% x`ghrle;% 23&30 fues"kk%

vklu~A iz'ukuka dqyla[;k lIrfrA vr% ijh{k.kk; fu/kZfjr% dqyle;% f=ka'kr~

fues"kk% vklu~A n'kfues"kk% funsZ'kkRedksnkgj.kkuka Li"Vkocks/k; vfrfjDrRosu

dfYirk%A ,rRlo± fo|ky;L; pRokfja'kr~ fues"kkuUrja lekiuh;&lEiknuh;×p

HkofrA

156

fo'oluh;rk

1- SPLIT HALF METHOD v/Z[k.Mufof/%

2- ijh{k.kiquiZjh{k.kfof/%

3- dwMjfjpMZlulw=ke~ 1 (K-R-21)

4- oS/rk (-GMA, Jalota, + 0.88)

NORMS - v;a oS;fDrdrqyukRedfLFkfrcks/ukFkZe~ vko';dks¿fLrA v;a

Nk=ksH;% izxfrrkSyuekuda iznnkfr vfi p iznÙkekè;esu rs"kka fLFkfrefi

fu/kZj;frA

vL; HkkxL; mís';Lrkor~ ijh{k.kk; fu;eL; ekudhdj.kefi p

fHkÂ&fHkÂLrjh;k.kka Nk=kk.kka Ñrs NORMS TABLE bR;L; leqiyC/rk

dÙkZO;kA

3-4-4 vè;;uizo`fÙkijh{k.ke~ (SHI)

izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ Mk- ,u- luluoky] ,e- eq[kksikè;k;% vkH;ka

fojfprkè;;uizÑR;uqlwP;k% iz;ksx% Ñr%A vL;keuqlwwP;ka f}i×pk'kr~ dFkukfu

lfUrA

;=k ,di×pk'kreuqlwP;ka dFkuesda rFkk p rnfxzelwP;ke~

,dkn'kksidFkukfu HkofUrA f}i×pk'kr~ dFkukfu vkfJR;So vuqlU/k=kk

Lodh;% iznÙk% lÄïfyr%A ,"kq f}i×pk'kr~ dFkus"kq dkfufpr~ /ukRedkfu

dkfufpr~ ½.kkRedkfu iz'ukfu lfUrA /ukReddFkuL; eSuqvysu

157

izkIrfunsZ'kkuqlkja 4]3]2]1]0 vÄïk% iznh;Urs] ½.kkReddFkukuka Ñrs 1]2]3]4]0

,rkn`'kk% vÄïk% iznh;UrsA

izR;sdL; dFkuL; le{ka i×p izR;qÙkjdks"Bdkfu HkofUr ;kfu

Øe'k% lnSo] cgq/k] ;nk] dnkfi] u psfr i×pkFkkZuka izkfrfuè;a ogfUrA

v=k Nk=kk% Loeulk vuqdwyL; mÙkjL; le{ka (3) rnfrfjDrkuka

iz'ukuka le{ka (×) vL; fpàL; iz;ksxa dqoZfUrA ,rsu losZ"kka dFkukuke~ mÙkja

ns;EHkofrA v=k u fdefi dFkua gs;EHkofrA v=k lkèolk/q% osfr fopkjL;

