Biology Cell Theory

8/14/2019 Biology Cell Theory

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Study Guide by Narendran Sairam, Steven Kraplin and Rajat Goyal

LECTURE NOTES (NARENDRAN SAIRAM)

CELL THEORY

In 1838 Schleiden and Schwann came up with cell theory. In 1838 cell theory consisted of three parts:a. The cell is a structure of physiology and organization.

b. Cells have a dual existence:

1. as an entity2. as a building block of live.

c. Cells form from free cell formation also called spontaneous generation.

CELLS

Cells have two types of differences;

a. Morphological differences: Have to do with structural differences.

Eg. Eukayotes have a nucleus while prokaryotes have no true nucleus.b. Phylogenetic differences: Have to do with genetic differences.

Eg. Bacterial, Eukaryan and Archean cells have phylogenetic differences.

PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

Three shapes:

Coccus: ball shapedBasilicus: Rod shaped.

Spirilum: spiral

The cell walls of the prokaryotes are made up of carbohydrates and proteins. These moleculesare called peptiglycans. The plasma membrane pressurizes the cell wall and helps it retain its

shape. The plasma membrane and the cell wall help protect the cell.

Most bacteria have a single large circular chromosomes but some have linear chromosomes Ribosomes are made up of three different types of RNA molecules and more than 50 types of

proteins.

Plasmids are circles of DNA that are twisted. Plasmids are capable of changing rapidly

according to their environment.

Flagellum: These, in prokaryotes, serve the same function the serve in eukaryotes.

Cytoskeleton: this made up of cytoplasm and stiff fibers. In prokaryotes, the cytoskeleton is

very complex in comparison to eukaryotes.

Eukaryotes Prokaryotes

Membrane bound organelles No organelles

5-100 micro meters 1-10 micrometers

Nuclear envelope delineates the nucleus No true nucleusComplex cytoskeleton Simple Cytoskeleton.

Reasons/advantages of having organelles:1. To get things done faster(improves efficiency)

2. Compartmentalization (keeps different reactions separate from one another)

All structures in a eukaryotic cell are membrane bound.

MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

The Achaean phospholipids:

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The Archaean membrane is made up of Phosphate(PO4-2), glycerol and isoprene.

The Eukaryan/ Bacterial phospholipids:

Made up of serine, Phosphate group, a glycerol group and a bunch of fatty acids.

Serine is and amino acid that attracts water very well. This is because both, water and serine are

polarized. Essentially serine is Hydrophilic (water liking).

The fatty acids on the other hand are hydrophobic (dont like water) because they are notcharged.

Actual Structure:The membrane is made up of two phospholipids placed back-to-back. This makes it a phospholipids

bilayer. The chemicals and the food get into the cell through the bilayer. This process is called

diffusion. Diffusion is basically a change in the concentration gradient. The diffusion of water througha membrane is called osmosis.

MEMBRANE PROTIENS

There are three types of membraneproteins;

a. Transport proteins: There arethree types of transport

proteins:

Carrier proteins: Theseproteins move molecules

through a membrane. Eg

C6H12O6. This is done bydiffusion.

Channel proteins: these

allow movement of ionsthrough a membrane.

Pumps: These allow

movement of ions againstthe concentration gradient

(opposite of diffusion).

b. Receptor Proteins

c. Cell to cell recognitionproteins: These are also called

glycoprotein. They have

Carbohydrates sticking out of their cell. This carbohydrate helps recognize other proteins of the

same body or organ.

ORGANELLES

Endoplasmic Reticulum(E.R.):1. Rough ER: Cytoprotein (cellular protein) synthesis takes place in the membrane of th

Rough ER. Once the proteins are made they are compartmented and left in the cytoplasm.

2. Smooth ER: Regulates C (Carbon) ion concentration. They make phospholipids


The Endoplasmic Reticulum and the Golgi apparatus


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and other non-protein based molecules that help in killing toxins.

The biochemical reactions that produce proteins and phospholipids are very complex. Proteins that are

made in the Rough ER are transported to the cytoplasm ribosomes and to the Golgi apparatus for

activation.

Golgi apparatus: This organelle is made up of three parts. A flat membrane sac called

the cisternae. This cisternae holds the lumen (everything inside itself).1. Cisface: This part is close to the ER and receives the transport vesicles that carry

the proteins.

2. The Medieval Region: This the space between the cis and trans faces (not shownin the picture). Acts as a transport between the extreme faces of the Golgi

apparatus.

3. Transface: This part is closest to the Plasma membrane. It packs the altered andactivated molecules and transports them to the membrane and other parts of the

body.

The Golgi apparatus produces lysosomes (organelles that produce digestive enzymes).They also modify proteins and activate them. The proteins are put in the lysosomes and

are transported to other parts of the body.

Chloroplasts: This is made up of two membranes; inner and outer membrane. There is aspace between the two membranes. This space is called intermembranal space. This

organelle is only found in plants and protists. It is the site of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis:The thylocoids capture the photons with the help of chlorophyll and carotenoids

on their membranes and house the conversion machinery.

Equation:

6CO2+6H2O C6H6O12 + 6O2This reaction is divided into two parts. During photosynthesis, plants take Carbon Dioxide

from their surroundings and use it to make glucose. a)Photophosphorylation or light-dependent reaction and b)Calvins cycle

or light-independent reaction. Photophosphorylation coverts light

energy into chemical energy. Calvin's cycle uses the stored energy,

water and CO2 to give glucose.Since glucose (C6H12O6 ) has bonds that require a lot of energy and since

CO2 's carbon-oxygen bonds don't have too much potential energy, their

potential energy must be increased in order to make glucose. Thisenergy is acquired from the photons of light. In order to use the energy

of the photons the energy must be converted into chemical form to be stored. This process is called

Photophosphorylation.

Photo ("light") phosphorylation ("the addition of phosphate to a molecule") basically adds a phosphateto ADP to make it ATP and there by stores energy in ATP. The process takes place in the grana

(Figure1), within the tylakoids. The environment within the grana is suitable for chemiosmosis (process

where ADP is synthesized to ATP). The photons of light are captured by the antennae called photosystems and are brought into the reaction center where they are converted into chemical energy.

Mitochondrion: This organelle is found in both, plants and animals. Its function is to

produce energy by producing ATP. It converts Glucose to ATP. The mitochondrion, like

the chloroplast has two membranes and space between those membranes. The outermembrane separates the cytocol(the jelly like part of the cytoplasm) from the inside. The

only things that enter the mitochondrion are enzymes, proteins, glucose and oxygen.Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin


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The actual reaction takes place in the matrix. This reaction is called cellular respiration.

There are two types of cellular respiration:

a. Aerobic respiration( respiration in the presence of oxygen). The steps in aerobic

respiration are:

Glycolysis:occurs inthe

cytoplasm of a cell. This converts the 6 Carbon atoms in C6H6O12 (Glucose)

to 2C3(Pyruvate).

Kerbs Cycle: This part of the cycle requires oxygen. It starts with Pyruvate

and O2 and produces 4CO2 and ATP.

In the end the number of ATPs produced are approximately 32-36.

b. Anaerobic respiration: Since this reaction takes place in the absence of air there is noKerbs cycle. Therefore anaerobic respiration only produces 4 ATP which results in

muscle burn and lactic acid buildup.

Nucleus: The nucleus is an organelle that has a double membrane and pores in betweenthe membranes. This is where the DNA is coded. The stuff inside the nucleus is called

Chromatin. There are two types of Chromatin; Heterochromatin and euchromatin.

Heterochromatin is chromatin that is dense and is not being coded while euchromatin isless dense and is being coded for.



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ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION TERMS

Tissue: a collection of cell working together to perform a specific function. Organ: A collection of tissues working together to perform a specific function.

Organ Systems: A collection of Organ working together to perform a specific function. Multicellular: consisting of more than one cell. Connective tissue: cells closely arranged in a solid, jellylike or liquid extra cellular Matrix (e.g.

Blood, bone.) Cartilage: a connective tissue with a firmer extra cellular matrix.

Bone: a connective tissue with a firm extra cellular matrix. Blood: a connective tissue that has a liquid extra cellular matrix. Its cells are surrounded by

Plasma. Nervous tissue: tissue made of cells that are called neurons or nerve cells. Part of the nervous

system. Muscle tissue: Made of fibers that only contract. Striated muscle: Muscle that helps move the skeleton and keeps it in place. Cardiac muscle: makes up the walls of the heart. Smooth muscle: line the walls of the blood vessels. Epithelial tissue: lines the surface of the body (skin). Volume increases more rapidly than surface area. Metabolic rate: over all rate at which energy is consumed by an organism. Basal metabolic rate: amount of oxygen consumed by and organism while at rest with an

empty stomach and under normal conditions. Allometry: occurring where change in body size are accompanied by disproportional changes in

anatomical structures. Homeostasis: the relatively standard and constant physical and chemical conditions within an

animal cell and tissue. Thermoregulation: The control of the body temperature. Endotherm: Organism that produces its own heat. Ectotherm: gains heat from its environment. Homeotherm: these have constant body temperature. Heterotherms: fluctuate body temperature.

Torpor: condition where metabolic rate is reduced. Hibernation: state of extended or persisting torpor. Conduction: gaining heat by contact. Convection: Change of temperature during movement of water air of through body surface. Radiation: transfer of heat without physical contact. Evaporation: phase change between liquid to gas. Counter current heat exchange: an arrangement where blood vessels are arranged in an anti

parallel fashion that enables heat exchange between organisms.

ORGAN SYSTEMS

Excretory system: gets rid of metabolic wastes.

Skeletal system: provides structural support for body. Endocrine system: produces hormones for growth, development and reproduction.



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Circulatory system: pumps and carries blood throughout the body.

Immune system: defends the body from foreign objects and organisms. Integumentary system: creates a protective barrier between the body and the environment. Lymphatic system: deals with excess water from the excretory system and provides places for

the storage of the lymphocytes. Digestive system: breaks down food and absorbs nutrient and eliminates wastes.

Nervous system: sends and receives signals from the environments and controls all the bodilyfunctions. Respiratory system: exchanges gases (mainly O2, H2O and CO2) with the environment. Reproductive system: produces gametes and provides organs for fetal development in females.

Notes

Blastula is a ball of cells that goes through a process calledgastrulation and produces a gatrula.

The Gastrula has three parts to it endoderm, ectoderm and

sometimes mesoderm. Before the final stages of gastrulation take places the cells are

'told' weather they are going to become ectoderms, mesoderms

or enoderms. The ectoderm forms the brain, nerves and spinal chord and

skin. The mesoderms form the internal organs and the skletons.

***most protostomes and deuterostomes have three germ

layers.



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THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The skin is and up of three types of epithelial tissues.a. columnar epithelial tissue:

b. cuboidal epithelial tissue:



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c.squamous epithelial tissue:

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

There are two types of circulatory systems:

a. Open Circulatory Systems are circulatory systems where all the bodily fluids are dumped into onecavity inside the organism. Some mollusks and arthropods have this kind of a circulatory system. These

creatures do not posses blood. Instead they have hemolymph which is a mixture of blood, lymph and

byproducts. This hemolymph is dumped into a cavity and then drained through the porous layers of thecavity. The hemolymph helps transport nutrients throughout the body.

b. Closed Circulatory System are circulatory systems where the blood and the bodily fluids stay in the

vascular tubes. These organisms have hemoglobin which is four proteins held together by a Fe or iron

molecule.

The Blood

The human body has 4.2-5.4 million cells per l (micro liter). There are three types of cells in blood.

a. RBCs (RedBloodCells): these are the cells that carry oxygen and carbohydrates throughout the body.These are the most common type of blood cells in the body.

b. Platelets: these are cells that are no longer functional and are essential in the clotting of blood.c. WBCs(WhiteBloodCells): there are five types of white blood cells.White blood cells or leukocytes

are cells of the immune system defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign

materials. Several different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived

from a multi potent cell in the bone marrow. Leukocytes are foundthroughout the body, including the blood.

Neurophils: these are phagocycotic cells that eat

harmful bacteria by engulfing them. Eosynaphils: these cells respond to the presence of

proteins. They multiply rapidly in an allergic reactionto fight and overwhelm the unwanted proteins. Basophils: these prevent unnecessary clotting. They

prevent clotting by producing heparin. Heparin

reduces your ability to clot and increases your abilityto break down clots. They also produce histamine.

Histamine contracts the affected tissue and pushes the

fluids into the neighboring tissues and there by causes

swelling. Lympocytes: these responds and attack specific



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antigens or proteins. Every antigen has its own antibody so that every time the organism

is exposed to the antigen the antibody reacts and annihilates the antigen. Monocytes: these circulate in blood for a day and produce macrophages(largest WBCs)

that eat and destroy everything it their pathincluding cells and bacteria.

The Heart

The heart is an organ that pumps the blood to the body. The

blood leads away from the heart in arteries. These tubes arebig enough to be seen with a naked eye. As the go deeper and

farther away from the heart the size down and become

arterioles. These arterioles go into the capillaries where the

exchange of nutrients takes place. Then the deoxygenizedblood goes into the ventrioles and then in to the veins and

then finally back to the heart where the blood is pumped to

the lungs for exchange.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

This system returns fluids to the circulatory system. It originates in ones endpoints like the tips of

fingers and toes. Therefore they are present in all parts of ones body. The Circulatory system looses

water through the capillaries. Since not all of the water is regained the extra fluids are picked up by thelymphatic system are emptied into veins near the heart. The fluid carried by the lymphatic system is

called lymph. The lymph goes through lymph nodes that filer the lymph by using phagocycotic cells

and organisms. The lymphocytes are stored in the spleen, the tonsils and the thalamus glands.

IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system give two different kinds of responses: specific and non-specific. Nonspecific response: the infection is kept out of ones body by barriers like the skin. The other

pores in ones body are lined with mucus to purify the entering substances. Nonspecific response

also occurs at a cellular level. These responses are initiated by phagocycotic cells.NK cells: these are Natural Killer cells that respond to any cells that have been altered.

Heal(all metabolization) + redness(RBC) + fluid(capillaries expand)= inflammation Specific response of the immune system to a foreign particles is initiated by antigens. The

antibodies bind to the antigen that are usually proteins. There are two types of antibodies: B cells: these cells become plasma cells in the Bone Marrow. This produces a bit of E.R

and ribosomes. The plasma cells produce antibodies that are released into the body. T cells: these cells are called T-cells because they are produced in the Thymus

glands.There are three types of T-cells:



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Cytotoxic: these recognize

any cells that have been

altered. These have

antibodies on the surface thatproduce perfarin to penetrate

the membrane of the antigen.

This process slows thereproduction of the

pathogens or antibodies. Helper: these cells also

recognize the altered cells

and signal to intiate the

production of the B-cells and

the cytotoxic T-cells. Theseare the cells that are first

invaded by HIV. Suppressor: these T-cells

stop the production of the T-

cells and the B-cells.

If a person has an organ transplant then the immunesystem rejects the organ. This rejection can be

reduced in two ways:

1. matching the donors and the recipient: blood istake from both and the Histocompability is

consulted.

2. The reduction of the specific immune system.

In the 1769 Edward Jenner observed that women

who milked cows did not get small pox. Cow pox exposed people did not get small pox. He was the

first person to introduce a vaccination.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

There are some requirements for the exchange of gases:

surface must be moist. Gases dissolve in a liquid before entering the membrane by

diffusion. The epithelial cells must be extremely thin in order to facilitate diffusion. The surface itself must be thin.