vkxzgks u HkofrA vr% ;Fkkefr losZ iz'uk% lek/s;k% HkofUrA

vè;;uL; iz;qDrijh{k.ke~ ,dr% vè;;uO;ogkjL; ekiua djksfrA

;s v/ksfyf[krk% lfUr &

1- voxUrqa ;ksX;rk

2- ,dkxzrk

3- dk;kZfHkfoU;kl%

4- vè;;udks"Bd%

5- vUrfØZ;k

6- vH;kl%

7- lgk;rkiznkue~

8- vfHkys[kue~

9- Hkk"kk

vf/Hkkjrkfydk

158

miHkkx% vf/Hkkjizfr'kr% dFkula[;k

Kkr;ksX;rk 28 12

,dkxzrk 23 10

dk;Z&vfHkfoU;kl% 18 9

vè;;udks"Bd% & 7

vUr%fØ;k 7 3

vH;kl% 7 4

lgk;rkiznkue~ 7 4

vfHkys[kue~ 5 2

Hkk"kk 5 1

;ksx% 100 52

ijh{k.kL; fo'oluh;rk

lEiw.kZijh{k.kL; fo'okluh;rk v¼ZfoPNsnfof/}kjk fu%lkfjrk¿fLrA

fo'oluh;rkxq.kkÄï% ,duofr% fu/kZfjr% ;% vUR;ksPp% vklhr~A vfi pk;a

xq.kkÄï% lwp;fr ;r~ vè;;uizÑR;Uosf"kdk;k% fo'oluh;rk mPpLrjh;k

vfLrA

vÄïuizfØ;k

159

/ukRedizÑfrdkuka dFkukukeqifj 4]3]2]1]0 rFkk

½.kkRedizÑfrdFkukukeqifj 0]1]2]3]4 bfr vÄïiznkua HkofrA vu;k jhR;k

U;wurekÄï% 'kwU;% lokZf/d'p 208 vÄïk% izkI;UrsA vÄïfu¼kZj.ki×pfcUnq&

ekiuh}kjk fØ;rsA

dqy /ukReddFkukfu prqfL=ka'kr~ ½.kkReddFkukfu p v"Vkn'k

fu/kZfjrkfuA

/ukReddFkukfu ½.kkReddFkukfu

1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6] 7] 8] 9] 11] 12] 13]

14] 15] 22] 23] 24] 25] 27] 29] 30]

31] 32] 34] 38] 39] 41] 43] 44] 46]

49] 50] 51] 52 ¾ 34 dFkukfu

10] 16] 17] 18] 19] 20]

21] 26] 28] 33] 35] 36]

37] 40] 42] 45] 47] 48 ¾

18 dFkukfu

3-5-5 'kSf{kdksiyfC/ijh{k.ke~

f=kLrjh;laLÑr'kSf{kdksiyfC/ijh{k.kfefrJqRoSo v=k ijh{k.ks

Lrj=k;EHkofr bfr cks/ks tk;rsA rs v/ksfyf[krk% lfUr&

1- Le`frLrj%

2- cks/Lrj%

3- KkuLrj%

160

f=kLrjh;laLÑr'kSf{kdksiyfC/ijh{k.kL;ksís';% Nk=kk.kka fofo/Lrjs"kq

vftZrKkuL; ewY;kÄïuefLrA

izLrqrijh{k.ks laLÑrfo"k;L; miyfC/ijh{k.kk; visf{krKkuek/`R;