The lungs are contained in an air tight and water tight sac called the pleura.

The esophagus is the only hole through the diaphragm. As the diaphragm contracts the ribcage expandsand the pleura expands allowing the air to rush into the lungs. When the diaphragm expands the ribcage

contracts and the pleura contracts pushing the air out of the lungs.

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system performs the following functions;Ingestion

Digestion

Absorption



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Elimination

The digestive system follows the tube inside a tube structure

Ectotherm makes up body wall.Endotherm makes up digestive tract.

Mesoderm makes up organs in the coelom.

Path of Food Inside an Earthworm

Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus-Crop(storage sac)-Gizzard(muscular organ that grinds food)-Intestine-

Anus.

Path of Food inside a Vertebrate

Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus- Small Intestine- Large Intestine-Anus.

Human Digestion

Mouth:

Mechanical and chemical digestion takes place here. The mechanical digestion occurs with help of theteeth, tongue and jaw muscles. Mammals have four types of teeth:

Incisors;Canines;Premolar;Molar. Once the food is ground, saliva and other juices are mixed with theit.

Pharynx & Esophagus:

Serve as tubes to transport food. The food is taken to your stomach, through the esophagus, by a series

of contractions by the tube. This process is called peristalsis and the food, while in the esophagus, iscalled bolus.

Sphincter Muscle:A muscle at the end of the esophagus that relaxes to let the food pass through it into the stomach.


Body wall

Coelom

Digestive tract


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Stomach:

The stomach perform these functions:

a. mix food with the gastric juices.b. Churns the food.

The food comes in through the sphincter muscle and forces the stomach to expand. The gastric glands

in the stomach produce HCl (Hydro-Chloric acid) and pepsinogen. The HCl denatures proteins in thefood. In the presence of HCl and Pepsigen becomes active and is called pepsin. Pepsin shortens the

proteins that are denatured by HCl. When the food leaves the stomach it is called chyme. The chyme

passes through the pyloric sphincter at the end of the stomach and goes into the small intestine.

Small Intestine:

The inside of the small intestine looks like fur since it is covered with tiny hair like projections. These

increase the surface area for the absorption of nutrients. The small intestine receives bile and enzymes.The bile reduces the fats into tiny droplets in a process called emulsifying. The enzymes actually break

down the fats and proteins. Almost all the nutrients absorbed by the digestive system are absorbed by

the small intestine.

Large Intestine:

The large intestine is considerably larger than the small intestine. The undigested chyme passes throughthe large intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and sodium from the chyme. Then the useless

chyme is eliminated.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM(RAJAT GOYAL)

2 primary functions:

Osmoregulation-regulates water

Removal of metabolic wastes

Osmosis: Diffusion of water from a high point of concentration to low concentration point.

Osmotic Potential: Amount of salt in water

Osmosis occurs in order of the osmotic potential, because the amount of water is the same on both

sides of the membrane.

Metabolic wastes:

Nitrogen wastes

ammonia, urea, uric

acid

Carbon Dioxide

wastes(CO2) wastes

Water(H2O) Wastes

- Ammonia (NH4) is highly toxic so it is

converted into urea or uric acid.



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o Uric acid is crystallized form of urea

- Uric acid is produced by reptiles birds, and insects

- Animals that live in hot and dry regions need to convert urea into uric acid to conserve water.

- Endotherms produce their own hear, so therefore they have lots of cells that produce things and therefore

endotherms have more waste products. Endotherms deal with more nitrogenous waste.

LAB WORK (Steven Kraplin)

Mylohyoid: moves floor of mouth during respiration

Rectus Abdominus: holds the sternum and viscera in placePectoralis: moves forelimbs

External Oblique: constricts abdomen and holds viscera in place

Ventral Surface

Thigh

Triceps femoris-adducts thigh, extends leg

Sartorius-flexes leg,adducts thighGracilis major-adducts thight, flexes

leg

Gracilis minor-adducts thigh, flexesleg

Lower legGastrocnemius-flexes leg, extends foot

Tibialis anticus-extends leg, flexes foot

Dorsal Surface

ThighTriceps femoris-adducts thigh, extends

leg

Semimembranosus- adducts thigh,

flexes legGracilis minor-adducts thigh, flexes

leg



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Lower leg

Gastrocnemius-flexes leg, extends foot

Peroneus-extends legTibialis anticus-extends leg, flexes foot

Muscles

Origin: End of muscle attached to the stationary

Insertion: End of muscle attached to bone that moves, usually distal.Flexor: Muscle that bends a part

Extensor: Muscle that straightens a part.

Adductor: Muscle that moves a part toward the midline.

Abductor: Muscle that moves a part away from the midline.

PECTORAL AND PELVIC GRIDLES

Table Of Comparisons of Animal Bones.

Pectoral Perch Frog Turtle Bird

Scapula Fused to thecoracoids.

Easily spot ablein frog.

Extended to be

called thesuperscapula.

The scapula seems tobe well protected

inside the shell.

Scapula is parallel to theback bone of the bird.

Scapuprom

Sternum Absent Connected to the

scapula.

Absent Fused to the ribs to aid in

protection of the internalorgans.

Is stru

lothu

SteHumerus Absent Joined to the

coradoids.

Protected inside shell.

Kind of bent.

Connected to the corcoids. Conn

the s

Elo

Radius Absent Fused to the

Ulna

Standard Standard Elo

Ulna Absent Fused to the

Radius

Standard Standard Elo

Carpals Absent Normal Standard Only two are present as

bones. The others are either

absent or fused to some other

bone.

No

Metacarpals Absent A little longer than normal.

normal Called carpometacarpus. Raisway a

the j

and r

Phalanges Absent normal Normally structured. Only one in each wing.

Clavicle Absent Readily seen Absent Absent Tiny bconn

any

bo



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Pelvic Frog Turtle Bird Cat

Ischium Prominently seen Standard Present Completely normal

Ilium Prominently seen

Pubis NormalFemur Typical Fairly

NormalCalled tibiotarsus

Tibia Fused to the fibula to

form the tibiofibulaFibula Fused to the

tibiotarsus

Tarsals Absent Absent

Metatarsals Elongated to provide a

large surface area topush off while

swimming and jumping.

Phalanges Make up the foot.

VOCABULARY(Rajat Goyal)

Words

Definition

1. Domain Any of three divisions of living systems, consisting of the eukaryotes, bacteri

archaea.2. Prokaryotic Cell These cells have no nuclear envelope, no nucleus, and they have plasmids. They

nanometers in size (10 times smaller then eukaryotic cells) and they rarely have

membrane structures. They also have a simple cytoskeleton.

3. Eukaryotic Cell These cells do have a nuclear envelope, and also have a nucleus. They are 5

nanometers in size (10 times larger then prokaryotic cells) These cells also hav

complex cytoskeletons.

4.Eukarya One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree they are the last and most deve

organisms, they are eukaryotes, fungi, plants and animals.

5.Archaeabacteria (Archae) One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree these were the second kind of or

and contain prokaryotes.

6. Eebacteria (bacteria) One of three domains, on the evolutionary tree these were the first kind of organcontain prokaryotes.

7. Plasmid Circular pieces of DNA, it makes bacteria adaptable.

8.Cytoplasm Gelatinous substance within cell.

9. Hydrophobic Repels water

10. Flagella Whip like processes used for locomotion in some microorganisms.

11. Cell Wall The rigid outermost cell layer found in plants cells but not animal cells.

12. Plasma Membrane Encloses the cytoplasm in a cell, found in both animal and plant cells.

13. Ribosome A cell structure that is not membrane bound. It is the site of protein synthesis with



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14. Centrioles One of two cylindrical cellular structures that are composed of nine triplet micro

and form the asters during mitosis.

15. Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

16. Chromosomes A threadlike linear strand of DNA and associated proteins in the nucleus of eukcells that carries the genes and functions in the transmission of hereditary inform

17. Diffusion The transport of matter from one point to another by random molecular motions.

in gases, liquids, and solids.18. Osmosis Diffusion of water through membrane.

19. Hydrophilic Attracts water

20. Phospholipid Bilayer Composed of two layers of phospholipids positioned such that their polar hydrheads face outward and their nonpolar hydrophobic tails are directed inward, bl

entry of water and water-soluble material into the cell.

21. Protein Are integral, meaning bound to the hydrophobic interior of the membrane, or pe

meaning not bound in this way.

22. Carbohydrate Any of a group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starches, cellulo

23. Cytoskeleton The internal framework of a cell composed largely of actin filaments and micro

24. Channel Protein Protein forming an aqueous pore spanning the lipid bilayer of the cell membran

when open allows certain solutes to traverse the membrane.25. Transport Protein Is aprotein involved in the movement ofions, small molecules, or macromolecu

as anotherprotein across abiological membrane.

26. Sodium-potassium Pump Keeps sodium on one side of your membrane and potassium on the other

27. Membrane Thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regstructures, or organs of an animal or a plant.

28. Membrane Proteins Is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a ceorganelle. More than half of all proteins interact with membranes. Membrane pro

be classified into two groups, based on the strength of their association with

membrane.

29. Phospholipid Any of various phosphorus-containing lipids, such as lecithin and cephalic, th

composed mainly of fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a simple organic molekinds, 1 found in Achaea and the other found in Eukarya/Bacteria

30. Fats Any of various soft, solid, or semisolid organic compounds constituting the es

glycerol and fatty acids and their associated organic groups.

31. Lysosomes Is a membrane bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes.

32. Cell The smallest structural unit of an organism that is capable of independent funct

consisting of one or more nuclei, cytoplasm, and various organelles, all surround

cell membrane.

33. Plant Cell Contain Chloroplasts and Cell walls which animal cells do not. Also contain n

envelope, nucleolus, chromatin rough E.R., Smoot E.R., ribosomes, Golgi app

vacuole (lysosomes), peroxisome, mitochondrion, plasma membrane, and a cyto

element.34. Animal Cell Contain centrioles which plant cells do not. Also contain nuclear envelope, nuc

chromatin rough E.R., Smoot E.R., ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vacuole (lysos

peroxisome, mitochondrion, plasma membrane, and a cytoskeletal elemen

35. Nucleolus A small, typically round granular body composed of protein and RNA in the nuc

cell. It is usually associated with a specific chromosomal site and involved in rib

RNA synthesis and the formation of ribosomes.

36. Cell Wall Rigid shell that is not found on animal cells.

37. Enzymes Bring things closer together by bringing them in smaller amounts of space. Enzyma binding cite for all molecules it has to bring together.

http://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/ionhttp://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/biological-membranehttp://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/biological-membranehttp://www.answers.com/topic/cellhttp://www.answers.com/topic/organellehttp://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/ionhttp://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/biological-membranehttp://www.answers.com/topic/proteinhttp://www.answers.com/topic/biological-membranehttp://www.answers.com/topic/cellhttp://www.answers.com/topic/organelle


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38. Mono-unsaturated Fats Fats that is good for you.

39. Saturated Fat A fat, most often of animal origin, that is solid at room temperature and whose fchains cannot incorporate additional hydrogen atoms. An excess of these fats in t

thought to raise the cholesterol level in the bloodstream.

40. Endoplasmic Reticulum

(E.R.)

Makes proteins and lipids which exports throughout cell.

41. Smooth EndoplasmicReticulum (E.R.) Regulates calcium and ion concentration. Synthesis of membrane phospholipidsmakes lipids.

42. Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum (E.R.)

Site of protein synthesis. Exports large quantities of proteins(ribosomes)

43. Golgi Apparatus Involved in creation of lysosomes

44. Cisface Receives transport vesicles from E.R.

45. Transface Closer to plasma membrane the E.R. It packages molecules into vesicles and tra

them to the Golgi apparatus.

46. Mitochondrion Creates energy by producing ATP.

47. Krebs Cycle A series of enzymatic reactions in aerobic organisms involving oxidative metabacetyl units and producing high-energy phosphate compounds, which serve as th

source of cellular energy.48. Glycolysis An ATP-generating metabolic process that occurs in nearly all living cells in w

glucose is converted in a series of steps to pyruvic acid.

49. Actin A protein found in muscle that together with myosin functions in muscle contr

50. Polymerization Formation of anything that has repeated units in it.

51. Cytoplasmic Streaming Flow of cytoplasm specific to plants and fungi

52. Intermediate Filaments Any of several classes of cell-specific cytoplasmic filaments of 8-12 nanometdiameter; protein composition varies from one cell type to another.

53. Keratin Tough, insoluble protein substance that is the chief structural constituent of hai

horns, and hooves.

54. Lamin Fibrous proteins having structural function in the cell nucleus.

55. Microtubules Cylindrical hollow structures that are distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eucells, providing structural support and assisting in cellular locomotion and tran

56. Tissue A collection of cells working together.

57. Organ A differentiated part of an organism, such as an eye, wing, or leaf, that performs function.

58. Organ System A group of organs in the human body that work together to carry out a vital b

function.

59. Multicellular Consisting of more than one cell

60. Connective Tissue Cells closely arranged in a liquid, jelly like, or sold extra cellular matrix

61.Cartilage A connection tissue with a firmer extra cellular matrix. It works with the bones tostructure.

62. Blood Connective tissue that has cells surrounded by plasma.63. Nervous Tissue Tissue consisting of nerve cells or neurons

64. Neurons Nerve cells that deliver electromagnetic signals

65.Muscle Tissue Made up of fibers that contract

66.Muscle Fiber A cylindrical, multinucleate cell composed of numerous myofibrils that contrac

stimulated.

67. Striated Muscles Moves the skeleton.

68.Cardiac Muscle Makes up the wall of the heart

69. Epithelia Gland



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70. Metabolic Rate Overall rate of energy consumed by an organism

71.Basal Metabolic Rate Amount of oxygen taken in by an organism while at rest with an empty stomach condition.

72.Homeostatis Is the relatively constant chemical and physical conditions in a n animal ce

73. Thermoregulation Maintenance of a constant internal body temperature independent from the enviro

temperature

74. Endotherm An organism that generates heat to maintain its body temperature, typically abotemperature of its surroundings

75. Ectotherm Organism that regulates its body temperature largely by exchanging heat wit

surroundings

76. Homeotherm Maintaining a relatively constant and warm body temperature independent

environmental temperature

77. Hetereotherm of animals except birds and mammals; having body temperature that varies w

environment

78. Torpor A state of mental or physical inactivity or insensibility.

79. Hibernation Condition of dormancy and torpor found in cold-blooded vertebrates and invert

80. Allometry The study of the change in proportion of various parts of an organism as a conseq

growth.

81. Immune System Defends against foreign objects and organisms

82. Circulatory System Pumps and carries blood throughout the body

83.Respiratory System Exchanges gases (mainly O2, CO2 and H2O) with the environment

84. Lymphatic System Deals with access water from circulatory system, also produces and stores lymp

85. Digestive System Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients and eliminates waste.

86. Skeletal System Provides structural support for body

87. Muscular System Allows movement of body and heart.

88. Endocrine System Makes hormones for growth, development, and reproduction

89. Excretory System Gets rid of metabolic waste.90. Reproductive System Produces gametes and provides organs for fetal development in a female

91. Integumentary System Creates protective barrier between the body and its environment

92. Nervous System Sends and receives signals from the environment. Controls all bodily functio

93. Red Blood Cells (RBC) A cell in the blood of vertebrates that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide to athe tissues. In mammals, the red blood cell is disk-shaped and biconcave, con

hemoglobin, and lacks a nucleus.

94. White Blood Cells

(WBC)

Any of various blood cells that have a nucleus and cytoplasm, separate into a th

layer when whole blood is centrifuged, and help protect the body from infectio

disease. White blood cells include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocy

monocytes.

95. Cephalopods Any of various marine mollusks of the class. They include octopus, squid, cuttlenautilus.

96. Echinoderms Any of numerous radially symmetrical marine invertebrates of the phylumEchinodermata, which includes the sea star, sea urchins, and sea cucumbe

97. Annelids Any of various worms or wormlike animals of the phylum Annelida, characteriz

elongated, cylindrical, segmented body and including the earthworm and lee

98. Hemoglobin Four proteins held together by on iron atom.



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99. Platelets Gives pigment in skin. Essential in blood clotting and forms the clot.

100. Eosinophils Respond to presence of protein that does not belong in your system. Fights foproteins in your system.

101. Basophils Prevent inappropriate clotting (inside the circulatory system) by producing heProduces histamine.

102.Anti Histamines Reduces swelling, histamine is a haling mechanism.

103. Axis It is defined by each pair of opposite ends

104. Anterior Before (rostal or cranial)

105. Posterior After (Caudial=tail)

106. Cranial Skull

107. Rostral Beak

108. Cephalic Head

109. Caudal Tail

110. Dorsal Back

111. Ventral Abdomen

112. Lateral To the side

113. Medial Middle

114. Proximal Nearest

115. Distal To stand away from

116. Appendage A structure that extends from main body

117. Ipsi Self/Same

118. Contra Against

119. Superficial Surface

120. Deep Farther from superficial parts

121. Intermediate Between two other structures (inter, between and medius, middle)

122. Visceral organs within the body's cavities

123. Longitudinal Axis Defined by points at the opposite ends of the organism.124. Transverse Axis Defined by points on opposite sides of the organism.

125. Anterior End The end that usually points in the direction of the organism's locomotion

126. Posterior End Opposite of anterior end

127. Opical End End farthest away from bascal end.

128.Oral End The end of the organism with the mouth

129. Aboral End Opposite oral end

130. Superior End The head end

131.Inferior End The feet

132. Anterior Front end

133.Posterior Back

134.Peripheral Farthest away from the attachment, related to appendages135. Centeral Closest to attachment, related to appendages

136. Saggital Plane Divides body into left and right parts.

137. Coronal (frontal) Plane Divides body into anterior and posterior ends.

138. Transverse Plane Also known as an axial plane or cross-section, divides the body into cranial and

(head and tail) portions.

139. Anemia Disease when you do not have enough red blood cells

140. Phagocytotic When a cell engulfs another thing to eat them.

141.Cell Theory 1. All life is made up of cells



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2. Cells are the structural and functional units of an organism

3. All cells come from other cells

142.Schleiden Zoologist

143.Schwann Botanist

Words Definition147. Fat Bodies Spaghetti shaped structures that have a bright orange or

yellow color, if you have a particularly fat frog, these fat

bodies may need to be removed to see the otherstructures. Usually they are located just on the inside of

the abdominal wall.

148. Peritoneum A spider web like membrane that covers many of the organs, you may have to carefpick it off to get a clear view

149.Liver The largest structure of the body cavity. This brown colored organ is composed of tparts, or lobes. The right lobe, the left anterior lobe, and the left posterior lobe. The

is not primarily an organ of digestion; it does secrete a digestive juice called bile. B

needed for the proper digestion of fats.150.Heart At the top of the liver, the heart is a triangular structure. The left and right atrium ca

found at the top of the heart. A single ventricle located at the bottom of the heart. Tlarge vessel extending out from the heart is the conus arteriosis.

151.Lungs Locate the lungs by looking underneath and behind the heart and liver. They are tw

spongy organs.

152.Gall Bladder Lift the lobes of the liver, there will be a small green sac under the liver. This is the

bladder, which stores bile.

153.Stomach Curving from underneath the liver is the stomach. The stomach is the first major sit

chemical digestion. Frogs swallow their meals whole. Follow the stomach to wheturns into the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter valve regulates the exit of dige

food from the stomach to the small intestine.154.Small Intestine Leading from the stomach. The first straight portion of the small intestine is called

duodenum; the curled portion is the ileum. The ileum is held together by a membra

called the mesentery. Note the blood vessels running through the mesentery; they w

carry absorbed nutrients away from the intestine. Absorption of digested nutrients oin the small intestine.

155.Large Intestine As you follow the small intestine down, it will widen into the large intestine. The laintestine is also known as the cloaca in the frog. The cloaca is the last stop before wa

sperm, or urine exit the frog's body. (The word "cloaca" means sewer)

156.Spleen Return to the folds of the mesentery, this dark red spherical object serves as a holding

for blood.

157.Esophagus Return to the stomach and follow it upward, where it gets smaller is the beginning oesophagus. The esophagus is the tube that leads from the frogs mouth to the stoma

Open the frogs mouth and find the esophagus, poke your probe into it and see whe

leads.

158. Right Lobe 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart

159. Left anterior Lobe 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart

160.Left Posterior Lobe 1 of the 3 parts of a frogs heart

161. Cloaca The common cavity into which the intestinal, genital, and urinary tracts open in



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vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, birds, and some primitive mammals.

The posterior part of the intestinal tract in various invertebrates.

162. Mesentery Any of several folds of the peritoneum that connect the intestines to the dorsal abdom

wall, especially such a fold that envelops the jejunum and ileum.

163. Duodenum The beginning portion of the small intestine, starting at the lower end of the stomach

extending to the jejunum.164. Ileum The terminal portion of the small intestine extending from the jejunum to the cecu

65. Pyloric sphincter valve Regulates the exit of digested food from the stomach to the small intestine.

166. Conus arteriosis The large vessel extending out from the heart

167. Ventricle The chamber on the left side of the heart that receives arterial blood from the left atrand contracts to force it into the aorta.

The chamber on the right side of the heart that receives venous blood from the righatrium and forces it into the pulmonary artery.

168. Left atrium Can be found at the top of the heart. The left upper chamber of the heart that receiv

blood from the pulmonary veins.

The left atrium is one of the fourchambers in the humanheart. It receives oxygena

blood from thepulmonary veins, and pumps it into the left ventricle.

169. Right atrium Can be found at the top of the heart. The right upper chamber of the heart that recei

blood from the vena cava and coronary sinus.

The right atrium is one of fourchambers (two atria and two ventricles) in the human

It receives de-oxygenatedblood from the superiorand inferiorvena cava and the coro

sinus, and pumps it into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.

170. Anus The large intestine leads to this part

171. Arteries Any of the muscular elastic tubes that form a branching system and that carry blood

from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body.172. Lymphocytes Any of the nearly colorless cells found in the blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues

constituting approximately 25 percent of white blood cells and including B cells, wh

function in humoral immunity, and T cells, which function in cellular immunity.

173. Monocytes A large, circulating, phagocytic white blood cell, having a single well-defined nucleu

very fine granulation in the cytoplasm. Monocytes constitute from 3 to 8 percent of

white blood cells in humans.

174. Perforins A protein in killer cells and natural killer cells that causes lysis of target cells on con

175. Lymph node Any of the small bodies located along the lymphatic vessels, particularly at the nec

armpit, and groin, that filter bacteria and foreign particles from lymph fluid. Durin

infection, lymph nodes may become swollen with activated lymphocytes. Also cal

lymph gland.176. Spleen Organ found withen the mesentry that stores blood.

177. Natural killer cells NK cells is their abbreviation. A lymphocyte that is activated by double-stranded RN

lymphokines and fights off viral infections and tumors without evident antigenic

specificity.