f=k"kq mi[k.Ms"kq foHkT; i×pn'kLe`frLrjh;k% cks/Lrjh;k% cgqfodYikRedk%

iz'uk% vfi p i×pfpUruLrjh;k% y?kwÙkjh;k% iz'uk% bg lekosf'krk%A

fofo/Lrjk.kka Ñrs iz'ufuekZ.kk; fu/kZfjr% p;fur'p fo"k;foo`fÙk% vxzs

fyf[krk¿fLrA

o.kZfopkjiz;ksx% &

laLÑrokÄ~e;s o.kZfopkjKkua furkUreisf{krefLrA ;r% o.kZKkusu

'kCnKkua] 'kCnKkusu vuqPNsnKkua [kyq ØeekfJR;So egku~ lEizR;;% tk;rsA

o.kZfopkjs izR;kgkjfuekZ.ka izR;sdL; o.kZL; mPpkj.kLFkkuL;kfi Kkua fØ;rsA

'kCn:ie~ &

laLÑrHkk"kk;ka 'kCnkuka :ioSfoè;a egn~ oSf'k"VÔek/ÙksA laLÑrs

izR;sdL; 'kCnL; izR;sdklq foHkfDr"kq =khf.k :ikf.k HkofUrA v=k

lIrfoHkDr;% HkofUrA rsu izR;sdL; 'kCnL; ,dfoa'kfr% :ikf.k HkofUrA

lEcks/uL; :ik.;fi vkâR; prqfo±'kfr% :ikf.k HkofUrA

/krq:ie~ &

/krq:iefi 'kCn:ion~ fofo/ydkjs"kq fHkÂa&fHkÂa HkofrA laLÑrs

/krwuka foHkkxL; eq[;k/kj};a orZrs& (1) vkReusine~ (2) ijLeSin×pA

Hkk"kkKkuk; Nk=kk.kka Ñrs /krqKkueko';dks HkofrA

161

izR;;% &

laLÑrs 'kCnkuka fo'ys"k.ka izÑfrizR;;k/huEHkofr] vFkkZr~ 'kCnkuke~

vFkkZoxeuk; r=k fo|ekukuka izÑfrizR;;kfnKkuke~] ,dLek¼krks%

fofo/izR;;la;ksxsu fofo/'kCnk% fuehZ;UrsA

lfU/% &

laLÑrHkk"kk;k% Kkuk; o.kZfopkjkfnor~ lfU/Kkuefi vko';defLrA

eq[;r% lU/;% =k;% lfUr] vT>yfolxZHksnsH;%A

lekl% &

lfU/fjo leklKkuefi vko';dRoa HktrsA leklLrq vusd&

inkukesdhHkouEHkofrA

dkjde~ &

okD;kFkZfu.kZ;dkjde~ vR;qi;ksxkLinEHkofrA dkjda "kV~fo/a

drkZfnHksnkr~A

ydkjiz;ksx% &

laLÑrs dkyKkua ydkjkfJra dkyL; ydkjs.kSo O;oLFkkfirkfLrA

laLÑrs n'kydkjk% lfUr] rs"kq i×pe% ;% ysV~ l% NUnfl iz;qT;rsA vU;s"kka

iz;ksxLrq ;Fkkolja ;Fkk;Fka yksds osns ok mHk;=k laizkI;rsA

lw=kiz;ksxk% &

162

izHkwrksi;ksxks fg lw=kk.kka laLÑrs lk/q'kCnkukeuq'kkludRokr~

lw=kkfRedk v"Vkè;k;hxzUFk:is.k jfprkfLrA laLÑrokÄ~e;a lkeU;tuk% vfi

vocqè;s;q%A

laLÑrlkfgR;e~ &

laLÑrs uhfrdkO;knhuka fofo/ewY;izfriknuk; vfLr dkfpr~

foy{k.kSo Hkwfedk laLÑrlkfgR;L;A laLÑrlkfgR;kè;;ukr~ ekuokuka thoua

lkiQY;esfrA

bRFkEizLrqrijh{k.ks f=kLrjh;laLÑrksiyfC/ijh{k.ks 'kCn:ikfn

iwoksZDrkuka 'kCn:iknhuka KkulEc¼k% iz'uk% mi;qDrk% bfr eRok fo|kfFkZuka

laLÑrksiyC/sjè;;ua f=kfo/Lrjs"kq iz"VO;k%A

ijh{k.kL; le;kof/%

f=kLrjh;laLÑrksiyfC/ijh{k.kL; izkjfEHkdokLrfodewY;kÄïukH;ka

izkIrifj.kkek/`R;] ijh{k.kL; lek/kuk; i×pk'kr~ fues"kkRed% dky%

leqi;qDr%A

ijh{k.kL;kÄïufof/%

Le`frLrjk; & izR;sdLeS lk/wÙkjk; 1 vÄï%] izR;sdLeS vlk/wÙkjk; 0 vÄï%A

vusu izdkjs.k Le`frLrjs vf/dre% izkIrkÄï% 15×1¾15 rFkk p

U;wureizkIrkÄï% 15×0¾0 lEHkofrA mÙkji=kdk.kkeÄïuk;

vÄïudqf×tdk iz;qDrkA

163

cks/Lrjk; & izR;sdLeS lk/wÙkjk; }kS (2) vÄïkS] izR;sdLeS vlk/wÙkjk;

'kwU;% (0) vÄï% iznÙk%A vusu izdkjs.k cks/Lrjs vf/dreizkIrkÄïk%

10×2¾20 rFkk p U;wureizkIrkÄï% 10×0¾0 'kwU;a lEHkofrA

mÙkji=kdk.kkekÄïuk; vÄïudqf×tdk iz;qDrkA

fpUruLrjk; & izR;sdL; iz'uL; iw.kkZÄïk% =k;% lfUrA izkIrksÙkjs"kq Nk=kk.kka

fpUrufo'ys"k.k{kerkekfJR; 'kwU;r% =k;a ;kor~ dks¿I;Äï% nkrqegZfrA

ijh{k.kiquiZjh{k.kfof/% &

f=kLrjh;laLÑr'kSf{kdksiyfC/ijh{k.kL; fo'oluh;rk;k% xq.kkÄï%A

Lrj% fo'oluh;rkxq.kkÄï% (r)