178. Mucus Prevents bacteria from multiplying. It is clean and watery. Openings in your body

covered with mucus.

179. Alveolus Surface is thin. Exchange of Oxygen and CO2 happens here.

180. Edward Jenner In 1769 observed that women who milked cow from a early age did not get small pox

did get cow pox. Cowpox was not fatal. He used this as a vaccination through villageNarendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin
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had young people milk cows and this way they would not catch small pox and there

not die. He also coined the work Vaccination

181. Vaccination Vaccination is the use of vaccines to prevent specific diseases. Vacca means Cow

Italian. Word coined by Edward Jenner.

182. Antigen A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an antib

Antigens include toxins, bacteria, foreign blood cells, and the cells of transplanted or

183. Esophagus The muscular membranous tube for the passage of food from the pharynx to the stomthe gullet.

184. Venule A small vein, especially one joining capillaries to larger veins.

185. Bronchiole Any of the fine, thin-walled, tubular extensions of a bronchus.

186. External Oblique Constricts abdomen and holds viscera in place.

187. Pharynx The section of the alimentary canal that extends from the mouth and nasal cavities tolarynx, where it becomes continuous with the esophagus.

188.Nasal Cavity Either of a pair of cavities separated by a septum and located between the nasopharand anterior nares.

189.Epiglottis The thin elastic cartilaginous structure located at the root of the tongue that folds oveglottis to prevent food and liquid from entering the trachea during the act of swallow

190. Larynx The part of the respiratory tract between the pharynx and the trachea, having wallscartilage and muscle and containing the vocal cords enveloped in folds of mucou

membrane.

191. Trachea A thin-walled, cartilaginous tube descending from the larynx to the bronchi and carrair to the lungs. Also called windpipe.

192. Glottis The opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx.

193. Cytotoxic T Cells Recognize any cell that has been altered by antigens.

194.Suppressor T Cells Opposite of Helper T cells. Suppreser T Cells stop the production of cytotoxic T Cell

B cells. No one knows how this is done

195.Helper T Cells Recognize the altered cells and signal to the production of B cells and cytotoxic T c

196. T Cells Any of the lymphocytes that mature in the thymus and have the ability to recogniz

specific peptide antigens through the receptors on their cell surface. Also called Tlymphocyte. There are 3 types, Helper T cells, Suppressor T cells and Cytotoxic T c

197. Epithelial Cell Form the epithelial tissue that lines both the inner and outer surfaces of the body; serprotective function and also aid in absorption and secretion.

198. Aorta The main trunk of the systemic arteries, carrying blood from the left side of the hearthe arteries of all limbs and organs except the lungs.

199. Mylohyoid Moves floor of mouth during respiration.

200.Rectus Abdominus Hold the sternum and viscera in place

201.Pectoralis Moves forelimbs

202.Active transport Transport against the concentration gradient. Example pumps.

203. Alveolus Ball filled with capillaries in the lungs. They are found at the ends of the bronchiol

They are also called air sacs. They are the site of the exchange of gasses.204. Anus An opening through which feces are pushed out.

205. appendicular skeleton Part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral and the pelvic griddle. Excludes the bon

the trunk.

206. Arm(microscope) Essentially the backbone of a microscope.

207. ATP Result of respiration. Produced by chloroplasts and mitochondrion. Also known a

Adenosine Triphosphate.

208. Atrium One of the chambers of the heart that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

209. Autotroph Organism that manufactures its own food.



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210. axial skeleton The frame work of what is referred to as the bones of the trunk(torso). Includes ribs

sternum. Basically the skull the bones in the chest and the vertebrate.

211.Bird heart 4 chambered heart.

212. Blastula The hollow ball of cells that goes through gastrulation to form a gastrula.

213. Bronchioles Sub-divisions of the bronchi. These lead to the alveoli.

214. Bronchus Sub-division of the trachea or the wind pipe. There are two of these, each one leading

its own lung.215. Calvin cycle Takes place in the stroma in the Chloroplast. Also called the light- independent reacti

the dark reaction.

216. Canaculi

217.Canines one of the pointed conical teeth located between the incisors and the first bicuspid

218. Capillary The smallest blood vessel in the body. So small that only one can pass through it at o

Molecules diffuse through its thin membrane and get absorbed by the surrounding tis

219. Salivary Glands Glands in the mouth that secrete saliva in order to begin chemical digestion of starc

220. Liver Produces bile which emulsifies fats in the small intestine. Excess bile is stored in thebladder.

221. Pancreas Produces enzymes that aid in chemical digestion in the small intestine.

222. Gall Bladder Stores excess bile that is secreted by the liver.223. Carpal Bones that constitute the wrist. To do with the carpus(wrist)

224. cell wall Found only in plant cells. Provides rigid structure and protection.

225. cilia Short hair-like structures on a cell or microorganism, the movement of which aid

mobility of the cell and transfer of materials across its surface.

226. clavicle The collar bone.

227. cloaca The large intestine and a passage used for eliminating fecal, urinary and reproductive discharg

228. Closed circulatory

system

A vascular system in which the body fluids stay inside the tubes at all times.

229. Conus arteriosus A pouch above the right ventricle from which the pulmonary artery rises.

230. Cristae (singular crista) The multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that

finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy produ(it is where ATP is generated).

231. Dark reaction Also know as the Calvins cycle.

232. Dermis Inner layer of the skin

233. diaphragm The thin muscle below the lungs and heart that separates the chest from the abdom

234. elimination The getting rid of metabolic wastes after digestion.

235.epidermis The top layer of the skin.

236. epiglottis The flap that closes over the glottis so that the food does not get in to the respirato

system.

237. Esophagus The food pipe. A pipe that transports food to the stomach.

238. Eustachian tubes A tube that leads to the stomach.

239. excretion The dumping of wastes out side the body.

40. External carotid artery the branch of the carotid artery that supplies blood to the face and tongue and exterparts of the head

241. External oblique The external oblique muscle (of the abdomen) (also external abdominal oblique muscthe largest and the most superficial (outermost) of the three flat muscles of the late

anterior abdomen. Basically a muscle in your tummy.

242. Extracellular matrix The Extracellular matrix (ECM) is the extracellular part of animal tissue that usua

provides structural support to the cells in addition to performing various other impor

functions.



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243. Femur Thigh bone.

244. Fibula The calf bone.

245. Fish heart Three chambered heart.

246. gastrulation The process through which the blastula changes into a gatrula.

247. glottis The opening into the wind pipe.

248. Gracilis major A frog leg muscle. Flexes leg and adducts thigh.

249. Heart Organ that pumps blood to the entire body.250. The hepatic portal

system

a group of veins that carry blood from the capillaries of the stomach, intestine, spleen

pancreas to the sinusoids of the liver

251.Heterotroph An organism that does not make its own food.

252. Hormone the secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on w

it has a specific effect

253. Humerus bone extending from the shoulder to the elbow

254. Hypodermis A tissue or layer of cells beneath the epidermis.

255. Iliac Artery One of the large arteries supplying blood to the pelvic region and legs.

256. Ilium The broad, upper portion of either hipbone.

257. incisors A tooth adapted for cutting or gnawing, located at the front of the mouth along the ap

the dental arch.258. internal carotid artery the branch of the carotid artery that supplies blood to the brain and eyes and internal

of the head

259. ion pump These are modes of active transport. They move the ions against the concentratio

gradient.

260. ischium The lowest of the three major bones that constitute each half of the pelvis

261. Kidney One of a pair of organs in the body which remove waste matter from the blood an

produce urine.

262. Lacunae One of the numerous minute cavities in the substance of bone.

263. larynx A muscular and cartilaginous structure lined with mucous membrane at the upper part of the trachehumans, in which the vocal cords are located.

264. ligament a band of tissue, usually white and fibrous, serving to connect bones, hold organs in place, etc.265. light reaction The photosynthetic reaction that takes place in the chloroplasts of plants ( only in t

presence of light.)266. lung either of the two saclike respiratory organs in the thorax of humans and the highe

vertebrates.267. lymph a clear yellowish, slightly alkaline, coagulable fluid, containing white blood cells in

liquid resembling blood plasma, that is derived from the tissues of the body and conv

to the bloodstream by the lymphatic vessels.268. lymph node any of the glandlike masses of tissue in the lymphatic vessels containing cells that be

lymphocytes.269.lymphatic System Deals with access water from circulatory system, also produces and stores lymphoc

270.lymphocyte a type of white blood cell having a large, spherical nucleus surrounded by a thin layenongranular cytoplasm.

271.lysosome a cell organelle containing enzymes that digest particles and that disintegrate the cellits death.

272.macrophages Any of various large white blood cells that play an essential immunologic role invertebrates and some lower organisms by eliminating cellular debris and particula

antigens, including bacteria, through phagocytosis. Macrophages develop from circul

monocytes that migrate from the blood into tissues throughout the body, especially

spleen, liver, lymph nodes, lungs, brain, and connective tissue. Macrophages alsoparticipate in the immune response by producing and responding to inflammatory



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cytokines.273. mammalian heart A 4 chamber heart.

274. matrix the intercellular substance of a tissue.275. mechanical stage a stage on a compound microscope equipped with a mechanical device for moving a

lengthwise and crosswise or for registering the slide's position by vernier for future e

repositioning

276.membrane a thin, pliable sheet or layer of animal or vegetable tissue, serving to line an organconnect parts, etc.

278.mesoderm the middle germ layer of a metazoan embryo.279.metacarpal Any of the bones of the metacarpus.280.metatarsal Any of the bones of the metatarsus.

281.microfilament Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments of thecytoskeleton found in the cytoplasm

eukaryoticcells.282.microtubule Cylindrical hollow structures that are distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eukary

cells, providing structural support and assisting in cellular locomotion and transpo283.mitochondrion Creates energy by producing ATP.

284.molars Any of the teeth located toward the back of the jaws, having broad crowns for grind

food. Adult humans have 12 molars.285.mouth the opening through which an animal or human takes in food. The start of the Diges

System.

286.mRNA

Messenger RNA. The form of RNA that mediates the transfer of genetic information from th

nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where it serves as a template for protein synthesis.

synthesized from a DNA template during the process of transcription.

287.muscle tissue Made up of fibers that contract288.muscular system Allows movement of body and heart.

289.mylohyoid A flat, triangular muscle that forms the floor of the mouth in a frog.290.myosin the principal contractile protein of muscle.291.nares An external opening in the nasal cavity of a vertebrate; a nostril.292.nerve one or more bundles of fibers forming part of a system that conveys impulses of

sensation, motion, etc., between the brain or spinal cord and other parts of the bod293.nervous system Sends and receives signals from the environment. Controls all bodily functions.294.nervous tissue Tissue consisting of nerve cells or neurons

295.nictitating membrane A transparent inner eyelid in birds, reptiles, and some mammals that closes to protec

moisten the eye. Also called third eyelid.296.NK cells Natural Killer Cells. A lymphocyte that is activated by double-stranded RNA or

lymphokines and fights off viral infections and tumors without evident antigenic

specificity.297.Non-specific immune

response

298.Nostrils The opening of your nose when your oxygen intake comes from, it is part of the resp

system.299.Nuclear envelope the double membrane surrounding the nucleus within a cell.

300.Nuclear pore An octagonal opening where the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope

continuous.301.Nucleoid region area in aprokaryotic cell that contains thegenetic material.

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302.Nucleolus Asmallroundbody ofprotein in a cell nucleus;nucleoli containrna and are involve

proteinsynthesis.Part of the nucleus in eukaryotes that is set aside for theproduction

transcription ofrna.

303.Nucleus a specialized, usually spherical mass of protoplasm encased in a double membrane, found in most living eukaryotic cells, directing their growth, metabolism, and

reproduction, and functioning in the transmission of genic characters.304.Objective lens A lens in the microscopes that you see through.

305.Ocular lens The lenses with magnification that you can change.306.Open circulatory system

307.Organ systems

308.Organelle a specialized part of a cell having some specific function; a cell organ.309.Organs A differentiated part of an organism, such as an eye, wing, or leaf, that performs a sp

function.310.Osmosis

311.Osmotic regulation The regulation of water potential in an organism.312.Outer membrane(3)

313.Ovaries One of twosmallovalbodies situated on either side of the uterus on theposteriorsurof the broad ligament. The structures in which theova (eggs) are developed and rele

duringovulation.314.Oviducts The tubulartract infemaleanimals through which eggs are discharged either to th

exterioror, in mammals, to the uterus.315.Pectoral girdle

316.Pectoralis either of two muscles on each side of the upper and anterior part of the thorax, the acof the larger (pectoralis major) assisting in drawing the shoulder forward and rotating

arm inward, and the action of the smaller (pectoralis minor) assisting in drawing t

shoulder downward and forward.317.Pelvic girdle

318.Peroneus any of several muscles on the outer side of the leg, the action of which assists in extenthe foot and in turning it outward.

319. Phagocytosis The engulfing and ingestion of bacteria or other foreign bodies by phagocytes.320. Phalanges The fingerbones (the singular isphalanx). There are three phalanges in each digit, ex

the thumb which only has two.321.Pharynx Thecavity at the back of themouth. It isconeshaped and has an averagelength of 76

and is lined withmucous membrane. The pharynxopensinto the esophagus at the lend. Thepassage to the stomach and lungs; in the front part of the neckbelow the c

and above the collarbone. Opens either the larnyx or the esophaguscanal.322.Phospholipid any of a group of fatty compounds, as lecithin, composed of phosphoric esters, an

occurring in living cells.

323.Phospholipid bilayer a two-layered arrangement of phosphate and lipid molecules that form a cell membr

the hydrophobic lipid ends facing inward and the hydrophilic phosphate ends facin

outward.

324.Photosynthesis equation

325.Pituitary gland A small oval endocrine gland attached to the base of the vertebrate brain and consisti

an anterior and a posterior lobe, the secretions of which control the other endocrine g

and influence growth, metabolism, and maturation.

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Roundhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Roundhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Bodyhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Bodyhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Proteinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Proteinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cellhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nucleolihttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nucleolihttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Rnahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Rnahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Involvedhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Proteinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Synthesishttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nucleushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eukaryoteshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Sethttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Productionhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Transcriptionhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Rnahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Bodieshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Uterushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Posteriorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Surfacehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ligamenthttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Structureshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eggshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovulationhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovulationhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Tubularhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Tracthttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Femalehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Femalehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Animalshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eggshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Exteriorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mammalshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Uterushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Fingerhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Boneshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Phalanxhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Digithttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Thumbhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cavityhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cavityhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mouthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mouthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mouthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Conehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Conehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Conehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Averagehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Lengthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Lengthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mucous_membranehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mucous_membranehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mucous_membranehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Openshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Openshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Esophagushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Endhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Passagehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Passagehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Stomachhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Neckhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Chinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Openshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Esophagushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Canalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Canalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Roundhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Bodyhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Proteinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cellhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nucleolihttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Rnahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Involvedhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Proteinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Synthesishttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Nucleushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eukaryoteshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Sethttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Productionhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Transcriptionhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Rnahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Smallhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovalhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Bodieshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Uterushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Posteriorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Surfacehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ligamenthttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Structureshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovahttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eggshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Ovulationhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Tubularhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Tracthttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Femalehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Animalshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Eggshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Exteriorhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mammalshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Uterushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Fingerhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Boneshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Phalanxhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Digithttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Thumbhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Cavityhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mouthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Conehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Averagehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Lengthhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Mucous_membranehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Openshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Esophagushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Endhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Passagehttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Stomachhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Neckhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Chinhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Openshttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Esophagushttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Canal


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326.Plasma membrane The semipermeable membrane that encloses the cytoplasm of a cell.327.Plasmid A segment of DNA independent of the chromosomes and capable of replication, occu

in bacteria and yeast: used in recombinant DNA procedures to transfer genetic mate

from one cell to another.328.Pleura A delicate serous membrane investing each lung in mammals and folded back as a li

of the corresponding side of the thorax.