Le`frLrj% 0-81

cks/Lrj% 0-76

fpUruLrj% 0-69

ijh{k.kL; oS/rk

izR;sdL; ijh{k.kL; dkfufpr~ lqfuf'prkfu mís';kfu HkoUR;so] ;s"kka

izkfIrjfi rsu fØ;rsA vr% ;nk ijh{k.ka lqfuf'prksís';kfu yHkUrsA rnk

rRijh{k.ka oS/ijh{k.kfeR;qP;rs rFkk rL; ijh{k.kL; rnso xq.ka rL; oS/rk

164

LohfØ;rsA dL;kfi ijh{k.kL; oS/rk;k% lEcU/% ekiu=kqVÔk ,o HkofrA vr%

vusu Kk;rs ;r~ ijh{k.ksu izkIrkÄïk% fd;Ur% fLFkj=kqfVfHk% eqDrk% lfUrA

3-5 iznÙklÄïyua ijh{k.kkuka iz'kklu×p

izÑr'kks/L; iznÙkkuka lÄïyua fuEufyf[krkfu lksikukfu vuqfJR;So

HkofrA

iz'kkluL; funsZ'k%

fo|ky;kuqeR;k d{kka izfo'; Loifjp;a iznk;] 'kks/dk;ZL; iz;kstua

rUegÙo×pksncksè;dk;± izkjC/e~A

loZizFkea fo|kfFkZuka Le`frijh{kk;S Mk- lnuflagfunsZ'ks fufeZra

Le`frijh{k.ka forfjre~A lkekU;kSipkfjddk;kZuUrja rs"kkÄ~Ñrs mÙkjiqfLrdk;ka

iznÙkkuka funsZ'kkuke~ mnkgj.kk×p fo"k;s Li"Vkocks/% dkfjr%A ijh{k.kfo"k;s lo±

izfrik| Nk=kk bg vkfn"Vk vHkwou~] ;Ùks LoksÙkjkf.k vR;UrizPNÂr;k nnrq

vfi p rs"kkeqÙkjk.;fi izPNÂkfu Hkfo";fUrA ,rsu rr% Nk=kk% LorU=kr;k

lek/kuku~ vizLrqou~A

ijh{kkfo"k;dfunsZ'kkfnde~ mfprjhR;k Nk=kku~ mn~cksè; ijh{k.kL;

mís';efi Nk=kk.kka le{ka izfrikfnra ;r~ usna ijh{k.ka fdefi oSf'k"VÔefHky{;

izofrZrefirq rs"kka ekufld;ksX;rkijh{k.kk; vfLrA ,rsu rs"kka O;fDrxr&

vè;;uL; les/uk; fo|ky;L; izxfriznkuk; fo'ks"kykHkdjh Hkfo";frA rnuq

165

Nk=kiznÙkkuke~ mÙkjk.kka >fVR;so ,dhdj.ka fo/k; ijh{k.ka lEikfnre~A

mÙkjiqfLrdka uhRok rL;kÄïua Ñroku~ rFkk p iznÙka izkIroku~A

3-6 iznÙkkuka O;oLFkkiue~

iznÙkkuka lÄïyukuUrja rL; oxhZdj.ka O;oLFkkiu×p fo/Ùka

'kks/d=kkZA ;su rL; leqfprjhR;k fo'ys"k.ka fu"d"kZfu"iknu×p Hkosr~A ;|fi

fofo/ksidj.klgk;r;k¿fi izkIr% oS/% lÂfi vO;ofLFkrks HkofrA vr% ra

iz;kstu'khya mi;ksfxu×p drq± lqO;ofLFkrRoa lqlaxfBRo×p visf{krEHkofrA

rnFkZeL; oxhZdj.ka lkj.khc¼:is.kkL; lekiufeR;kfndekpkj.kh;a HkofrA

,df=kriznÙkkuka 'kq¼rk;k mi;ksfxrk;k vfi p iw.kZr;k fujh{k.ka fØ;rsA

iznÙkkuka lÄïyua fo'oluh;ksidj.ksu oS/ksidj.ksu p HkofrA iznÙkku~ lkFkZda

dÙkq± lkaf[;dh;izfof/ukeqi;ksx% vko';da HkofrA rnFk± iznÙkkuka oxhZdj.kL;

O;oLFkk;k% vko';drk HkofrA

izkIrlwpuk;k% fofo/oxsZ"kq foHkktusu visf{krifj.kkek; fo'ys"k.keso

iznÙkoxhZdj.kEHkofrA

vu;So jhR;k ,df=kriznÙkkuka 'kq¼rk mi;ksfxrk iw.kZrk p fujhf{krkA

rnuq lwpuku~ ijEijkxrk/qfudNk=ks"kq Js.khc¼a ÑRok lkj.khizfØ;;k vuqf"BrkA

vL;ka izfØ;k;ka iznÙkku~ xf.krh;ins"kq foHkT; oxhZÑrk; ok fo"k;lkexzh.kke~

mYys[k% Ñr%A

3-7 iz;qDrlkaf[;dh;fo/;%

166

lkaf[;D;k% eq[;ksís';a izfrn'kZr% izkIr&ifj.kke}kjk lef"Vfo"k;s

vuqeh; lkekU;hdj.ke=k leL;k tk;rs ;r~ fda uke lkaf[;dh bfr\

lkaf[;dh ,rkn`d~ foKkua fo|rs ;su fo'ys"k.kk/kjs.k fu"d"k± izfrLFkkiue~A

lkaf[;dh;fo"k;s dsfpr~ 'kks/eeZKS% Lodh;a era izfrLFkkfire~A

W. G. Sutcliffe -

^Lkkaf[;dh ,rkn`d~ foKkua fo|rs] ;=k ?kVukuka lR;rkfo"k;s iznÙkkuka

fof/iwoZda ladyua O;oLFkkiua rFkk p dfLeaf'pr~ ?kVuk&fo"k;s foLr`r&

O;k[;k lekfgrk HkofrA*

Ferguson –

^Lkkaf[;D;k% lEcU/% losZ{k.ksu ijh{k.ksu p izkIrlkexzh.kka lÄïyua]

oxhZdj.ka] O;k[;k p fo|rsA*

A. I. Bowley -

^oLrqr% lkaf[;dh&x.kuk;k% foKkua fo|rsA*

mijksDrifjHkk"kk}kjk Kk;rs ;r~ lkaf[;dh&foKkua fo|rs] ;=k iznÙkkuka

ladyua fo'ys"k.ka fu"d"kZizfrLFkkiu×p HkofrA

lkaf[;D;k% vko';drk

1. fofHkÂlewgkuka ikjLifjdrqyuk

'kks/dk;sZ dL;kfi oLrq&fo"k;s fofHkÂrF;kuka ladyua fo/k;

rnk/kjs.k lewgs"kq ikjLifjdrqyuk lEik|rs 'kks/d=kkZA rqyukFk± lkaf[;D;k%

167

vko';drk Hkofr ;Fkk o;a Nk=ks"kq es/kfoNk=kk.kka rFkk nqcZycqf¼Nk=kk.kka

oxhZdj.ka ok×Nke% rfgZ r=k mfprlkaf[;dhfo/s% vko';drk HkofrA

2. 'kSf{kdO;kolkf;dekxZn'kZue~

lkaf[;dh;fo/hukeko';drk 'kSf{kdekxZfunsZ'kus HkofrA lkaf[;dh&

fof/}kjk Nk=kk.kka ;ksX;rka] cqf¼Lrje~] vfHko`fÙka] #fpa izo.krk×p voxR;

fo"k;p;us lkgkÕ;a iznnkfrA lkaf[;dh u dsoya 'kSf{kdekxZfunsZ'kua nnkfr

vfi p O;kolkf;dfunsZ'kuefi nnkfrA ,oa lkaf[;dh O;Dr;s O;kolk;p;us

lkgkÕ;a iznnkfrA

3. 'kSf{kdiz;ksx% vuqlU/ku×p

orZekudkys izfrfnua ifjfLFkfr% ifjorZekuk tk;rsA izfrfnua f'k{kk{ks=ks

izkS|ksfxD;k% iz;ksx% HkofrA rs"kka iz;ksx% f'k{kk{ks=ks fd;r~ ykHknk;da fo|rs]