329.Premolars One of eight bicuspid teeth located in pairs on each side of the upper and lower jawbehind the canines and in front of the molars.330. prokaryote any cellular organism that has no nuclear membrane, no organelles in the cytoplas

except ribosomes, and has its genetic material in the form of single continuous stran

forming coils or loops, characteristic of all organisms in the kingdom Monera, as t

bacteria and blue-green algae.331.Prokaryotic having cells that lack membrane-bound nuclei

332.Pubis that part of either innominate bone that, with the corresponding part of the other, for

the front of the pelvis.333.Pulmonary artery an artery conveying venous blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lung

334.Pulmonary circulation the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and back to the h

334.Phyloric sphincter A ring of smooth muscle fibers around the opening of the stomach into the duodenu335.Pyruvate(pyruvic acid) an ester or salt of pyruvic acid.

336.Radius the bone of the forearm on the thumb side.337.Rectus abdominis a long flat muscle on either side of the linea alba extending along the whole length o

front of the abdomen, arising from the pubic crest and symphysis, inserted into th

cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, and acting to flex the spinal column, tthe anterior wall of the abdomen, and assist in compressing the contents of the abdo

338.Renal portal system Of, relating to, or in the region of the kidneys.339.Reproductive system The bodily system of gonads, associated ducts, and external genitals concerned wi

sexual reproduction.340. Reptilian heart Three chambered heart

341. Respiration equation342. Respitory system Exchanges gases (mainly O2, CO2 and H2O) with the environment.

343.Rib one of a series of curved bones that are articulated with the vertebrae and occur in p

12 in humans, on each side of the vertebrate body, certain pairs being connected with

sternum and forming the thoracic wall.344.Ribosome a tiny, somewhat mitten-shaped organelle occurring in great numbers in the cell

cytoplasm either freely, in small clusters, or attached to the outer surfaces of endopla

reticula, and functioning as the site of protein manufacture.345.Right atrium the right upper chamber of the heart that receives blood from the venae cavae and

coronary sinus346.Right ventricle the chamber on the right side of the heart that receives venous blood from the right at

and pumps it into the pulmonary trunk347.Rough ER Site of protein synthesis. Exports large quantities of proteins(ribosomes)

348.RNA A polymeric constituent of all living cells and many viruses, consisting of a long, usu

single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adeni

guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. The structure and base sequence

RNA are determinants of protein synthesis and the transmission of genetic informatAlso called ribonucleic acid.

349.rRNA ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid



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350.Sartorius A thigh muscle in a frog on the ventral surface that flexes the leg and adducts the th

351.Scapula ither of two flat, triangular bones, each forming the back part of a shoulder in huma

shoulder blade.352. Semimebranosus a large muscle of the inner part and back of the thigh that arises by a thick tendon fro

back part of the tuberosity of the ischium, is inserted into the medial condyle of the tand acts to flex the leg and rotate it medially and to extend the thigh353.Sinus venosus The first chamber in the heart of fish, amphibians, and reptiles, which receives blood

the veins and contracts to force the blood into the atrium.354.Skeletal system The bodily system that consists of the bones, their associated cartilages, and the joi

and supports and protects the body, produces blood cells, and stores minerals.355.Skull the bony framework of the head, enclosing the brain and supporting the face; the ske

of the head.356.Small intestine The narrow, winding, upper part of the intestine where digestion is completed an

nutrients are absorbed by the blood. It extends from the pylorus to the cecum and conof the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.

357.Smooth ER Regulates calcium and ion concentration. Synthesis of membrane phospolipids. It amakes lipids.

358.Squamous covered with or formed of squamae or scales.359.Stage Part of a microscope that is the black raised platform.

360. Sternum a bone or series of bones extending along the middle line of the ventral portion of tbody of most vertebrates, consisting in humans of a flat, narrow bone connected with

clavicles and the true ribs; breastbone.361.Stomach a saclike enlargement of the alimentary canal, as in humans and certain animals, form

an organ for storing, diluting, and digesting food.362. Stroma the supporting framework or matrix of a cell.

363.Systemic circulation the circulatory system in general.

364.Tarsal a tarsal bone, joint, or the like.365.Teeth One of a set of hard, bonelike structures rooted in sockets in the jaws of vertebrate

typically composed of a core of soft pulp surrounded by a layer of hard dentin that

coated with cementum or enamel at the crown and used for biting or chewing food or

means of attack or defense.366.Testes the male gonad or reproductive gland, either of two oval glands located in the scrot

367.Thylakoid a flattened sac or vesicle lined with a pigmented membrane that is the site of

photosynthesis, in plants and algae occurring in interconnected stacks constituting

granum of the chloroplast, and in other photosynthesizing organisms occurring eithsingly or as part of the cell membrane or other structure.

368.Thylakoid membrane The membrane of the Thyakoid.

369.Tibia the inner of the two bones of the leg, that extend from the knee to the ankle and articwith the femur and the talus; shinbone.

370.Tibialis anticus A lower leg muscle of a frog on the Ventral Surface that extends the leg and flexes

foot.371.Tissue an aggregate of similar cells and cell products forming a definite kind of structura

material with a specific function, in a multicellular organism.372.Tissues A large mass of similar cells that make up a part of an organism and perform a spec

function. The internal organs and connective structures (including bone and cartilag

vertebrates, and cambium, xylem, and phloem in plants are made up of different typ

tissue.Narendran Sairam, Rajat Goyal and Steven Kraplin


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373. Tongue the usually movable organ in the floor of the mouth in humans and most vertebrat

functioning in eating, in tasting, and, in humans, in speaking.374. Trachea the tube in humans and other air-breathing vertebrates extending from the larynx to

bronchi, serving as the principal passage for conveying air to and from the lungs; t

windpipe.375.Trans face Closer to plasma membrane the the E.R. It packages molecules into vesicles and

transports them to the golgi apparatus.376.Transcription the act or process of transcribing.377.Translation the process by which a messenger RNA molecule specifies the linear sequence of am

acids on a ribosome for protein synthesis.378.Tricep femoris A thigh muscle of a frog on its Dorsal side that adducts the thigh and extends the l

379.tRNA One of a class of RNA molecules that transport amino acids to ribosomes for

incorporation into a polypeptide undergoing synthesis. It is a transporter RibonuclAcid

380.tympanic membrane the membrane in the ear that vibrates to sound381.ulna the bone of the forearm on the side opposite to the thumb.

382.ureter a muscular duct or tube conveying the urine from a kidney to the bladder or cloac

383.urethra the membranous tube that extends from the urinary bladder to the exterior and that inmale conveys semen as well as urine.

384.urinary bladder a distensible, muscular and membranous sac, in which the urine is retained until it

discharged from the body.385.vacuole a membrane-bound cavity within a cell, often containing a watery liquid or secretio386.ventricle either of the two lower chambers on each side of the heart that receive blood from

atria and in turn force it into the arteries.387.vertebrae any of the bones or segments composing the spinal column, consisting typically o

cylindrical body and an arch with various processes, and forming a foramen, or open

through which the spinal cord passes.

388.vesicle A small, intracellular sac, bounded by a membrane, in which various substances are sor transported.

389.vomerine teeth The type of teeth frogs have.

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