rs"kka iz;ksxs.k f'k{kk;ka fd;r~ ek=kk;ka xq.koÙkk vkxfe";fr bfr Kkrqa

vuqlU/kudk;± dj.kh;a HkofrA r=kksidj.k}kjk leL;kfo"k;s lÄïfyriznÙkkuka

fo'ys"k.ka dj.kh;a HkofrA lE;d~ fo'ys"k.kkFk± lkaf[;D;k vko';drk HkofrA

mfprlkaf[;dhfof/}kjk lkFkZdfo'ys"k.ka Hkofr] vU;Fkk fu"d"kZ% nks"kiw.kZ%

HkofrA vr% lE;d~ 'kks/dk;± lEiknf;rqa lkaf[;D;k% Kkua ijeko';da HkofrA

4. f'k{k.ks izHkko'khyrk

lkaf[;dh;f'k{k.ks izHkko'khyrkekusrqa lkgkÕ;a iznnkfrA vè;kid%

dL;ka d{kk;ke~ vè;kif;Rok KkrqfePNfr ;r~ Nk=kk% fd;Ur% cks/;qrk%

168

vHkou~ bfrA rn~}kjk l% Loa f'k{k.kizHkkfora drq± 'kD;rsA f'k{k.kizHkko&

'khyrka lkaf[;dhfof/uk ,o Kk;rs] ukU;Fkk bfrA

5. ikB~;ØefuekZ.ks vk/kjiznkue~

lkaf[;dh ikB~;ØefuekZ.ks egr~ lkgkÕ;a iznnkfrA ;nk ikB~;Øe%

fuehZ;rs eeZKS%] rnk ikB~;Øe% fd;r~ izHkkoiw.kZ%\ fo|ky;Lrjs lapkyus dk%

leL;k%\ dks ykHk bfr\ bR;knhuka iz'ukukeqÙkjkf.k lkaf[;dh}kjk ,o Kk;rsA

6. f'k{kk;ka uokpkjiz;ksx%

f'k{kk;ka uokpkjiz;ksxs¿fi lkgkÕ;a nnkfr lkaf[;dhA v|Ros f'k{kk;ka

lSesLVjiz.kkyh] xzsfMaxiz.kkyh] lÄõ.kdiz;ksx%] uwrulalk/ukuka iz;ksxs

loZdkji{kr% iz;klk% fØ;ek.kk% lfUrA rs f'k{kk;ka fd;rha xq.koÙkka tu;fUr

bfr Kkrqa lkaf[;D;k% vko';drkA

,rsH;% vfrfjP; vfi lkaf[;D;k% egÙoa fo|rs rn~ 'kks/drkZja

u;uiFkh dkj;frA

1- miyfC/ekiue~A

2- miyfC/rqyukA

3- vfHko`fÙkekiue~A

4- vuqlU/kuL; oSKkfudk/kjiznkue~A

5- iznÙkfo'ys"k.ke~A

6- iznÙklkj.kh;ue~A

169

7- 'kks/fu"d"kZfu"dklue~A

8- cqf¼ekiue~A

9- vf/xedk;sZ xq.koÙkksRFkkiue~A

'kks/s iz;qDrlkaf[;dh;fo/;%

lkaf[;dh ,rkn`d~ foKkua orZrs] ;=k iznÙkkuka lÄïyua O;oLFkkiua

izLrqrhdj.ka fo'ys"k.ka rFkk fo'ys"k.k}kjk fu"d"kZLFkkiua HkofrA oLrqr%

lkaf[;dhizfo/s% p;ua leL;kizÑR;kuqlkja HkofrA v/qukIk;ZUra 'kks/d=kkZ

ifjdYiuk&fuekZ.ka iznÙkladyu×p Ñre~A vfLeu~ lksikus 'kks/drqZ% dk;±

Hkofr ;r~ leL;klEcfU/ra ;r~ iznÙkladyua Ñra rr~ vFkZiw.k± dj.kh;a] rL;

Ñrs l% mi;qDrlkaf[;dh;fo/s% p;ua djksfrA

izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ vuqlU/krk fo'ks"kKijke'ksZ.k LokuqHkosu p eè;ekua]

ekudfopyua] ^Vh* ijh{k.ka bR;kfn&dk;± fu/kZfjre~A

'kks/dk;sZ eè;ekuL; iz;ksx%

izLrqr'kks/dk;sZ ^ijEijkxrk/qfudfo|ky;h;Nk=kk.kka ekufld;ksX;rka]

vè;;uizo`fÙke~ ,oa 'kSf{kdksiyfC/a* izfr n`f"Vdks.kL; rqyukRedeè;;ua

fo|rs vr% dsUnzh;izo`Ùks% Kkua] eè;ekuL; iz;ksx vko';de~A

eè;ekuL; rkRi;Ze~

170

eè;ekufo"k;s iQkjX;wluegksn;su izksDra ^eè;ekua rr~ ekua Hkofr ;r~

la[;k;k% ;ksxa rL;So la[;kHkkx}kjk vkxPNfrA* vfi p ,iQ- lh- feYl

^eè;ekua dL;kfi forj.kL; lUrqyudsUnz% HkofrA*

eè;ekua oxhZÑriznÙkr% voxhZiznÙkr'p izkI;rsA 'kks/dk;sZ

oxhZÑriznÙka eè;ekua mi;qT;rsA

eè;ekuL; lw=ke~

oxhZÑriznÙkr% eè;ekua Kkrqa v/ksfyf[kra lw=ka mi;qT;rs]

'kks/fo'ks"kKS% ;Fkk&

( )∑ f d

M = A.M. + ×c.iN

v=k &

M ¾ okLrfodeè;ekue~A

AM ¾ dfYireè;ekue~A

f ¾ vko`fÙk%A

d ¾ fopyueA~

∑ f d ¾ vko`fÙkfopyu;ks% xq.kiQyL; ;ksx%A

N ¾ lEiw.kkZo`fÙk%A

C. i ¾ oxkZUrje~A

'kks/s iz;qDra ekudfopyue~ (Standard Deviation)

171

dL;kfi 'kks/dk;ZL; laiknukFk± iznÙkkukeko';drk HkofrA

iznÙklÄïyuL; i'pkr~ rs"kka iznÙkkukeFkZiw.kZdj.kkFk± lkaf[;dhizfo/huka iz;ksx%

visf{kr% HkofrA lkaf[;dhizfof/"kq ekudfopyua ,da egÙoiw.k± izfof/%

orZrs] ;su Kk;rs iznÙkkuka izlkj% fd;r~ orZrs rFkk dsfUnz;izo`fÙkekur% fd;r~

vUrja orZrs iznÙkkuke~A ije=k 'kÄïk tk;rs ;r~ fde~ uke ekudfopyue~\

fopyufo"k;s ds"kkf×pr~ fonq"kka erkfu v=k miLFkkI;Urs&

cksfjax ySaxiQhYM rFkk osYM &

^fopyuL; ekid}kjk Kk;rs ;r~ iznÙkk% Loeè;ekur% fd;r~

nwji;ZUra foLr`ra orZrsA*

xSjsVegksn;% &

^fopyu'khyrk;k% rkRi;± iznÙkkuka izlkjs.k lg orZrs ;L; izlkj%

eè;ekua ifjr% HkofrA*

mijksDrdFkusu Kk;rs ;r~ fopyu'khyrk;k% rkRi;± iznÙkkuka izlkjs.k

lg orZrs] ;r~ dsfUnz;izo`fÙka ifjr% orZrsA

fopyu'khyrka Kkrqa uSdfo/ekidkuka iz;ksx% HkofrA ;Fkk&

• izlkj% (Range)

• eè;ekufopyue~ (Aurogemean Deviation)

• prqFkk±'kfopyue~ (Avartile Divation)

• ekudfopyue~ (Standard Deviation)

172

'kks/dk;sZ ekudfopyuL; iz;ksx% vÄõhfØ;rs 'kks/d=kkZA

ekudfopyua fopyu'khyrk;k% 'kq¼&LFkk;hekiu;ks% lwpd% fo|rsA ,rnFk±

euksoSKkfudkè;;us"kq vL; iz;ksx% fØ;rs 'kks/fo'ks"kKS%A dL;kfi lewgL;

letkrh;rka fo"ketkrh;rk×p KkukFkZe;a Js"Bekid%A ekudfopyuL; vFkZ%

orZrs izkIrkÄïkuka eè;ekur% izkIrkÄïL; fopyuL; oxsZ"kq eè;ekuL;

oxZewyeso ekudfopyua orZrsA ekudfopyuL; f=kfo/iznÙks"kq ekudfopyua

iz;qT;rsA vL; lw=ka fo|rs&

2

2fd fd

SD σ = i - × iN N

v=k &

f ¾ fofHkUuoxkZ.kke~ vko`fÙk%A

d ¾ fofHkUuoxkZ.kka dfYireè;ekukr~ fopyue~A

i ¾ oxZfoLrkj%A

N ¾ vko`Ùkhuka egk;ksx%A

3-8 ^Vh*&ijh{k.ke~ (‘t’ Test)

};ks% lewg;ks% rqyuk lk/kj.kr% ekud&eè;eku;ks% vUrj}kjk fØ;rsA

eè;ekuL; vUrjlkFkZdrk;k% Kkueko';da fo|rsA vUrjlkFkZdrk;k% Kkua

^Vh*&ijh{k.kekè;esu HkofrA

173

^Vh*&ijh{k.kL; iz;ksxk; vko';da orZrs ;r~ vko`fÙkforj.ka

lkekU;oØs L;kr~ rFkk U;kn'kZL; vkdkj% foLr`r% L;kr~A ^Vh*&ijh{k.k}kjk

izkIra ekua ^Vh*&rkfydk;ka foyksD; 'kwU;ifjdYiuk;k% LohÑR;LohÑR;ksfoZ"k;s

fu.kZ;% uh;rs 'kks/d=kkZA Vh&ijh{k.kL; lw=ka fo|rs&

Large Group 2 21 21 2Dt = S S+N N

v=k &

1M ¾ izFkeU;kn'kZL; iznÙkkuka eè;ekue~

2

M ¾ f}rh;U;kn'kZL; iznÙkkuka eè;ekue~

S1 ¾ izFkeU;kn'kZL; ekudfopyue~

S2 ¾ f}rh;U;kn'kZL; ekudfopyue~

N1 ¾ izFkeU;kn'kZL; vko`fÙk%

N2 ¾ f}rh;U;kn'kZL; vko`fÙk%

^Vh*&ijh{k.kL; iz;ksx%

};ks% eè;eku;ks% vUrjlkFkZdrk;k% ^Vh*&ijh{k.kL; iz;ksxa fØ;rsA

Vh&ijh{k.kL; ekudKkukr~ i'pkr~ LorU=kka'kL; (df) vko';drk HkofrA

rL; lw=ka orZrs &

df = n1 + n2 – 2

174

mHk;ks% lewg;ks% iznÙkku~ la;ksT; rr% 2 vadkr~ fo;kstuh;%A iqu%

Lora=kka'kk/kjs.k ^Vh*&rkfydk;ka lkFkZdrkekua foyksD; 'kwU;ifjdYiuk;k% fo"k;s

dF;rs ;r~ ifjdYiuk LohÑrk vFkok vLohÑrkA

LorU=krka'k% (df) 1 vadkr~ vkjH; 1000 vFkok vlhfera Hkforqa

'kD;rsA };ks% i`Fkd~&i`Fkd~ eè;eku;ks% vUrjlkFkZdrk;k% Ñrs 0-5 rFkk -01

Lrj% iz;qT;rs 'kks/eeZKS%A

;fn ^Vh*&vuqikrL; ekua okf×NrlkFkZdrkLrjL; lkj.khekukr~

vf/da Hkofr] rfgZ ^Vh*&vuqikr% rfLeu~ lkFkZdrkLrjs lkFkZda Hkofr rFkk

'kwU;& ifjdYiuk fujLrk HkofrA vLekr~ foijhra ;fn ^Vh*&ekua

okf×NrlkFkZdrkLrjL; lkj.khekukr~ vYia Hkofr] rfgZ ^Vh* vuqikr% rfLeu~

lkFkZdrkLrjs vlkFkZd% Hkofr rFkk 'kwU;ifjdYiuk LohÑrk HkofrA

a